CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY AND LABORATORY RULES

The Study of Biology生物学

1. The word “Biology” comes from the Greek works “bios” and “logos”. “Bios” means “life” and
“logos” means “study”, hence Biology is the study of life or the study研究 of living
things(organisms).生物
2. The study of Biology is also including the study of the environment环境, and the interaction 相
互作用between living things and the environment.

The Importance重要性 of Biology

(a) To understand the various interactions around us
(b) To understand how the human body functions
(c) To find cures 治疗for diseases
(d) To save endangered濒危 species物种
(e) To manage 处理problems related to the environment
(f) To treat genetic diseases遗传疾病 using gene therapy基因治疗
(g) For the advancement进步 in the fields领域 of medicine, agriculture 农业and industry工业

Fields范围 of Study in Biology

Major field of Description

Biology
Anatomy解剖学 The study of the body structures 结构and organisation组织 of organisms
Bacteriology细菌学 The study of bacteria
Bioinformatics The study of the science of storing储存, retrieving 检索and analysing分析
生物信息学 large amounts of biological information
Biotechnology The study of the application应用 of Biology in the industry
生物技术
Biochemistry The study of the chemical substances and processes that occur in plants,
生物化学 animals and microorganisms微生物, and of the changes 变化they undergo经
历 during development and life. (The chemistry of life.)
Botany植物学 The study of plants
Cytology细胞学 The study of cells细胞
Ecology The study of interaction between living organisms with the environment
生态学

Genetics遗传学 The study of genes基因, genetic遗传 variation变异, and heredity 遗传in

organisms
Microbiology The study of microscopic organisms

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微生物学
Nanobiotechnology The study of the application of nanotechnologies纳米技术 in biological fields
纳米生物技术
Ornithology鸟类学 the scientific study of of birds.
Pathology 病理 The study of organs 器官that are diseased and cannot function properly.
Physiology生理学 The study of functions 功能of living organisms and their parts
Sports science The study of plan treatment治疗计划 and training programmes for the
体育科学 preparation and rehabilitation 复原of athletes.运动员
Taxonomy分类学 The study of classification 分类of organisms
Zoology动物学 The study of animals
Virology病毒学Entomology昆虫学. Embryology胚胎学Histology组织学. Mycology真菌学
Aquatic Biology 水生生物学– living things in or on water.
Dentistry牙科– the medical study of the teeth and the mouth.
Forestry林学 – forest management
Horticulture园艺– the culture of ornamental 装饰点缀plants and new plant varieties品种.
Molecular Biology分子生物学 – the structure and activity of macromolecules大分子 essential必需
to life.
Pharmacy药剂系 – the study on how to prepare medicines and drugs.
Veterinary兽医 science – the study connected with caring for the health of animals.

Careers职业 Related to Biology

Biology covers a very wide area of study, as a result, there is a wide choice of careers related to
Biology.

Careers

Field of Study
Medical and ● Doctors ● Physiotherapist物理治疗师
health care ● Nurse 护士 ● Dietician营养师
● Pharmacist药剂师 ● Medical specialist医疗专家
● Verterinarian兽医 ● Forensic officer法医
● Dentist牙医 ● Optician配镜师
Agriculture ● Botanist植物学家 ● Agriculturer official农业官员
● Foresters (look after forest)森林人 ● Research officer研究人员
● Fisheries officer 渔业官员 ● Estate manager
The Greater ● Horticulturalists园艺 ● Marine biologists (work out at sea)
Outdoors ● Environmentalist (care for ● Ecologist生态学家
environment) 环保人士 ● Park planner公园规划师 and manager
Education Biology teacher in school ● Lecturers 讲师at tertiary levels
Contribution贡献 of Biology in Daily Life日常生活
1 The knowledge知识 of biology has brought many benefits益处 to mankind人类.
2 Some of the important developments in biology include the following:
Fields领域 Contributions of biology
Health and medicine • Coming up with measures措施 for preventing预防 diseases
• Formulati制定 on of drugs for fighting disease-causing microorganisms

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 • Gene therapy
• Plastic surgery 整形外科
• In vitro fertilisation 体外授精
• Production of vaccine疫苗 and insulin胰岛素
Agriculture • High-yielding 高产and pest- resistant抗虫 varieties of crops 农作物
• Hydroponic水培 and aeroponic气培 technology
Food production • Food production technology such as canning罐头, pasteurisation 巴氏杀
食品生产 菌and vacuum packaging真空包装 prevent rotting 腐败of food caused by
bacteria.
• This field also make use of bacteria and microorganisms to produce food
like cheese乳酪, yogurt酸奶, soy sauce and bread.
Pharmaceutical制药业 Production of synthetic人造 vitamins, vaccines, insulin and synthetic
enzymes.
Nanobiotechnology Applies nanotechnology and biotechnology to diagnose 诊断diseases,
understand the mechanisms of diseases and cellular action at the molecular
level, as well as to deliver medication送药, vaccines and other substances
to specific 具体targets 目标more effectively.
Bioinformation Combines biology, computer science, mathematics and statistics to analyse
biological data, especially in the study involving genomes 基因组of
organisms.
Biotechnology Has wide applications in the fields of medicine, agriculture, food
production and pharmaceutical industry.

Safety 安全and Rules 规则in Biology Laboratory

1. A biology laboratory is essential for conducting进行 scientific investigation调查. To avoid
unwanted 不必要incidences事件, we must always adhere to遵守 the safety rules and measures措施
in a biology laboratory.
2. We must also know the personal个人 protective 保护equipment设备 and understand their
functions.
Personal protective Functions
equipment
Goggles护目镜 Prevent chemical splashes from hitting 击中the eye
(safety glasses)
Face mask面罩 Protect the face from smoke, vapours蒸汽 and dust that can affect the
respiratory system呼吸系统
Laboratory gloves Protect the hands from chemical reactions, infectious substances or injuries
手套 when handling处理 chemicals and biological samples.样本
Thick gloves must be worn to protect the hands from heat, chemical
reactions and hazardous有害 chemical substances. Otherwise, the normal
laboratory gloves can be worn to handle the biological samples.
Lab coat Protects pupils’ clothes and bodies from chemical spills泄漏 and prevents
实验工作服 contamination污染 from spreading 传播elsewhere其他地方
Laboratory coats are not to be worn outside of the laboratories, especially
in public areas公众地方 such as the canteen to avoid cross-contamination.
Lab shoes Protect the feet from injury caused by stepping on broken pieces of glass or
chemical spills and to prevent from slipping滑倒 on wet 潮湿的floors.
Students are not allowed to wear sandals凉鞋 and slippers.拖鞋

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Fume hood
(fume chamber) • Experiments that emit释放 flammable, toxic,
通风柜 corrosive 腐蚀性or smelly 臭gases or vapours are
carried out in the fume hood.
• The fume hood prevents exposure 暴露to hazardous
gases such as chlorine氯, bromine 溴and nitrogen
dioxide.二氧化氮

Biological safety • Creates a closed 封闭workspace 工

cabinet 作区to handle substances that have or
生物安全柜 may have been contaminated 污染by
pathogens病菌, for example when
preparing bacterial cultures.

• The cabinet is sterilised 消毒before

and after the investigation.

Laminar Flow • Laminar flow cabinet provides

Cabinet a thoroughly-cleaned 彻底清洁air on
层流柜 the surface of work area.
• Air is passed through a filter 过滤
器which removes all airborne 空气传
播contamination to maintain sterile无
菌 conditions.

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Eye wash station Place to wash the eyes when in
contact接触 with chemical splashes
飞溅such as acids or alkalis.

Emergency shower The shower is used to clean and wash

station parts of the body and clothing衣服
紧急沐浴站 that have come into contact with
chemical spills or other hazardous
substances in large quantities or high
Concentrations高浓度.

Substances that Can and Cannot be Disposed into弃置 the Sink水槽

Substances that can be disposed into Substances that cannot be disposed into the sink
the sink
• Substances with a pH value between 5 • Solid wastes such as glass玻璃 splinters碎片 and rubber
and 9 fragments 碎片
• Liquids or solutions with a low • Substances with pH values of less than 5 or greater than
concentration and harmless such as 9
distilled water, dye 染料solution and • Organic solvents 有机溶剂such as alcohols, acetone and
sugar solution, iodine solution and benzene
starch solution • Chemical substances (acids, greases油脂, oils, oil paints
油画原料, hydrogen peroxide过氧化氢)
• Toxic substances
• Heavy metals重金属 such as mercury 水银
• Organic waste materials (microorganisms, carcasses尸
体)
• Radioactive waste 放射性废物
• Volatile 挥发性substances such as alcohol and mercury
• Reactive materials

Methods in Managing Biological Washes

Biological waste substances need to be disposed of according to the Standard Operating Procedures
shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Methods for managing biological waste substances
Biological Examples Methods for managing biological waste
waste substances
category
Category A Sharp objects such as syringes, Disposed into弃置 special sharp waste
(sharp 尖锐 needles, broken glass, scalpel解 container and do not need to be sterilised
的wastes) 剖刀 and other sharp
instruments that can cause
injuries

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Category B Solid biological wastes Packed first in autoclave resistant biohazard 生
(non-sharp such as gloves, tissue paper, 物危害plastic bags, sterilised in an autoclave高
wastes) petri dishes, plastic culture 压釜 for decontamination去污, and then placed
containers and hardened agar into a biohazard bin. Biohazard plastic bags
cannot be thrown into regular waste baskets.

Category C Carcasses, organs and tissues of Wrapped in absorbent 吸收material (for

(animal lab animals example tissue paper), packed carefully into
carcasses) biohazard plastic bags and frozen冷冻.

Category D Broth 肉汤culture and liquid All liquid biological wastes must be
(liquids) medium such as blood and/or decontaminated by autoclaving before disposal.
blood products such as serum血 Biological liquid wastes that have been sterilised
清 must be disposed of directly into the laboratory
sinks or toilet.

• Decontamination through autoclaving is done at 121°C and pressurised at 15 psi for 20 minutes.
Biohazard plastic bags that have been sterilised in an autoclave and sharp waste containers must be
stored temporarily in a controlled storage place until the scheduled 计划的time for disposal弃置.

Accidents in the laboratory

Accidents in laboratories can be caused by carelessness粗心, negligence疏忽 or lack of skill技巧 in
carrying out experiments. Here are the steps in managing accidents in laboratories.

STEPS TO HANDLE GENERAL CHEMICAL SPILLS

1. Inform your teacher.
2. Declare声明 the spill area溢出区 as a restricted zone.限制区域
3. Prevent the chemical spill from spreading using sand.
4. Scoop up挖出 the chemical spill 泄漏using appropriate适当的 equipment.
5. Dispose it safely.

STEPS TO HANDLE MERCURY水银 SPILLS泄漏

1. Inform your teacher.
2. Declare the spill area as a restricted zone.

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3. Sprinkle 撒sulphur to cover覆盖 the mercury spills.
4. Call the fire and rescue department.消防局

Practices in a biology laboratory

The biology laboratory is a place for learning and research. However, there are some general safety
rules that must always be practised by pupils.

1. CLOTHING ETHICS伦理
Use a lab coat, gloves, safety shoes and goggles when appropriate.

2. LABORATORY SAFETY RULES

• Do not work alone in the laboratory without supervision.监督
• Wash your hands after conducting an experiment.
• Do not bring in irrelevant不相关 items 东西into the laboratory.
• Clean your workstation using disinfectant.消毒剂
• Dispose wastes according to the set procedures.
• Do not eat and drink in the laboratory.
• Identify all safety symbols on substances and equipment before use.

3. SAFETY MEASURES FOR FIRES

• Stop work immediately and switch off关掉 all nearby power sources电源. Unplug 拔下
appliances.电器
• Exit出去 the laboratory according to the emergency exit紧急出口 plan.
• Call the fire and rescue department.
• Do not panic紧张 and stay calm.保持冷静
• Do not turn back 倒回头to collect your belongings.财物
• Assemble 集合at the assembly point.集合点

4. HANDLING GLASS AND CHEMICALS

• Be cautious 小心when handling hot glassware.玻璃器皿
• Report any damaged equipment or glassware to teachers immediately.
• Keep flammable chemicals away from fire sources.
• Do not touch, taste and smell chemicals directly.

5. HANDLING LIVE SPECIMENS活的样本

• Use appropriate适合的 gloves when handling biological specimens.
• Specimens that are not harmful and have been dissected 解剖should be buried 埋葬or frozen.
• Wash hands with antiseptic杀菌 detergents清洁剂 before and after experiments.
• All surfaces and workstations工作站 should be cleaned with disinfectant before leaving

6. EMERGENCY HELP
The following procedures should be followed in the event of an accident:
• Inform your teacher.
• Call the fire and rescue emergency number.

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• Remove the victim from the scene.现场
• Give emergency treatment.治疗
• Make the place of accident as a restricted area.

Scientific Attitudes态度 and Noble 崇高Values价值

Scientific attitudes and noble value practices when carrying out a scientific investigation:
• Having interest and curiosity 好奇心towards the environment.
• Being honest 老实and accurate in recording and validating data.
• Being diligent勤奋 and persevering 恒心in carrying out a study.
• Being responsible 有责任about the safety of oneself, others and the environment.
• Appreciating 珍惜and practising clean and healthy living.
• Appreciate the contributions of science and technology.
• Think critically 批判性and analytically.分析性

Communication 交流in Biology

1 Communication in biology by biologists on their findings 发现are mainly in the form of tables,
graphs and biological drawings.
2. The result of the experiment is known as data数据. Data is obtained during the observation 观察
and measurement测量. Data can exist in various forms including numbers and drawing.
3. During scientific investigation, data has to be recorded.

Tables表
1 When carrying out an investigation, the experimental data must be recorded in a suitable table.
2 A table allows the data to be arranged systematically for comparison比较 and analysis.分析
3 The headings 标题in the table consist of manipulated and responding variables with the respective
units.

Graphs图表
1 The relationship between the manipulated variable and responding variable can be shown in
the form of a graph. The following is a line graph based on the data in Table 1.3.

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How to draw a graph
• Determine a suitable scale. The scaling on the axis must be uniform.
• Write the title of the graph on the graph paper.
• Label the x-axis and y-axis together with the units used.
• Plot all points using data from the table with a suitable symbol such as ‘X，.
• If the points appear to be in a straight line, join all the points using a pencil and ruler.
• If the points appear to be a curve曲线, draw the curve smoothly without using a ruler.
• If there are points which fall out of the curve, ignore忽略 the points or repeat the experiment
to obtain new values for those points.

2. Bar charts条图 present data using vertical bars that are not joined to each other.

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How to draw a bar chart
• Draw the x-axis that
represents the manipulated
variable and y-axis that
represents the responding
variable.

• The height of the bars

depends on the frequency of
the data.

• Bar charts are used to

compare two or more things
at the same time.

• There is a space 空间
between two adjacent bars.

3 A histogram 直方图visually shows the distribution分布 of the data and the frequency of a value
in a set of data.
How to draw a histogram
• Draw the x-axis to represent the
manipulated variable and the y-axis to
represent the responding variable.
• Insert the label and units on the
axes.
• The size or the width of the bars
must be the same for all the class
intervals and there should be no spaces
between the bars.
• The title of the graph must be
written as 'Graph of (responding
variable) against (manipulated
variable).

Biological drawings
1. Biological drawings must be exact to give an accurate representation of an observed specimen.
2. Drawing is a method to collect data as it involves recording data from specimen.
3. Characteristics of biological drawings
• Large and accurate; use a sharp pencil and not a colour pencil or pen.
• Not shaded artistically.
• Lines drawn must be clear, clean and continuous. Do not use a ruler to draw the outline of
a specimen.
• Drawings must be labelled. Label lines must point to the correct structure, no arrowheads,
must be straight and not cross each other.
• Drawings must have titles.
• Each structure in the drawing must be placed in the correct position, and its size should be
proportionate to the rest of the structures.

• A plan drawing is a line drawing that shows the outline轮廓 of a structure.

• A detailed drawing 详细图shows the cells in a structure.

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• The magnification factor 放大倍数of a drawing must be stated, for example:

Therefore, the magnification factor is 2x.

Plane平面, section截面 and direction方向

1. In biology, research and observation of an organisms structure are done based on the plane,
section and direction.
2. The plane refers to a flat surface of shadow passing through the body. There are three main planes
used (Figure 1.5):
• sagittal plane矢状面 (divides the body into right and left parts)
• frontal plane 额叶面(divides the body into frontal and rear parts)
• horizontal plane水平面 (divides the body into upper and lower parts)

Identify the Sections of Organism

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1. In studying the anatomy of animal and plant, cross sectioning and longitudinal sectioning have to
be performed to observe the internal structures of the organism.
2. (a) A cross section (transverse section)
refers to a cut made horizontally to divide a
structure into the upper and lower parts.
(b) A longitudinal section divides the
structure vertically into left and right parts.

Identify the Directions of Organism

1. Direction is used to illustrate说明 the location or position of body structure.
Direction Definition Example ( in human )8
Anterior 前 Positioned or facing the front of the The ribcage肋骨 is anterior to the
(ventral腹部) body heart
Posterior后 Positioned towards the back of the The vertebra脊椎骨 is posterior to
(Dorsal背) body the heart
Proximal 近端 Close to the base of a structure The proximal end of the femur is
connected to the body part of the pelvic joint
Distal 远端 Furthest away from the base of a The distal end of the femur is the
structure connected to the body bone part of the knee
Lateral 侧 Positioned away from the midline of The ear is lateral to the nose bridge
the body or at the side of the body.
Superior 上 Positioned at the top of a structure The heart is superior to the
or body, that is heading towards stomach
the head.
Inferior 下 Positioned at the bottom of a structure The foot is inferior to the head
or body part, that is heading towards
the feet.

2. For animals like fish, the commonly used terms for body orientation are as follow:

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 Dorsal the back of the animal
Ventral the lower part of the animal
Anterior the front or head of the animal
Posterior the back or tail of the animal

Scientific Investigations in Biology

1 Biological knowledge is obtained through scientific investigation methods that prove证实 the
validity有效性 of the hypothesis 假设made.
2 Scientific investigations involve science process skills.
3 Science process skills involve critical， creative, analytical and systematic thinking. These
skills enable a person to put forth a question and find a solution systematically.
4 Figure 1.10 lists the steps for problem solving through a systematic scientific investigation.

1 Identifying 确认problems that can be tested

2 Making a hypothesis
Stating a prediction 预测based on the relationship between the manipulated variable and
responding variable which is believed to be true in order to explain a phenomenon.现象
3 Identifying and controlling variables and determining data collection method
• Fixed variable固定变量: a factor that is kept constant throughout the investigation.
• Manipulated 操纵variable: a factor that is predetermined to cause a change in the
investigation.
• Responding响应 variable: a factor that is measured and its value is dependent on the
manipulated variable.
4 Planning and carrying out a scientific investigation
Preparing the materials and apparatus, as well as planning the procedure
5 Collecting and presenting data in tables and drawing suitable graphs if required
6 Interpreting诠释 data and results through scientific reasoning
Analysing results and determining the relationship between the manipulated variable and
responding variable
7 Making conclusions
8 Writing a report
5. Full report should consist of the following aspects:
(a) Research objectives
(b) Problem statement
(c) Hypothesis
(d) Variables
(e) List of materials and apparatus
(f) Procedure
(g) Results of observations
(h) Discussion which involves analysis and data interpretation
(i) Conclusion
REPORT OF AN EXPERIMENT

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Aim: To investigate the effect of sugar concentration on the expansion of dough
Problem statement: How does sugar concentration affect the expansion of dough?
Hypothesis: The higher the concentration of sugar in the dough, the higher the dough will expand.
Variables:
• Manipulated variable： Sugar concentration
• Responding variable： Height of dough
• Fixed variable: Amount of yeast, volume of water, type and quantity of flour, temperature and
time for dough to expand
Materials and Apparatus:
Petri dishes, spatulas, transparent drinking straws, clothes pegs, a metre ruler, a marker pen,
stopwatch, scales, flour, dry yeast, warm water and sugar
Procedure:
1. 10 straws are marked with a marker pen at a distance of 3 cm from one end.
2. Each Petri dishes are labelled as control, A, B, C and D.
3. A mixture of 10 g of flour cmd 1 g of dry yeast are mixed in each of the five Petri dishes.
4. 0.5 g, 1.0 g, 1.5 g and 2.0 g of sugar are added to Petri dishes A, B, C and D respectively.
5. The contents in all the five Petri dishes are stirred with separate spatulas to mix them up properly.
6. 10 of warm water is added to the mixture in the control Petri dish and the dough is kneaded for 2
minutes.
7. The dough is inserted into the marked end of two drinking straws to a length of 3 cm.
8. The ends of the two drinking straws containing the dough are clamped with a clothes peg and left
to stand.
9. Steps 6-7 are repeated for Petri dishes A, B, C and D. 10. A stopwatch is started.
11. At the end ol 30 minutes, the heights of the dough inside all the drinking straws is measured and
recorded in a table.

Results :

Discussion
1. The average height of the dough for each of the different Petri dishes is calculated from the
first and the second drinking straws.
2. From Table 1.8, as the mass of sugar increases from 0 g to 2.0 g, the average height of the
dough increases from 0 cm to 5.0 cm.
Conclusion
The higher the concentration of sugar in the dough, the higher the dough will expand. The hypothesis
is accepted.

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