M17 - Propeller: Aviation Training Hub

AVIATION TRAINING HUB
M17 – PROPELLER
Aviation Training Hub Page |1
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................. 4
Blade Element Theory ................................................................................................................ 6
Forces Acting On a Propeller ...................................................................................................... 9
High/Low Blade Angle ............................................................................................................. 10
Reverse Angle ........................................................................................................................... 12
Angle of Attack ......................................................................................................................... 12
Rotational Speed ....................................................................................................................... 14
Propeller Slip ............................................................................................................................ 15
Aerodynamic, Centrifugal, and Thrust Forces .......................................................................... 15
Torque ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Relative Airflow on Blade Angle of Attack ............................................................................. 18
Vibration and Resonance .......................................................................................................... 18
Propeller Construction .................................................................................................................. 19
Construction Methods and Materials ........................................................................................ 19
Wooden Propellers ................................................................................................................ 19
Metal Propellers .................................................................................................................... 19
Composite Propellers ............................................................................................................ 20
Details of Wooden Propellers ............................................................................................... 21
Details of Metal Propellers ................................................................................................... 21
Details of Composite Propellers ........................................................................................... 22
Blade Station ............................................................................................................................. 22
Blade Shank .............................................................................................................................. 23
Blade Face and Back ................................................................................................................. 24
Hub Assembly and Types of Propeller ..................................................................................... 26
Propeller/Spinner Installation ................................................................................................... 32
Propeller Pitch Control ................................................................................................................. 34
Speed Control and Pitch Change Methods ............................................................................... 34
Feathering and Reverse Pitch.................................................................................................... 39
Overspeed Protection ................................................................................................................ 40
Propeller Synchronizing................................................................................................................ 41
For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

B1.1 Basic/ M17- Propeller October 2019
Synchronizing and Synchrophasing Equipment ....................................................................... 41

Propeller Ice Protection................................................................................................................. 45
Fluid and Electrical De-lcing Equipment ................................................................................. 45
Propeller Maintenance .................................................................................................................. 51
Static and Dynamic Balancing .................................................................................................. 51
Blade Tracking .......................................................................................................................... 54
Assessment of Blade ................................................................................................................. 55
Propeller Treatment/Repair Schemes ....................................................................................... 60
Propeller Engine Running ......................................................................................................... 61
Propeller Storage and Preservation ............................................................................................... 62
Propeller Preservation and Depreservation ............................................................................... 62

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Introduction
Some aircraft use propellers to convert aircraft engine power into thrust. Propellers have evolved
greatly since their first use in the early 20th century. Early aircraft used wooden propellers but
design limitations, erosion and imperfections in the wood caused problems with efficiency and
reliability. The next generation of propellers added a metal sheath to the leading edge of the
propeller to increase resistance to wear but propeller designs would not allow the sheath to
extend to the blade tip and so there were still issues with erosion and damage. Improved
knowledge in the use of laminated wood materials allowed the blades to be thinner in
construction while at the same time, providing additional strength but they too had their
limitations for size, speed, and design.
Later propellers were constructed of steel or aluminum alloy and a large majority of the
propellers in use today are made of these materials. In an effort to increase propeller efficiency,
many new propellers are now constructed of composite material which is lighter, more flexible,
and in most cases, more resistant to damage. This section describes the theory behind propeller
operation, propeller construction and materials, pitch control, anti-icing, maintenance
procedures, and finally, storage and preservation.
Fundamentals
There are a number of different types of propellers and configurations. The most common style of
propeller is the "tractor" style in which the propeller is situated at the front of the aircraft and pulls the
aircraft along its flight path. Another configuration is the "pusher" type in which the propeller is
mounted aft of the aircraft center of gravity and pushes the aircraft in a forward motion. A rarely
used but still seen type of configuration is the contra-rotating propeller which uses two or more
propellers mounted immediately behind one another but rotating in different directions. This type of
propeller was used to help remove some of the airframe torque created by the rotational forces of a
large propeller turning at high speeds.
Generally speaking, large propeller diameters produce more thrust because of their larger airflow
area and greater acceleration of the air mass. Propeller sizes are limited by a number of factors
including the amount of ground clearance. Where large propellers are required to move heavier
aircraft, they are often installed on a high-wing layout that provides sufficient ground clearance
during operation. low-wing aircraft use large propellers, they will compensate for ground
clearance issues by extending the height of the landing gear. Multi-engine aircraft will normally
have one propeller turning clockwise while the other propeller turns counter-clockwise in an
effort to reduce the torque on the airframe. If both propellers turned in the same direction, there
would be a significant amount of rotational moment that would require rudder input to
counteract.

Tractor propeller layout on a Cirrus SR22 GTS
Pusher propeller layout on a VariEze by Burt Rutan

Contra-rotating propeller on a Spitfire Mk XIX
Military Transporter Lockheed C-130 Hercules
Blade Element Theory

When rotating, a propeller blade creates a low pressure area ahead of the blade while increasing
the pressure on the aft side of the blade. The difference in pressures creates a forward thrust
motion that is dependent on the propeller blade Angle of Attack, speed, and shape of the airfoil.
The Angle of Attack of a propeller blade is the angle formed by the chord line of the blade and
the relative wind. The direction of the relative wind is determined by the speed that the aircraft
moves through the air and the rotational motion of the propeller. As an aircraft moves forward,

the relative wind direction shifts because of the forward motion. In that case, the relative wind is
much closer to the Angle of Attack.
Because forward motion has a direct effect on the relative wind of a propeller blade, the faster an
aircraft moves through the air, the smaller the Angle of Attack on the propeller blade. However,
if the propeller speed increases, the trailing edge of the propeller blade travels a greater distance
for the same amount of forward movement. As propeller speed increases, the relative wind
strikes the propeller blade at a greater angle and the Angle of Attack increases.
The most effective Angle of Attack for a propeller blade is between two and four degrees. An
Angle of Attack exceeding 15 degrees is ineffective because the propeller blade could stall.
Propellers with a fixed blade angle are designed to produce an Angle of Attack between two and
four degrees during climb or cruise at a specific speed.
Propeller Angle of Attack
The principles of Physics identify that propeller sections near the tip rotate at a higher velocity
than those near the hub. The difference in rotational velocity along a propeller blade segment is
found by first calculating the circumference of the arc traveled by a point on that segment.
Remember that the circumference of a circle is calculated using the formula 2311'. The
circumference is then multiplied by engine speed (in RPM) to find rotational velocity.
Here's an example of how this can be used:
Determine the blade velocity at a point 20 inches from the hub that is rotating at 1,800 RPM.

This means that at a point 20 inches from the hub, the blade is traveling approximately 226.080
inches per minute.
Let's compare that to the blade velocity at the blade tip in our example, which is located at station 48:
So, where the blade element speed is measured at 20 inches from the hub, the speed is 226.080
inches per minute, the speed at the blade tip (48 inches from the hub) is 542.592 inches per
minute!
Rotational speed

To compensate for the difference in velocity along the length of a propeller blade, the blade
angle changes. The gradual decrease in blade angle from the hub to the tip is called pitch
distribution or more commonly, 'blade twist". Blade twist enables a propeller to provide a fairly
constant Angle of Attack along most of the length of the blade. In addition to the blade twist,
most propellers are constructed to have a thicker segment with a low speed airfoil near the hub
tapering to a thinner, high speed airfoil near the tip. The combination of blade twist along with
changes in blade construction enable a propeller to produce a relatively constant thrust along the
length of the propeller blade.
Aerodynamic and geometric offset
Forces Acting On a Propeller

Propellers are subjected to many stresses during operation, including tension, twist, and bending.
The greatest force however, is centrifugal force which is described as the force trying to pull the
blades out of the hub. Depending on the type of propeller blade, the amount of stress created by
centrifugal force can be 7,500 times greater than the weight of the blade. As mentioned earlier,
propeller blade tips are typically thinner near the tip, hence the thrust produced at the tip tends to
flex the blade in a forward motion. This is referred to as "Thrust Bending" and it tends to oppose
centrifugal force to a small degree.
Torque bending forces occur as air resistance opposes the rotational motion of the propeller
blades. This force tends to bend the blades opposite the direction of rotation. Aerodynamic
twisting force tends to increase a propeller's blade angle. VVhen a propeller blade produces
thrust, the majority of the thrust is exerted ahead of the blade's axis of rotation. In some cases,
aerodynamic twisting force is used to help change the blade angle on a propeller.
Centrifugal twisting force opposes aerodynamic twisting force. V%en a propeller rotates,
centrifugal force tends to align the propeller's center of mass with its center of rotation. A

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propeller's center of mass is typically ahead of its center of rotation so when a propeller rotates,
centrifugal force tends to decrease its blade angle. At operational speeds, centrifugal twisting
force is greater than aerodynamic twisting force and is used in some propeller designs to
decrease the blade angle.
Aerodynamic and mechanical forces can result in blade vibration. Most propeller blades are
designed to reduce the amount of aerodynamic vibration but mechanical vibration can be very
destructive to the propeller, engine, and in severe cases, to the airframe. The most critical
locations for mechanical vibration occur at the propeller stations extending the tip to six inches
inboard towards the hub. Propeller designs do accommodate some degree of vibrational stress
but where a propeller has been improperly altered, repaired, or where it has incurred damage,
vibration can cause excessive flexing and work hardening of the metal. In severe cases, this work
hardening can result in separation of the blade or parts of the blade in flight.
The total forces and moments acting on a propeller blade are calculated by summing the forces
and moments of all blade sections and multiplying the sum by the number of propeller blades.
This calculation, along with thrust and torque calculations and considering the propeller
revolutions per minute (RPM), identify the required engine power to drive the propeller.
In order to determine the total forces on a propeller blade element, lift, drag, thrust,
circumferential force, torque on the propeller axis, and required power must be calculated for
each propeller blade. Input values for this calculation are provided by the propeller's airfoil shape
(lift coefficient and drag coefficient), the blade angle (Theta 9), the Angle of Attack (Alpha a),
airspeed, propeller RPM, the radial distance between the blade element and propeller axis, air
density, as well as the width and depth of the respective blade element. The calculations are
complex and are factored in during the design of propeller blades and their application on
various airframes.
Propeller torque can be determined by multiplying the circumferential force by the distance of
the blade element from the propeller axis. In order to calculate the amount of power required to
drive the propeller blades, calculations are made using computer programs that consider the
interference between different propeller blades that can influence the airflow velocity and blade
Angle of Attack. The result is multiplied by the number of propeller blades installed on the
aircraft to give the total required engine power. Propeller blades moving through the air changes
the airflow pattern and velocity behind the blade trailing edge. In addition to affecting the airflow
characteristics, each blade causes vortices that affect the following blade. The result is difficult to
calculate because blades do not generally encounter clean and even airflow. Determination of the
total power required to drive propellers is done by computers that can factor in all elements of
airfoil efficiency.
High/Low Blade Angle

The blade angle (referred to as Theta 9) or angle of incidence (a) is the difference between the
propeller blade chord line and the rotational plane of the propeller. The blade's lower surface is
usually even so it can be used to determine blade angle definition instead of the chord line.
Geometric and aerodynamic blade twist causes the blade angle to vary along the blade span. This
twisting is referred to as 'blade washout". The highest blade angle is found at the blade root with

the lowest blade angle occurring at the blade tip. The blade angle at 75% of the blade radius is
measured and is used as a fixed reference for blade angle settings.
Propeller blade element speeds and angles
A propeller that rotates at a constant speed will have different circumferential velocities at
different locations along its radius. A given point on the propeller blade root rotates at a
relatively low circumferential velocity in comparison to the blade tip which must move much
faster to cover a larger distance within the same time. Propeller manufacturers design their
blades to achieve the optimum Angle of Attack, characterized by the maximum ratio of lift
coefficient and drag coefficient. In order to meet this requirement for each blade element, the
blade airfoil (aerodynamic twist) and blade angle (geometric twist) are varied through the length
of the blade. This is why the blade root exhibits a thicker airfoil and high blade angle while the
tip has a thin airfoil and low blade angle.
Twist and blade angle on a propeller blade

Reverse Angle
As mentioned in the introductory chapter, many aircraft are equipped with variable pitch
propellers, which allow the pilot to adjust propeller pitch during flight. Some variable pitch
systems give the pilot the option of varying the propeller blade angle up to the point where it
becomes negative. In this case, we speak of an "inverted angle". Inverted blade angles cause the
propeller to create thrust against the aircraft's direction of travel. This is called reverse thrust and
is used for braking the aircraft after landing.
The blade angle at the reference point (as a reminder: the reference point is located at 75% of the
blade radius) for thrust reversal reaches up to -200. The efficiency of the propeller substantially
decreases as the propeller airfoil is not subjected to an ideal airflow. This is why the maximum
reverse thrust is significantly lower than maximum thrust in normal operations. Safety
mechanisms ensure that pilots can not engage reverse thrust during flight. This safety
mechanisms include a sensor on the landing gear which transmits the thrust reversal signal to the
variable pitch system only if the landing gear is under load (and the aircraft has ground contact).
Different propeller blade pitch settings
Angle of Attack
Propellers can be thought of as "rotating wings" and the propeller speed combined with aircraft
airspeed provide the required amount of airflow for flight. The lift created by the propeller's
airfoil is used to generate thrust and like the amount of lift created on a wing, the amount of
thrust produced depends on its Angle of Attack. The Angle of Attack (a) is the angle created
between the blade's chord line and the direction of relative airflow. It depends on propeller
speed, aircraft airspeed, and the blade angle. These three parameters routinely change over the
course of a flight and so the propeller blade's Angle of Attack is not constant.

Angles and velocities on a propeller blade
When an aircraft is stationary on the ground, the blade angle and Angle of Attack are identical
since there is no airflow component parallel to the propeller axis. If the airspeed increases while
propeller speed and blade angle remain constant, the Angle of Attack decreases. If the propeller
speed and blade angle are kept constant while airspeed decreases, the Angle of Attack grows.
Fixed pitch propellers, due to their design, have an optimum working point at a defined airspeed
and propeller speed, at which they reach their maximum efficiency (ratio of thrust and engine
shaft power). Fixed pitch propellers are therefore designed for a certain aircraft and airspeed
range. A fixed pitch propeller for an aircraft towing a glider requires high climb capabilities
which are achieved by using a low blade angle. Fixed pitch propellers for cruise flight are
specified for high cruise speeds that require a higher blade angle. Variable pitch propellers allow
the pilot to vary the propeller blade angle to adjust it to the current airspeed. Propeller blade
angles typically vary between 20 and 120 during normal operations. Smaller angles of attack are
found at the blade tip and larger blade angles at the blade root. Negative blade angles occur when
the propeller is set to reverse thrust mode.
Maule MX-4 equipped with a high climb rate propeller (low blade angle)

Lancair Legacy equipped with a high cruise speed propeller, (high blade angle)
Rotational Speed
Propeller speed is measured in Revolutions per Minute (RPM) and a revolution is defined as 360
degrees of movement for a single blade around the propeller axis. Ideal propeller speed depends
on engine speed, propeller diameter, and airspeed. A propeller speed that is too low does not
create enough airflow around the propeller blade and results in insufficient thrust. Propeller
speeds that are too high can result in propeller blade tips approaching the speed of sound, thus
generating compression shock waves. Compression shock waves create stresses on propeller
structure, high noise levels, and increase drag.
Small propellers rotate at higher speed than those with larger diameters. A blade element that is
closer to the blade root travels a shorter distance in a given amount of time than a blade element
that is closer to the blade tip. Accordingly, blade elements near the root are subject to a lower
velocity than outer blade elements and explains why large propellers have to turn slower in order
to keep the blade tip circumferential velocity below the speed of sound.
Whenever an object reaches supersonic airflow speeds, shockwaves occur that have an adverse
effect on its performance. The speed of sound varies with temperature and therefore decreases as
altitude increases because of the temperature drop due to adiabatic effects. When a shock wave
occurs, pressure and temperature increase abruptly and decrease the velocity of the airflow.
Because the propeller is being driven by the engine, the propeller blade is driven to supersonic
speeds, triggering another compression shock wave. These continuous abrupt loads can
significantly decrease the life of a propeller. The shockwaves cause airflow around the propeller
to stall, decreasing the amount of thrust generated by the propeller and leading to vibrations that
further erode propeller life.
Aircraft airspeed also has a significant influence on propeller speed. The airflow velocity around
the propeller is a variable that is comprised of the propeller's circumferential velocity and the
aircraft's airspeed. These two forces are perpendicular to one another and so an increase in
airspeed causes an increase in propeller airflow velocity. If the airflow velocity becomes
excessively high and approaches the speed of sound, a shock wave can be created.

Propeller Slip
Like any other mechanical device used to transform mechanical motion into power, propellers
are subjected to certain performance losses. These losses occur in the form of propeller slip. In
an ideal situation, a propeller travels a certain distance while completing one revolution
(geometric pitch) but in reality, the same propeller will travel less than that distance (effective
pitch). The difference between geometric and effective pitch is referred to as "propeller slip".
Propeller Slip
The pitch of a propeller defines how far it will travel while completing one revolution. Most
manufacturers publish information for propeller pitch instead of the reference blade angle as the
two values relate to another. In this context, pitch is therefore a distance that is defined by the
blade angle. The following explanation uses the term pitch as it is more suited to describe
propeller slip.
If we assume our sample propeller to have a pitch of 1 m, the propeller travels a distance of 1 m
during one revolution (Geometric Pitch). In reality, the propeller moves 70 cm (Effective Pitch)
and propeller slip is therefore 0.3 m. When the propellers of a stationary aircraft move on the
ground, they exhibit an effective pitch of o m and a slippage of 1 m because the aircraft does not
move at all.
Aerodynamic, Centrifugal, and Thrust Forces

a propeller turns, it is subjected to a number of different forces. These forces must be
considered during the propeller design process. We will first take a look at the aerodynamic force
a propeller is subject to: lift and drag. The lift force vector is perpendicular to the direction of
airflow while the drag force vector is parallel to it. Vector addition produces an aerodynamic
resultant force. This aerodynamic resultant force is split into two components: Thrust, which acts
in parallel with the propeller axis and circumferential force, which is directed perpendicularly to
the propeller axis. In addition to the aerodynamic forces, the centrifugal force, which is
generated by the propeller's rotation acts span-wise towards the blade tip.

Aerodynamic forces on a propeller blade
In this example, we will consider a propeller blade that weighs 10 kg and has a diameter of 2 m
to rotate at a speed of 2,700 RPM (45 Revolutions per second or s-1). Centrifugal force depends
on the blade's mass (m), radius (r) and angular velocity (o) and is calculated as follows:
A force of approximately 800 kN is applied to the propeller hub. This force is equal to a mass of
about 81.5 tons pulling on the propeller blade root. As we can see from this example, centrifugal
forces on a propeller are rather large. Looking at a propeller blade tip, the most striking
characteristic is it's thin cross section. The blade tip produces large amounts of thrust, which
bends it in the direction of thrust, as the thin material cannot withstand this thrust force. The
centrifugal force counteracts this effect by "pulling" the blade outwards into its initial shape. The
propeller is further subject to a force that counteracts its rotation according to newton's third law.
It is called torque bending force and is caused by the tendency of a moving body to return to its
initial position. The torque bending force is directed perpendicularly to the propeller blade on the
propeller's rotating plane and counteracts the propeller's rotation.
The rotational axis of a blade element is situated approximately halfway along the blade chord
line while the point of load for lift is closer to the blade's nose. This generates an aerodynamic
torsional moment that causes the blade to twist towards a higher pitch angle. There is also a
centrifugal torsional moment that twists the blade towards a lower pitch angle. The centrifugal
torsional moment is generated by the tendency of all elements to occupy the same rotational

plane on the blade axis. Looking at the cross section of a high pitch propeller blade, you can see
how the centrifugal forces applied to its front and rear surfaces have a force component in the
direction of x (along the blade axis) and in the direction of y (perpendicular to the blade axis). As
the y force component acts on the blade axis through a lever arm, it generates torque that twists
the propeller blade towards a smaller blade angle. The centrifugal torsional moment disappears if
the blade angle (angle between blade chord line and propeller rotational plane) is 0̊ as there is no
lever arm. The aerodynamic and centrifugal torsional moments act in opposite directions, the
centrifugal moment being substantially larger than the aerodynamic moment.
Centrifugal torsional moment
Torque
The circumferential force acting on the blade element generates torque as it creates drag in
addition to local lift. This drag causes torque on the propeller's rotational axis (not to be confused
with the blade axis that runs through the blade span-wise) that has to be counteracted by the
engine. A moment is a force multiplied with a lever arm (the distance to a reference point). This
reference point is on the propeller blade's axis, and the resultant torque is measured in Nm. The
torque produced to create thrust must be counteracted by the engine and the required torque can
be used to calculate engine power.
Propeller torque is calculated using blade element theory. The circumferential force is calculated
for every blade element before being multiplied by the respective distances from the propeller
rotational The individual torque values resulting from the calculations are summed to give
the total torque for the propeller blade. This total blade torque is multiplied by the number of
propeller blades, giving the total torque of the propeller in a given flight state. Propeller power
can be calculated by multiplying torque and propeller speed.

Relative Airflow on Blade Angle of Attack

The relative airflow on the blade Angle of Attack is the velocity of the airflow around the blade.
It is a vectorial variable and therefore has a value and direction. Relative airflow has two speed
components and one angular component referred to as the local circumferential velocity,
airspeed and blade angle.
We will introduce the term "relative airflow on blade Angle of Attack" by looking at a typical
blade element. When rotating, this element is subject to a speed component that acts
perpendicularly to the blade axis. This component is called circumferential velocity and is
relative to the blade element's radial position on the blade itself. The speed component that
originates from the aircraft's airspeed is directed perpendicularly to the vector of circumferential
velocity. It is constant along the blade axis and hence identical for all blade elements. Simple
vector addition allows us to combine the two vectors, giving a resultant velocity vector. This
resultant velocity vector is constant for a given blade element at a given airspeed and propeller
speed. On variable pitch propellers, the blade angle can be varied, changing blade pitch. This
pitch change does not affect the resultant velocity. Only the propeller blade's pitch changes,
which has an effect on lift and drag.
Vibration and Resonance

When a propeller produces thrust, it also generates mechanical and aerodynamic forces which
vary with the condition of the propeller and the application of external forces. These forces cause
oscillations on the propeller blade that can be felt as vibration. Propeller vibration is normally in
the medium to high frequency range and includes small amplitude oscillations. If a component
starts oscillating due to some external force, it oscillates at a certain natural frequency. If the
oscillation is induced by a frequency that's identical to the component's natural frequency, it
experiences a phenomena called "resonance". Resonance is characterized by an oscillating
system amplifying an external oscillation. This means that the oscillation's amplitude can be
significantly higher than that of the inducing oscillation. This effect is similar to that used to
amplify sounds in musical instruments but should be avoided when it comes to propellers. Large
amplitude resonance can result in significant propeller damage.
Aerodynamic forces are mainly felt on the vibration characteristics of the propeller blade tip. The
high speeds present at the blade tip can cause solitary shockwaves every time the blade tip
exceeds the speed of sound. Mechanical forces are generated by the engine and are substantially
higher on propeller engines than on turbine engines as the combustion process in a piston engine
is not continuous and causes the driveshaft to vibrate. Most engine-propeller-airframe
combinations employ various types of vibration dampers to reduce damage caused by engine and
propeller vibration. Some propeller speed ranges may cause resonance and these ranges are
marked by a red band on the propeller speed indicator in the cockpit.

Propeller Construction
Construction Methods and Materials
Wooden Propellers
Wooden propellers have been used since the early days of aviation. They are suitable for small,
light aircraft as they are simple to produce, relatively light, and easy to rework or replace.
Wooden propellers are usually constructed of laminated layers of wood glued together under
pressure to provide more strength than a single piece of wood construction could exhibit. Birch is
commonly used in wooden propellers and is readily available at low cost, however propellers
may also be constructed of mahogany, cherry, oak, or black walnut.
Wooden propeller
Metal Propellers
Advantages in metallurgy and production methods have enabled metal propellers to become
more common than wooden propellers. Propellers may be constructed of aluminum or steel, with
aluminum having an advantage in weight and cost. Metal propellers are weather-proof and have
a significantly longer lifespan than wooden propellers. They can also be more easily repaired
after minor damage.

Metal propeller on a Basler BT-67
Composite Propellers
Composite propellers offer many improvements over both wood and metal propellers as they can
be specifically designed and formed to fit particular airframe/engine combinations. Composite
propellers are generally more efficient and quieter than their wooden or metal counterparts.
Composite propellers consist of multiple layers of fibers embedded in a matrix, including

thermosetting plastics such as epoxy resin. The fibers provide strength while allowing flexibility
in blade shape and design. Some designs also include a metal core that can transmit external
forces to the propeller hub. Metal core blades help to absorb large amounts of stress while at the
same time, reduce production costs.
Hartzell composite propeller

Details of Wooden Propellers

The different layers of wood are up to 2 cm thick and are glued together using a water-resistant
resinous glue. When the glue has dried, the blades are shaped using different woodworking
techniques and the leading edge is covered with a metal erosion shield that protects it against
particle damage. In order to prevent erosion shield from coming loose, it is secured by rivets that
are soldered onto the erosion shield. The soldering points are sanded to give the leading edge an
even finish. Humidity that condensates on the leading edge can escape through small holes in the
outer section of the erosion shield. These holes must not be obstructed as the wood layers can be
damaged by continuous contact with water. Long term exposure to water can cause damage that
results in a loss of propeller integrity requiring immediate replacement. Before the propeller is
painted, the mounting holes for attaching the propeller on the driveshaft are drilled. Following
painting, the propeller is balanced and is ready for installation.
Glued wooden layers before shaping
Details of Metal Propellers

The production process of metal propellers is rather simple: Propeller blades are forged from
metal or steel alloys and anodized to protect them against corrosion. The shaping process
comprises of different cutting processes such as grinding and milling. On aluminum propeller
blades, it is possible to set the profiled area (the part of the blade that is characterized by its
aerodynamic shape) closer to the propeller axis as aluminum is lighter than steel and the lower
mass forces do not necessitate a long propeller blade root section. This can facilitate improved
engine cooling since more air can enter the engine's cooling inlets. Steel propellers are often
found on large cargo aircraft because aluminum cannot deliver the strength and stiffness required
for large propellers. Metal propellers may be solid or feature hollow chambers for weight saving.
Solid metal propellers are forged and shaped until they are in the desired shape. Hollow steel

propellers are substantially lighter but more complex to produce. The weight reduction reduces
the torque required for starting the engine and the magnitude of vibrations. Hollow propellers
feature a rib design that is supported by sheet metal. The outer sections of the propeller are filled
with damping foam that reduces vibration and supports the propeller blade's shape.
Details of Composite Propellers

The basic design of a composite propeller usually consists of a metal or fiber composite core that
absorbs force and a composite material that defines the propeller's shape. One of the special
characteristics of composite fibers is that they, in contrast to metal, can only withstand tension.
Propeller designers therefore have to pay attention to arranging the fibers in a way that subjects
them to tension, not pressure. In the case of a composite blade core, the fibers are directed in
parallel to the propeller blade axis. The fiber composite material of the propeller blade's outer
shell gives the blade its shape and transfers forces into the core. The fibers in the blade skin are
unidirectional (multiple layers of fibers form a mat that is capable of absorbing forces in
different directions). The fibers and the core are surrounded by a matrix that facilitates force
transfer between the fibers and the core. Some propellers additionally comprises of a fine wire
mesh embedded in the fiber composite that protects the blade against wear and doubles as a
conductor in case of a lightning strike. The entire blade is baked in an autoclave (a heat
controlled, pressurized oven) in order to compound the different materials.
Cross section of a composite propeller blade
Blade Station
As mentioned in the chapter on propeller basics, a propeller blade is a highly twisted wing. The
propeller is generally split into individual sections called blade stations. The stations are named
according to their distance from the propeller hub.

Blade station
The first station is situated 12 inches (1 inch 2.54 cm) away from the propeller axis. All further
stations are another 6 inches away from the hub. Blade stations are important for aircraft
mechanics as the manufacturers use blade stations as a reference in work instructions.
Blade Shank
The inner section of a propeller does not have an airfoil shape. The profiled area is characterized
by the aerodynamic shape of the blade sections. Only these sections create thrust. The non-
profiled inner section of the blade is called blade shank and stretches from the blade hub to the
profiled area.

Blade shank and blade stations
The blade shank section comprises of the blade hub, mounting point and the circular cross-
section area that transfers all blade forces on the first few inches of the blade. The blade shank
does not create any thrust.
Blade Face and Back

The blade face is the high-pressure side of the propeller and it is the side that the pilot can see
when sitting in the cockpit of a tractor-propeller aircraft. There is a reason the rear of the blade is
called 'blade face". If a propeller rotates with the propeller blade leading edges forward, it will
meet the relative airflow at an angle, due to this angle the rear of the blade actually "faces" or
meets the airflow first.
The blade back is the side of the propeller that the pilot cannot see (tractor-propeller) and it is the
side you see when you stand in front of the aircraft. The pressure on this side is higher than in
front or far behind the propeller.

Pressure and speeds along the propeller axis
In addition to the blade element theory that was introduced in detail above, the momentum
theory can explain how propellers create thrust. As mentioned in the introduction, thrust is
created through the acceleration of a mass of air by the propeller plane. The magnitude of the
thrust created depends on the size of the propeller, the degree of acceleration provided by it and
air density. A larger propeller area and higher acceleration at constant air density will result in
more thrust. The added airflow energy becomes notable in the acceleration of air caused by the
pressure difference in the propeller area. The pressure in front of the propeller is significantly
lower than behind the propeller. The magnitude of thrust creation is directly proportional to the
pressure difference between the blade face and blade back. The thrust force FT can be calculated
using the following formula given the pressure difference:
In this formula, A represents the propeller area, p 2 the pressure behind the propeller and p the
pressure in front of the propeller. The pressure in front of the propeller is lower than ambient
pressure, while the pressure behind the propeller is higher.

Hub Assembly and Types of Propeller

(Fixed Pitch Propeller, Controllable Pitch Propeller
and Constant Speeding Propeller)
The hub assembly comprises of all components that connect the propeller blades to the engine
via the propeller shaft. The hub assembly is subjected to enormous forces, due to the centrifugal
force of the spinning propeller blades. It is no wonder why it is build as rigid and sturdy. Hub
assemblies can generally be split into two categories: simple hub assemblies for fixed pitch
propellers and more complex hub assemblies for variable pitch propellers.
Fixed pitch propeller
Fixed pitch propellers are usually made out of one piece, with the propellers blades directly
merging into the hub. The assembly is directly attached to the propeller shaft using bolts.
Ground-adjustable propellers are a simplified version of a variable pitch propeller and can only
be adjusted on the ground, they consists of a hub assembly that can be split. When the blades are
inserted and set to their preferred angle, the assembly is then spliced together using bolts or
clamp rings. This allows the aircraft to be efficient in different operations without having to
install different propellers and makes it possible to optimize pitch for cruise flight or for special
operations such as towing a glider.
Variable pitch propeller hubs are considerably more complex. They allow the pilot to adjust
propeller blade pitch during flight and in some setups this adjustment happens automatically,
therefore, much more efficient than fixed pitch propellers as pitch can be continuously adjusted
to the current flight state. Variable pitch propellers are categorized as single-acting or double-
acting propellers.
Single-acting variable pitch propellers use the engine oil as hydraulic fluid and allow the
mechanism to change pitch in one direction only. Movements in the opposite direction are driven

by centrifugal weights or a spring assembly. Centrifugal weights use the centrifugal bending
moments resulting from the propeller's rotation to reset blade pitch.
Double-acting variable pitch systems employ a separate hydraulic fluid circuit to set blade pitch
in both directions. Purely mechanic and electric mechanisms are also found on different aircraft
types.
Principle of variable pitch propellers
As mentioned earlier ground-adjustable pitch propellers consist of a split-able hub. This hub
features blade mounts that are clamped into the hub. If the blade angle is to be changed, the
clamps are loosened and the blades can be turned. It is important to use caution at this point as
different blade angle's on the propeller blades are to be avoided. In case of a different blade angle
on one propeller, the resultant thrust force will no longer apply on the propeller axis. The shift in
the force application point causes vibrations that may damage the propeller. The blade angle can
be checked using setting marks or adjustment gauges, which measure the angle between the
vertical axis and the blade chord line. It is also important to keep the mating surfaces between
blade mount and hub free from grease and oil as the propeller blade may turn during flight. The
clamp bolt torques must be checked at regular intervals.

Ground-adjustable propeller
Adjustment gauge for setting blade angle
Hydraulic in-flight pitch adjustment systems require oil as hydraulic fluid. This oil is either part
of the engine oil circuit or a separate oil circuit that is pressurized by an additional oil pump. The
oil flows through a regulator and enters a setting cylinder within the propeller hub. If the oil
pressure in the hydraulic cylinder rises, the piston moves until the pressure equalizes on both
sides of the cylinder. Other design variants use afixed piston and moving cylinder. The
movement of the piston/cylinder is translated into a rotary movement by a bevel gear. This
translation is facilitated by a setting link that is connected to the setting cylinder and a guide slot
on the bevel gear. This guide slot forces the bevel gear to rotate when the setting link changes

position. The bevel gear is connected to the propeller which changes all propeller blades' pitch
by the same angle. This design is called Hamilton Standard Design.
This type of propeller should not be confused with a constant speed propeller, although the
propeller blades can change their blade pitch, the pilot must still change the pitch of the propeller
blades directly (i.e. the pitch will not change until the pilot changes the pitch setting).
Hydraulic pitch setting mechanism
Hamilton standard design setting mechanism
On the other hand constant speed propellers, are designed to operate at a constant speed in order
to be as efficient as possible. In order to achieve this the blade pitch is automatically changed to
maintain a constant RPM, regardless of the airspeed, altitude or the amount of engine torque
being produced.
It allows the pilot to select the most optimal propeller and engine speed and automatically

maintain that RPM under varying conditions (i.e. aircraft attitude and engine power).
For single-engine aircraft the blade pitch is controlled with a single-acting setting mechanism, an
increase in oil pressure always increases propeller blade pitch. Springs or flyweights are used to
reset blade pitch in the opposite direction. If the engine were to shut down during flight,
propeller blade pitch would decrease, making it easier for the engine to restart as the propeller
windmills and turns the engine.
Single-acting pitch setting mechanism

Cross-section of a hydraulic propeller RPM controller for a single-acting constant speed propeller
For multi-engine aircraft the blade pitch can also be controlled with single-acting variable pitch
systems, however, low oil pressure means a higher blade pitch, technically the system works the
other way around compared to the system for single-engine aircraft. If the oil pressure drops, the
propeller pitch increases and the propeller is feathered. A feathered propeller causes less drag
than
a propeller with a small blade pitch as it has a smaller frontal area. In case of an engine failure,
multi-engine aircraft will exhibit different flight characteristics due to asymmetric thrust. The
working engine still produces thrust, but the line of force does not pass through the aircraft's
center of gravity any more. It therefore causes a yawing moment (a moment around the aircraft's
vertical axis) that the pilot has to counteract using the rudder. The failed engine does not produce
any thrust but significant drag (if the propeller is not feathered) as the propeller windmills. The
additional drag further increases the yawing moment, necessitating more rudder input. In order to
minimize the drag caused by the shut-down engine, its propeller is set to feather. In the feathered
position, the blade pitch is nearly 90˚. This high blade pitch causes substantially less drag than a
0˚ blade pitch.
Double-acting adjustment mechanisms are used on large, multi-engine aircraft. The blade pitch is
set in both directions using a double-acting hydraulic cylinder. These systems cause a higher
degree of constructional complexity as two hydraulic lines run through the propeller hub. It is

further necessary to separate the variable pitch system's oil circuit from that of the engine, as it
would otherwise be impossible to set propeller pitch in case of an engine failure. The oil is
pressurized by an electric pump that keeps the pitch system operative in case of an engine
failure.
Double-acting pitch system
Propeller/Spinner Installation
There are three typical ways of connecting propeller and driveshaft: A flanged shaft, splined
shaft or tapered shaft. Flanged shafts are used on most piston and some turboprop engines. The
driveshaft ends in a flange, which is circular and either houses boreholes or a thread.
Flanged shaft

Tapered driveshaft connections are found on older piston engines with a small power output and
little torque. In order to prevent the propeller shaft from turning on the driveshaft, the driveshaft
features a groove, while the circular propeller shaft is equipped with a tongue that fits into the
groove and prevents the shafts from twisting. This feature requires an exact fit between engine
driveshaft and propeller shaft. The propeller is pressed onto the propeller shaft and secured using
a large nut.
Tapered driveshaft connection
Radial engines, turbo engines and some piston engines use splined shafts. Splined shafts are
suitable for applications that involve large scale torque transfer between engine and propeller as
this type of shaft connection can withstand high torque without twisting. The splined driveshaft
has numerous identical grooves that fit onto the tongues of the propeller shaft. The exact fitment
prevents the two shafts from twisting. The propeller is fastened on the propeller shaft using a nut
and is then secured using safety wire or cotter pin.
Installing the spinner is the last step of propeller installation. The spinner guides the airflow
around the propeller hub and into the engine's cooling ducts. It is constructed of either sheet
metal or plastic composite material.
As an example, we will now look at the installation of a wooden propeller on a flanged shaft in
more detail. It may be necessary to insert washers between the propeller and the flange in order
to provide sufficient spacing between propeller and cowling. The propeller hub and all threads
have to be checked for dirt or damage. In case of any damage, the manufacturer's specifications
will identify whether or not the damage is acceptable or repairable. Any dirt is to be removed
completely. Before pushing the propeller onto the driveshaft, one of the contact surfaces is
coated with engineer's blue. Engineer's blue is a blue paste used to check two contact surfaces for
irregularities. If the two surfaces touch evenly, the paste is transferred onto the second surface
evenly. In case there are any irregularities, the impression becomes uneven and the irregularities
become visible. Any uneven spots on the mating surfaces are ground down using a sharpening

stone. This process is repeated until the two surfaces exhibit a perfect fit. Before final
installation, the engineer's blue is removed and the contact surfaces are degreased. After this
step, the drive shaft is lubricated using a few drops of engine oil and the thread is treated with
anti-seize paste, which protects it against corrosion, wear and galling. Subsequently, the
propeller is connected to the driveshaft. The angular position of the propeller is irrelevant for this
step, but it should be taken into consideration if the engine has to be started by hand. The
fasteners are torqued according to the manufacturer's instructions. Prior to the first engine start,
the blade tip path has to be checked (also referred to as blade tracking). This involves placing a
stand underneath the propeller and marking the vertical position of each blade tip as it passes.
The blade tip positions may not vary by more than 5 mm although larger tolerances may be
permissible for repaired propellers as long as they do not cause any abnormal vibrations when
running. These tolerances are always specified by the propeller manufacturer. If the blade tip
path is within the specified tolerance limits, the engine is started to check for any vibration. After
the engine run, all fasteners are re-checked, and if necessary, tightened and secured.
Despite all these security measures, it is important to check the propeller fasteners after the first
few flights.
The installation of composite or metal propellers on a flanged shaft is similar to the procedure
described above. The installation instructions included in the maintenance manual must always
be followed. In most cases, the manufacturer can provide additional technical support for
propeller installation.
Propeller Pitch Control

Speed Control and Pitch Change Methods
(Mechanical and Electrical/Electronic)
As mentioned in the previous section, variable pitch propellers require a pitch control system.
We distinguished between single and double acting systems, with single-acting systems using
hydraulic fluid to set pitch in one direction, while springs, flyweights, or centrifugal bending
moment reset the pitch into the opposite direction. A double-acting variable pitch system uses
two hydraulic circuits to actively set pitch in both directions. Moreover, there are mechanical and
electronic pitch controllers. Electronic pitch control systems use an electric motor in the
propeller hub, which is supplied with electricity through a collector ring. If the propeller blade
angle is to be changed, a contact in the control unit closes and the motor is supplied with power
to evenly change blade pitch through a bevel gear.

Single-acting propeller with flyweights
Single-acting propeller without flyweights

Double-acting propeller
The oil pressure in the hydraulic circuit is controlled by the propeller governor. It regulates the
flow of oil to and from the hydraulic cylinder, which in turn controls propeller blade pitch. The
governor is mounted in the engine bay and is connected to the engine driveshaft through the
accessory drive. It is also connected to the engine's oil circuit (only for single-acting systems).
Engine oil pressure is not sufficiently high for actuating the hydraulic cylinder, which is why the
governor includes an oil pump that is also driven by the engine. The governor consists of a link
to the propeller pitch lever, a regulating spring, flyweights and a regulator valve. The propeller
pitch lever is connected to a splined shaft that pre-tensions the regulating spring. The spring puts
pressure on the flyweights, which in turn actuate the regulator valve. The regulator valve controls
the oil flow to and from the pitch actuator. Double-acting pitch control systems use a separate oil
circuit that is pressurized by an electric oil pump. This provides the possibility of setting
propeller pitch even if the engine has failed. Electric pitch control systems also include a
governor. The governor is not connected to the pitch actuator via a hydraulic line but instead,
controls a small actuator that opens or closes an electric circuit. If the actuator runs into its stop,
the circuit is closed and the electric motor in the propeller hub is driven until the circuit is
disconnected.

Propeller pitch governor
Blade angle, engine speed, airspeed and pitch are all related. On a rotating propeller, rotational
speed, airspeed and blade angle determine blade pitch. If blade pitch is positive, the propeller
produces thrust and generates torque that has to be counteracted by the engine. If the blade angle
increases while airspeed and engine power are constant, blade pitch increases. The larger blade
pitch delivers more thrust, but also more drag. This leads to an increase in torque. Without a
corresponding power setting increase, engine speed drops. Constant speed propeller governors
use this simple principle to automatically control blade pitch. The pilot sets the desired propeller
speed and the governor varies the propeller blades' pitch to keep engine speeds constant. This
principle is called constant speed drive.
The propeller hub houses an additional pitch control device. The pitch actuator in the hub
contains a locking device that prevents the propeller from feathering while stationary. When the
engine is shut down, the oil flows from the actuator through the governor into the engine oil
sump. The return spring of a single-acting pitch control system would now increase the blade
angle. If the engine is started up while the propeller is set to a large blade angle (and hence high
torque), it generates high loads on the propeller and engine, which could lead to substantial
damage. The locking device comprises of small flyweights that limit the blade angle adjustment
range to small angles when the engine speed drops below a certain threshold and so the propeller
cannot be feathered below a defined speed. Above this speed, the flyweights release the lock and
the complete adjustment range is available.
In addition to the locking mechanism for low propeller speeds, there is a stopper that prevents
excessively low blade angles during flight. Very low blade angles decrease propeller torque,
which could lead the engine to run at excessive speeds. Furthermore, a low blade angle can cause
negative pitch in some flight states, which generates thrust against the direction of travel, braking

the aircraft. This is rather dangerous and can potentially lead to a total loss of the aircraft. The
flight fine pitch stop limits the pitch actuator's travel during flight, while the ground fine pitch
stop does so on the ground. Activation of reverse thrust releases all locks, giving the pilot control
over the entire adjustment range. The fine pitch stop mechanism is an actuator in the propeller
hub, which is controlled by a separate hydraulic circuit. The most forward actuator position is the
flight fine pitch stop. When the aircraft moves on the ground, pressure in the pitch stop actuator
decreases and smaller blade angles are released. If the pilot activates reverse thrust, the actuator
is depressurized completely, giving the blade pitch actuator its entire adjustment range.
Working principle of a governor

Propeller pitch lever
Feathering and Reverse Pitch

In case of an in-flight engine failure (especially on a multi-engine aircraft), the failed engine's
propeller must be feathered. Feathering the propeller helps to reduce the drag and yaw moment.
The blade angle when feathered is nearly 90˚ and the propeller is not driven by the airflow.
When a failed engine rotates due to airflow by the propeller, it is referred to as "wind-milling",
which can further damage the engine due to insufficient lubrication. Engine oil is used for both
lubrication and cooling and only circulates in an operating engine. In order to provide feathering
functionality even if the engine has failed, some pitch control systems use a separate small oil
circuit that operates independently. Other systems use the centrifugal bending moment for
feathering the propeller.
Some aircraft also use the propeller to brake the aircraft after landing. The blade angle is set to a
negative value, directing thrust against the direction of travel. There are different safety
mechanisms that prevent reverse thrust deployment during flight.
The following section will describe how variable pitch systems operate after an engine failure
and why there is a separate oil circuit for this situation. The feathering mechanism consists of a
separate oil circuit with an electric oil pump and a regulating valve. If the pilot selects the
propeller to feather, an electric oil pump starts. Pressurized oil flows through the governor,
closes the governor's actuating circuit using a valve, and then flows into the pitch actuator. The
pitch actuator feathers the propeller.
If the propeller is to be de-feathered, the system requires an electric auxiliary pump or a pressure
reservoir to move the actuator and to set a low blade angle. If neither of these options are
available, the governor can be driven via the engine driveshaft using the starter motor.

Feathered propeller
Reverse thrust can only be activated if the aircraft is on the ground and a switch closes in an
electric circuit. The circuit has to be further activated by a main switch and the thrust lever has to
be pulled back into reverse thrust position. These three steps activate the electric circuit that
releases the pitch stop valve and pitch stop mechanism (which blocks negative blade angles),
allowing the pitch actuator to set negative blade angles, braking the aircraft.
Overspeed Protection
Small blade angles can result in an increased risk of overspeed. Excessive propeller speeds cause
high aerodynamic and centrifugal forces on the propeller blades, potentially damaging or
destroying the propeller. The engine also has speed limits that can be exceeded during small
blade angle operation. If engine speed limits are exceeded, the combustion cycle may be affected
and moving parts are loaded beyond their design limits. On piston engines, the propeller
governor provides overspeed protection. Turboprop aircraft feature an additional governor that
limits engine and propeller speeds.
An overspeed protection governor exhibits the same basic design as any other governor. It is
connected to the driveshaft via a shaft that rotates flyweights. Its regulating spring is pre-
tensioned to a certain limit by the manufacturer. If the engine speed reaches critical values, the
flyweights move outwards, opening a valve that allows the hydraulic oil to flow from the pitch

actuator, increasing blade angle. The higher torque requirement now decreases the engine speed
to normal values.
Propeller Synchronizing
Synchronizing and Synchrophasing Equipment
On multi-engine aircraft, it is necessary to synchronize all propellers in order to minimize noise
and vibration. A synchronizer ensures all propellers rotate at the same speed. Small speed
variations between the propellers cause beat effects, where the amplitudes of the different
oscillations periodically amplify each other.
Beat frequency effect
The resulting oscillation has a similar basic frequency to the inducing oscillations, but its
amplitude oscillates at a low frequency which may be as large as the sum of all inducing
frequencies' amplitudes. The resulting oscillation transfers to the airframe and causes the entire
aircraft to oscillate. Components or assemblies that are subject to a dynamic load (such as an
oscillation) withstand less force than when they are subjected to a static load. These oscillations
can contribute to component degradation or failure over time. The number of load cycles a
material can withstand at a given load is represented in this Wöhler diagram.

Wöhler diagram
In addition to dynamic loads on the airframe, the beat effect causes a noise that can best be
described as a dull drone. The synchronizer assembly consists of magnets and magnetic field
sensors on the engines or propeller governors. These units measure propeller speed and interface
with a control unit that compares the different engine speeds to control the propeller governors
and balance out any deviations.
The left propeller is usually used as the reference for synchronization of the other propellers.
Some aircraft are equipped with a synchrophaser in addition to the propeller synchronizer. The
synchrophaser controls the propellers' phases by comparing the phase angles of the propeller
blades and adjusts the phase difference using the propeller governor. The purpose of the
synchrophaser is to provide a phase angle difference between the propellers in order to prevent
their oscillations from interfering. If two or more oscillations of the same frequency and phase
angle interfere, their amplitudes summate at the same frequency.

Interference between ftvo oscillations of the same frequency, different amplitude and identical phase angle
A phase angle difference reduces the amplitude of the resulting oscillations. When two
oscillations have the same frequency and amplitude but each with a phase angle difference of
90˚, the two oscillations would cancel out entirely.
Interference between ftvo oscillations of the same frequency, same amplitude and different phase angle
The above image shows how the phase angle has a large influence on noise and vibration.

Synchronizing and synchrophasing equipment is only active during cruise flight. During takeoff
and landing, the system is inactive in order to prevent all propellers from losing speed in case the
reference propeller engine fails.
Phase angle on a multi-engine aircraft
Every governor receives propeller speed information from magnetic field sensors. Every time the
magnetic element passes the sensor, it induces a voltage. The frequency of that voltage (the
number of times the voltage is induced during one second) is proportional to the propeller's
speed. A control unit compares the frequencies of the coupled propellers with that of the
reference propeller. In case of a speed difference, the control unit sends a signal to the respective
governor. The governor alters the regulating spring pretension and hence the blade angle and
propeller speed. Synchronizing only works if the propeller speed difference is below 100 RPM
(adjustment range). This constraint is due to flight safety concerns, as a sudden drop in reference
propeller speed due to an engine failure would lead all other propellers to slow down, causing a
sudden loss of thrust on all engines. The pilot therefore manually adjusts the propeller speeds to
be within the synchronizer's adjustment range before switching it on. If the pilot chooses to vary
propeller speed by larger values, the synchronizer has to be deactivated and the pilot has to
manually synchronize propeller speeds to within the adjustment range before switching it back
on. On multi-engine aircraft, the pilot can choose the reference engine on a switch in the cockpit.
This allows the synchronizer to work using an alternative reference engine even if the initial
reference engine has failed.
Maintenance work on synchronizers includes checking the system for damage, cleanliness and
the functionality of electrical components. In order to check the system during an engine run, all
propellers are set to a medium speed (between 1,500 and 2,000 RPM). The speeds of the
different propellers have to be within the 100 RPM adjustment range. After activation of the
synchronizer, all propeller speeds should adjust to that of the reference propeller and assume the

same value. If the reference speed is varied within the adjustment range, the coupled propellers
should adjust to the new value. If the propeller speed of one of the coupled propellers is varied
manually, it should return to the initial speed (reference speed) after a short drop or rise. If the
manual input changes a propeller speed to a value outside of the synchronizer's adjustment range,
the synchronizer will not readjust it. This prevents the synchronizer from reducing thrust on all
engines in case of a reference engine failure.
In addition to the propeller speeds, magnetic field sensors can detect the phase angle of a
propeller. Every time the magnet passes the sensor, it induces an electric current. The time of the
magnet passing the sensor determines the propeller's phase angle. The phase angle of the coupled
propellers and the reference propeller are compared and the phase angle difference is determined.
If the phase angle differences vary from the value chosen either by the pilot or control unit, the
coupled propellers' governors receive a signal and set the desired phase angle. As the phase angle
difference for minimum noise and vibration depends on the aircraft's current flight state and
weight as well as the meteorological conditions it flies in, some systems allow the pilot to
manually set the phase angle difference to suit the passengers' needs.
The resulting oscillations on the propeller and the transferred oscillations felt in the airframe are
a combination of numerous oscillations that are influenced by many different factors. At the start
of a flight, a small phase angle difference may be the most comfortable setting, while a large
phase angle difference may be suitable during later stages.
Different phase angles on an aircraft showing a push-pull-layout
Propeller Ice Protection

Fluid and Electrical De-lcing Equipment
Propeller ice protection devices prevent or remove ice from the propeller during flight. Propeller
blade icing can occur any time moisture contacts a cool propeller blade or supercooled water

droplets hit the propeller. An iced propeller is inefficient as it disturbs the airflow around the
propeller blades. Icing can also increase propeller torque because it increases the propeller's
mass, thus requiring higher power settings. One of the most concerning consequence of icing is
that it unbalances the propeller, causing vibrations that may increase to the point where the
engine and airframe are damaged.
Propeller blade icing
There are two main types of anti-icing systems: Fluid anti-icing systems employ a fluid that
prevents propeller icing. The fluid mixes with the moisture on the blade, lowering its freezing
point. If the freezing point is sufficiently low, the fluid mixture can no longer freeze on the
propeller blade. Centrifugal force carries the fluid away and it flows off towards the propeller
blade tip. If the propeller has already started to ice up, the system has no effect. Isopropyl alcohol
is often used as the fluid is cheap and commonly available. The high flammability of the fluid
has to be considered during handling.
Fluid anti-ice system

Electrical de-icing systems, in contrast to fluid anti-icing systems, are also effective if icing has
already formed on the propeller blade. The system consists of heater elements on the blade
surface. These elements heat the ice layer, decreasing its adherence to the propeller blade. The
centrifugal force and airflow cause ice layers to separate from the blade. The electrically isolated
heating elements are embedded in a rubber layer that protects it from foreign object damage.
Many systems comprise two heater elements per blade that are switched on alternatively,
decreasing energy. The system further consists of an electric control unit and a power
transmission system to the rotating propeller. This system solves the problem of transmitting
power from a stationary into a rotating assembly using a collector ring and brushes, similar to the
principle used in an electric motor.
Electric de-/anti-ice system
The following section describes the operation of fluid anti-icing systems:
The fluid tank is situated in the airframe and is connected to a pump by a system of fluid lines. In
order to match ambient air pressure, the tank is equipped with a ventilation system. The fluid
level in the tank can be checked using either a sight glass or an electrical fluid level indicator in
the cockpit. The fluid line includes a filter that prevents the system from clogging. The pump
pressurizes the fluid, allowing it to flow into the propeller hub. The pump is usually electric and
is controlled using a panel in the cockpit. Some systems only offer the pilot the choice between
on and off while other systems allow the crew to vary the pump's speed and adapt the flow of de-
icing fluid to the current meteorological conditions. The fluid flows into the propeller hub, from
where it reaches the blades through a slinger ring. The line between the slinger ring and pump
features a valve that prevents the fluid from draining when the system is switched off. Some
system use rubber anti-icing boots that provide an even distribution of anti-icing fluid along the
propeller's leading edge. These rubber mats are glued to the blade and distribute the fluid through
grooves along the leading edge.

Detail: Slinger ring of an anti-icing system
Fluid delivery nozzle and rubber boot

When carrying out maintenance work on fluid anti-icing systems, always consider the
manufacturer's maintenance instructions. The fluid used in the system is also specified by the
manufacturer.
The following section describes the procedure for a flow test:
Before checking the flow rate, the filter and fluid lines should be checked for contamination and,
if necessary, cleaned. The electric pump is connected to a voltmeter and ammeter which will
later be used to check the pump's power consumption. In case the values are outside the specified
limits, the pump has to be removed and refurbished. The fluid lines are disconnected from the
slinger ring and led into a measuring cup. The pump is switched on and the values displayed by
the voltmeter and ammeter as well as the fluid level in the measuring cup are noted down in
regular intervals. If the pump has variable settings, the measurements have to be repeated for
different flow settings. The flow rate, voltage and current have to be within the limits specified
by the manufacturer. If the values are outside of this envelope, the system is subjected to further
checks. During these checks, it may be necessary to clean the entire system using the following
procedure: After completely emptying the tank, it is filled with a mixture of white spirit and
purified water. The system is switched on and run until the tank is empty. At the same time, the
propeller has to be turned by hand to ensure that the fluid flows evenly through all the nozzles on
the propeller blade, cleaning them out. This cleaning procedure should also be carried out if the
system has not been used for longer periods.
The heating elements of an electric anti- / de-icing system are embedded in a rubber sleeve
which protects them against damage and provides electric isolation between propeller blade,
heater element and its surroundings. As the heating elements use a lot of electricity, they are
activated by a control unit in intervals.
On a two engine aircraft, the system could be programmed similarly to this example: During the
first phase, the outer elements of the right propellers are powered for thirty seconds. In the
second phase, the inner elements of the right propeller are switched on for thirty seconds. Phase
three and four take place in the same order and for the same duration of the left propeller. Some
systems allow the interval duration to be adapted to the current icing conditions. In heavy icing
conditions, the intervals may be shortened, for example to 15 seconds.

Functional drawing of an electric anti-icing system
Electricity is transmitted from the control unit via brushes and collector rings into the heating
elements on the rotating propeller. The brushes sit in guide rails on the airframe and conduct
electricity to the rotating collector rings. If a two-blade propeller is equipped with two heating
elements per propeller, it requires four brushes and collector rings (as electricity can only flow if
the circuit is closed). The degree of wear on brushes and collector rings is rather high, which is
why they are subject to inspection at regular intervals. The friction between the brushes and
collector rings predominantly wears the brushes, which are replaced regularly. The brushes
should always be clean and free from dirt or fluids. If the collector rings are contaminated, the
flow of electricity becomes inefficient and the anti-icing system becomes less effective. Special
attention needs to be paid to keeping the collector rings free from oil, fuel or other flammable
liquids as the brushes may cause sparks that could ignite flammable substances.
Collector rings and brushes of an electric de-icing system

It is recommended that the rubber boots of electric de-icing system be subject to regular checks.
The boots have to be examined for cracks, folds, detachment or discoloration (by overheating)
and, if necessary, repaired or replaced. The power wires should also be checked for damage and
should not be under tension if the blade angle is changed. If a heater element has overheated, the
rubber boot is removed and the blade examined for damage. If there is any blade damage, it must
be repaired according to the maintenance manual's instructions. After this step has been
completed, the new heating element and rubber boot may be attached to the propeller blade.
After replacing a heating element or at intervals specified by the manufacturer, the de-icing
system requires a functional check. All live wires are checked with an ohmmeter to ensure low
resistance. The measured resistance must be within the range provided by the manufacturer.
In addition, resistance between the heating elements and the propeller blades is checked to
identify whether the heater elements are properly isolated from the propeller. If the resistance is
lower than the minimum resistance provided by the manufacturer, it can be assumed that the
isolation between the blade and heating element is damaged, necessitating a repair.
Propeller Maintenance
Static and Dynamic Balancing
Propeller vibration can be caused by differences in the weights of propeller blades or through
aerodynamic differences due to twisting, warping, or damage. The airframe is usually too light to
provide sufficient dampening of the vibration and so the vibration is transferred through the
aircraft creating passenger discomfort and reduced airframe life. Vibration can be reduced
through static or dynamic balancing of the propeller. Static balancing is a procedure whereby
each blade is weighed and weights are added to ensure that all blades are of equal weight.
Dynamic balancing occurs with the propeller turning, usually on a test bed, and provides much
more accurate results.
A rotating object is statically stable if its center of gravity is situated on its rotational axis. In this
case, the object will not rotate unless an external influence is placed on it (such as a weight or
push/pulling force). If the center of gravity lies outside of the rotational axis, the object has the
tendency to rotate in one direction. This is caused by gravity creating torque through a lever arm
on the rotational axis. This moment is largest if the center of gravity has a horizontal offset
relative to the rotational axis, as the lever arm is large. If the center of gravity sits vertically
above or below the rotational axis, the moment disappears as the offset does not create a lever
arm. A rotating object with a center of gravity outside the rotational is subject to a periodic
moment around the axis. This moment acts both into and against the rotational direction during
one rotation.
A dynamic imbalance is caused by a pivot between the propeller's rotational axis and the
propeller center of gravity's axis. A side view of a dynamically imbalanced propeller shows that
the center of gravity of the different blades do not lie on top of each other. An aerodynamically
balanced propeller is characterized by propeller blades that create equal thrust. If this is not the
case, the propeller does not run smoothly and creates vibration, as the axis of resultant thrust
forces is not identical to the propeller axis.

Static and dynamic instability
Aerodynamically instable propeller

Static balancing is performed on a special rig with a driveshaft. In order to decrease frictional
drag, the measuring rails are either tapered towards a small contact surface area or exhibit a very
smooth surface that minimizes friction.
The propeller can move freely on horizontal rails and would therefore turn until the heavier blade
points down. In order to cancel out the imbalance, weights are attached to the blade root of the
lighter blade (the blade pointing up). This process is repeated until the propeller is balanced.
Static propeller balancing
Dynamic balancing takes place while the engine runs and requires special equipment. The
propeller is marked with a reflective strip on which a light source shines. The adhesive strip
reflects the light, which is then picked up by a photo sensor and used to calculate its location. In
addition to the photo sensor, dynamic balancing requires a vibration monitor that registers the
frequency and amplitude of vibrations. These values are processed by a computer, which gives
the end user the position and mass of the required balancing weight. After attaching the weight to
the propeller, another test run determines whether the weight is sufficient. In case the second test
run is successful, the balancing process is completed.

Dynamic propeller balancing
In order to find and rectify aerodynamic imbalance, adhesive strips of different colors are
attached
to the blade tips, which are monitored from a side view during the engine run. If there are any
deviations, the propeller has an aerodynamic imbalance. Alternatively, the blades can be
compared to a sample blade in a test stand, with a computer calculating the aerodynamic
correction factor. The correction factor describes the difference between the actual blade angle
and reference blade angle. On variable pitch propellers, the angle can be set on the blade mount,
while the manufacturer has to physically adjust the imbalance for fixed pitch propellers.
Some modern aircraft incorporate blade vibration software in their avionics package to assist
with a reduction in vibration. This equipment can identify the phase angle of imbalance and give
an approximate value for the imbalance. Using this type of on-board equipment can reduce
maintenance downtimes while improving the quality of flight for passengers.
Blade Tracking
In addition to blade balancing, blade tracking is checked as uneven blade tracking can also cause
vibrations. Blade tracking is acceptable if the blade tip path plane (the plane created by
connecting all blade tips) is perpendicular to the propeller axis.
If the blade tip path plane were angled, every blade would be subject to different airflow
conditions and the blade angle of the blades would vary. This would create an unequal thrust
distribution between the blades and the axis of the resultant thrust force would no longer be
identical to the propeller axis.

In order to check blade tracking, a blade tracker is mounted to the cowling. The first blade is
positioned so that its trailing edge touches the end of the blade tracker. The propeller is turned
until the next propeller blade reaches the reference point and differences are noted. On piston
engines, precautions must be taken to ensure that the ignition system is disabled prior to starting
this procedure. It is recommended that the spark plugs be removed to make the propeller easier
to turn. The position of the blade tips should not vary by more than 5 mm in both directions. If
the propeller is flange-mounted, blade tracking can be adjusted by placing small metal wedges
between the flange and the propeller. This slightly angles the blade tip plane relative to the
engine driveshaft, improving blade tracking. The maintenance manual provides information on
whether or not this method may be used. If blade tracking cannot be adjusted to acceptable
values, the propeller has to be replaced.
Blade tracking
Assessment of Blade
(Damage, Erosion, Corrosion, Impact Damage, Delamination)
Accurate evaluation of propeller damage is a key step of any repair or maintenance process.
Propeller damage can be caused by stones, hail, dust, and water spray or through corrosion,
impact damage, overload/overspeed, and delamination. Some damage is considered "in-service
wear" and can often be dressed out without removing the propeller. Damage caused by in-flight
or operational occurrences will usually require special inspections or possibly propeller
replacement.
Overload damage is characterized by bent propeller blades and cracks on the blade root. Blade
root cracking prohibits any further use of the propeller as the blade root is subject to the highest
degree of stress along the propeller - cracked material could lead to total propeller failure.
Erosion is to be expected during normal operation and may be more or less pronounced
depending on the environmental conditions (sandy or salty environments). The blades' leading
edges are rather susceptible to erosion as the airflow with suspended particulates strike the blade

on the leading edge. Corrosion may occur on metal propellers, attaching hardware, or on any
metal objects used on wooden or laminated propellers.
If a propeller is struck by an object, the object may cause impact damage, which can necessitate
replacing the propeller. Delamination can occur on wooden or composite propellers if the layers
are compromised during the manufacture process or if water enters the laminate. Water ingress
can cause significant damage to a laminated structure.
Wooden propeller with progressed erosion damage
Impact damage on a propeller blade

Eroded tip of a composite propeller blade
Propeller erosion on a P-3 Orion

Cracks and impact damage on a propeller blade
Propellers are inspected for damage and condition at regular intervals. Routine inspections
include a visual check that is done to the manufacturer's specifications. In addition to visual
checks, the propeller is tapped with a special metal tool or in some cases, a metal coin, which
makes material damage such as cracks or delamination audible. Tapping the propeller will
normally create a high tone but if delamination is present, the sound will be lower and obviously
different from the surrounding area. The blade should be tapped in small steps along its length -
preferably in a quiet location as the individual sounds are rather low.
In-depth inspections are carried out using an ultrasound device. These devices emit ultrasonic
waves that are reflected by the material and received by the sensor head. The time that passes
between the signal emission and receipt is used to determine material type, thickness, and
integrity. Blades containing cracks or delamination will return a signal much faster, providing
information to the technician that the blade is damaged.

Examining a propeller blade for delamination using a coin
Ultrasound propeller blade checks

Propeller Treatment/Repair Schemes

Manufacturers specify how their propellers are to be maintained and repaired. The maintenance
manual describes damage classification and repair. Before any repair work is performed, the
damage must be assessed to determine if repair is possible. The manufacturer defines which
types of damage are repairable and provides instructions for repair when applicable.
After the damage has been identified and classified, it is repaired according to the maintenance
manual, which contains a list of tools and materials as well as a detailed repair procedure.
Superficial damage may be repaired using files or grinding tools to grind a bevel around the
damaged area. The width of the bevel is relative to the damage depth and position.
The values below are included here as a reference only; actual dimensions vary with damage
type and propeller manufacturer.
1. On leading- and trailing edges, the chamfer's width has to be at least five times the
damage width but no more than 17 cm.
2. The bevel for damage repair on the blade's upper or lower surface has to be at least 30
times the damage depth. It may not exceed 25% of the chord length or 10 cm in all
directions
3. The bevel has to be cleaned with acetone before filling it with repair material.
4. After the repair has been completed, the repair surface has to be sealed and coated as
quickly as possible in order to prevent contamination.
The following section describes the repair of a composite propeller blade trailing edge (excerpt
from a Hartzell maintenance manual).
1. As a first step, the top surface is removed using a grinding machine. Damaged material
may remain part of the propeller if it is still functional.
2. Using a grinder or sander, material is removed to create a bevel that extends 12.7 mm
outwards for every 0.254 mm of damage depth. If the bevel extends into the leading edge,
the erosion shield must be removed to complete the repair. The ground down area is
cleaned thoroughly using acetone and then left to dry completely.
3. Determine the number of fiber composite layers required for the repair. If the damage is
equal on both sides of the propeller, the fiber layers may be folded to both sides of the
blade. If the damage is not equal on both sides, a different number of layers is required.
The number of layers is limited to three.
4. The fiber mats are then cut to shape at a 450 angle to the blade pitch axis. The fiber mat
is a weave of multiple thin fiber layers directed in different orientations.
5. In order for it to be capable of absorbing the different multi-direction forces on the blade
surfaces, the fiber mat has to be embedded at a 45˚ angle. This orientation allows the
fibers to absorb forces that apply in parallel and perpendicular to the blade axis.

6. The fiber mats are connected to the blade structure using an appropriate adhesive, which
is applied to the fiber layers - this adhesive is specified by the manufacturer. The fiber
mats are applied to the repair area and arranged to give the blade its original shape.
7. A fiber glass fabric is applied on top of the fiber layers in order to blend the layers into
the original propeller shape.
8. After this step, the repair area has to be cured and sanded until the propeller blade has
returned to its original shape.
9. After the procedure has been completed, the blade has to pass a visual and coin tapping
inspection. If these inspections find that the repair is insufficient, it must be repeated.
10. After the inspection, the blade is re-finished according to the respective section of the
maintenance manual.
Propeller Engine Running

Propeller engine runs are mandated after every propeller maintenance activity or at certain time
intervals. The purpose of a propeller engine run is to confirm propeller operation and function.
Use caution during propeller operation and normally, propeller engine runs may only be
performed by pilots or licensed personnel. Propeller engine runs are usually performed in
designated areas and must be coordinated with ground control. During a propeller engine run,
different tests mandated by the manufacturer are performed, including a check of the reference
speed of constant speed propellers, the functionality of variable pitch systems, dynamic
balancing, and the propeller's vibration characteristics.
The reference speed of a constant speed propeller is checked under full engine power and wheel
braking. The reference speed is read on the engine speed indicator and should be 400-500 RPM
lower than the engine's maximum speed. Determining the reference speed sets the basis for
calculating the optimum blade angle. The optimum blade angle for cruise is reached if the
propeller speed at full power during cruise approaches the maximum value. In order to decrease
the reference speed, the blade angle has to be increased. Decreasing the blade angle will result in
an increase in reference speed.
The reference speed of a variable pitch propeller is also checked under full engine power and
wheel braking. The propeller pitch lever is varied while monitoring the propeller speed indicator.
The maximum propeller speed may not be exceeded during the inspection.
During every engine run, the staff performing the inspection should be aware of abnormal
vibration that may be an indication of an unbalanced or damaged propeller. If the vibrations are
excessively pronounced, the propeller must be examined in more detail. If the propeller does not
show any signs of damage, the engine may be the source of the problem.

Propeller Storage and Preservation

Propeller Preservation and Depreservation
If a propeller and its additional components have not been used for a long period of time, they
must be preserved in accordance with instructions in the maintenance manual. As there are
numerous propeller types and manufacturers, the following section provides general conditions
for storage.
There are two classifications for propellers entering storage; short term and long term. Short term
storage requirements are generally applicable to propellers entering storage for a duration of up
to 45 days (although this may vary for different manufacturers) and it is assumed that all
components remain installed on the aircraft. Long term storage begins with the first day after the
short term period has expired and necessitates storage of some components outside of the
aircraft's structure. In general, aircraft components should be stored in dry and clean
environments and ideally, in their original packaging. Boxes should not be stored on the ground
as they could attract humidity, grease, oil, and other contaminants. The components that are to be
preserved must be cleaned and drained of all fluids. If the components are re-used, they must
undergo an inspection and depending on the component, a functional check.
Storage time begins on the date of manufacture (for new parts) or the date that an in-service part
enters storage.
The date of storage should be noted on a label attached to the component, making it instantly
visible how long the part has been in storage. Propellers are generally stored horizontally (flat) to
prevent water or other contaminants from collecting in any one blade. Water or moisture in the
blade tip can lead to delamination or corrosion, especially on wooden propellers. If a propeller
with three or more blades is stored on the aircraft, the propeller should be positioned to avoid one
blade being vertical on the propeller hub, as that may cause a buildup of moisture in the propeller
hub. Propellers may never be stored standing on one blade tip as they are not designed to absorb
asymmetric forces and could be damaged. Before putting any propeller or component into
service, the component is subject to a visual inspection for corrosion or damage. Depending on
the storage time, other inspections may be necessary including procedures requiring partial
disassembly. A governor, for example, has to be disassembled and equipped with new seals and
rubber components before going into service after storage periods of more than five years. These
inspections may only be performed by organizations holding the respective certificate. After
inspection and maintenance, the governor is tested on a test bench before being released into
service. All component documentation must be retained and updated prior to entry into service. It
is also important to review current Service Bulletins to ensure that any required updates are made
before the propeller is returned to service.


M17 - Propeller: Aviation Training Hub

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AVIATION TRAINING HUB

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Synchronizing and Synchrophasing Equipment ....................................................................... 41

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Tractor propeller layout on a Cirrus SR22 GTS

Pusher propeller layout on a VariEze by Burt Rutan

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Contra-rotating propeller on a Spitfire Mk XIX

Military Transporter Lockheed C-130 Hercules

Blade Element Theory

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Propeller Angle of Attack

Here's an example of how this can be used:

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Aerodynamic and geometric offset

Forces Acting On a Propeller

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High/Low Blade Angle

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Propeller blade element speeds and angles

Twist and blade angle on a propeller blade

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Different propeller blade pitch settings

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Angles and velocities on a propeller blade

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Aerodynamic, Centrifugal, and Thrust Forces

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Aerodynamic forces on a propeller blade

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Centrifugal torsional moment

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Relative Airflow on Blade Angle of Attack

Vibration and Resonance

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Metal propeller on a Basler BT-67

Composite propellers consist of multiple layers of fibers embedded in a matrix, including

Hartzell composite propeller

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Details of Wooden Propellers

Glued wooden layers before shaping

Details of Metal Propellers

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Details of Composite Propellers

Cross section of a composite propeller blade

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Blade shank and blade stations

Blade Face and Back

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Pressure and speeds along the propeller axis

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Hub Assembly and Types of Propeller