Alferid Hussin Shifa

11/29/2021
Prof. Makhlouf

Homework 3
Ch13: 1, 2, 6, 8, 10, 17, 20, 22, 24, 30, 36, and 38

Ch14: 2, 6, 7, 17, 18, 20, 27, and 33

Ch16: 1, 5, 7, 10, 11, 26, 41, 42, 49, and 53

1. What is the difference between a plate and a sheet?

- A plate is thicker than a sheet, often greater than 6mm thick. Machine structures, ship
hulls, boilers, bridges, and nuclear vessels are all examples of a plate applications. A
sheet, on the other hand, is less than 6mm thick and can be made into coils as well as flat
sections for processing. Aircraft, appliances, food and beverage containers, as well as
kitchen and workplace equipment, all use them.

2. Define roll gap, neutral point, and draft.

- A roll gap is a process where a strip is thinned by a set of spinning rolls powered by
motors. As the strip’s goes through the roll gap, the velocity of the strip's will increase,
and when the strip's velocity equal the roll gap's rotational velocity it called the neutral
point or the no-slip point. Once a strip completed its course through the roll gap, the
difference between the final thickness and its initial thickness is known as the draft.

3. Describe the difference between a bloom, a slab, and a billet.

- Blooms are typically constructed like a square cross-section with at least 150mm sides,
and they're manufactured from the first-hot rolling process. They may usually be
processed further into shapes that are utilized in structural applications, such as Beams
and railroad rails. The cross section of a slab, on the other hand, is usually rectangular.
They're commonly rolled out into plates or sheets because their cross sections are more
elongated. Billets are similar to both a bloom and a slab, but their cross-sections are
smaller than a bloom and squarer than a slab. They are often rolled into smaller shapes,
like as round rods and bars, due to their lower size.

4. List the defects commonly observed in flat rolling.

- Surface defects such as corrosion, scratches, gouges, pits, and cracks are common defects
following flat rolling for sheet metals and can be easily identified.
5. How are seamless tubes produced?
- Rotary tube piercing, a hot-working procedure, can be used to create seamless tubes. In
essence, radial compressive loads are applied to a cylindrical bar, causing tensile stresses
to form in the bar's center. Once the cycle is complete, compressive loads are applied to
form a gap in the center.

6. Flat rolling reduces the thickness of plates and sheets. It is possible, instead, to reduce their
thickness simply by stretching the material? Would this be a feasible process? Explain.
- Stretching, although possible, is not a feasible process because it’s an efficient method of
reducing plates to a smaller uniform thickness. Specifically, stretching has to be done
one at a time, unlike rolling, which is a continuous process. Also, stretching the sheet
will causes Orange-Peeling to form, which is the formation of uneven, rough defects in
the surface. Not to mention the fact that the clamps used to stretch the materials would
leave marks on the finished product.

7. Describe the factors that influence the magnitude of the roll force, F, in Fig. 13.2c.
- Roll force is influenced by a couple factures, including the radius of the rolls, the width
of the strip, the draft (roll-to-strip contact area) region, the strength of the material and by
the rolling speed if the strain-rate of the strip material is high. The force can estimate
using the below equ.
F = Lw𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 ,
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠

8. What typically is done to make sure that the product in flat rolling is not crowned?
- Crowning occurs when the roll bends elastically, and the rolled strip to be thicker in the
center than at the edges. Grinding the central diameter slightly larger than the edges will
make the roll thickness uniform and prevent crowning. This method is known as camber.

9. Describe the methods by which roll flattening can be reduced. Which property or properties
of the roll material can be increased to reduce roll flattening?
- Roll flattening occurs when the rolling force flattens the rolls elastically and it imparts
elastic deformation at the contact point, resulting in a longer contact length.
Consequently, it will increase the roll force due to the greater contact area. Using a roll
material with a high modulus of elasticity is one approach to reduce roll flattening.
Minimize the load applied by the roll or reducing the surface friction between the roll and
the sheet can also reduce roll flattening.
10. In Fig. 13.9a, if you remove the top compressive layer by, say, grinding, will the strip remain
flat? If not, which way will it curve and why?

- The top and bottom layers' compression keeps the overall thickness of the strip flat and in
equilibrium. If the top layer is removed, it’s compressive restraining force will also be
removed, and the forces will not be in equilibrium anymore. Meaning the strip will distort
back up to balance the internal moments and the internal forces; where the edges will
bend upwards and balance the internal moments and forces.

11. In Example 13.1, calculate the roll force and the power for the case in which the workpiece
material is 1100-O aluminum and the roll radius, R, is 8 in.
- Given data: R = 8 in, N = 100 rmp, h𝑜 = 1 𝑖𝑛, H𝑓 = 0.8 𝑖𝑛, w = 9 in
1100-O aluminum(figure 2.5) - Y(aprox. yield stress) = 5000 psi, 𝜎𝑇 = 15000
- Find: the roll force, F, and the power, P
𝐿 = √𝑅(h𝑜 − H𝑓 ) = √8(1 − 0.8) = 1.265 𝑖𝑛

Y + 𝜎𝑇 5000 + 15000 20000

Y𝐴𝑣𝑔 = = = = 10000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2 2
- F = Lw𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 ,
𝐹 = 1.265 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 9 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 10000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 113,850 𝑙𝑏
2𝑝𝑖∗𝐹𝐿∗𝑁
- P= 33,000
1 𝑓𝑡
2𝑝𝑖 ∗ (113,850 𝑙𝑏) (1.265 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 12 𝑖𝑛) ∗ 100 𝑟𝑚𝑝
P= = 228.513 ℎ𝑝
33000

12. Estimate the roll force, F, and the torque for an AISI 1020 carbon-steel strip that is 200 mm
wide, 10 mm thick, and rolled to a thickness of 7 mm. The roll radius is 200 mm, and it
rotates at 200 rpm.
- Given data: R = 0.2 m, N = 200 rmp, h𝑜 = 0.02 𝑚, H𝑓 = 0.007 𝑚, w = 0.2 m
AISI 1020 carbon steel (table 2.3) - K = 745 MPa , 𝑛 = 0.20
- Find: the roll force, F, and the torque, T
𝐿 = √𝑅(h𝑜 − H𝑓 ) = √0.2(0.01 − 0.007) = 0.0245 𝑚

h 10
K(ln ( H𝑜 ))𝑛 745 MPa ∗ (ln ( 7 ))0.2
K𝜀𝑇𝑛 𝑓
Y𝐴𝑣𝑔 = = = = 505.16 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 0.2 + 1
- F = Lw𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 ,
 𝐹 = 0.0245 𝑚 ∗ 0.2 m ∗ 505.16 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 2.475 𝑀𝑁 = 2.475 ∗ 106 𝑁
𝐹𝐿
- T= 2
2.475 ∗ 106 𝑁(0.0245 𝑚)
T= = 30,318.75 𝑁𝑚
2
13. Explain the difference between open-die and impression-die forging.
- Open-die forging is the simplest form of forging which is used to process less complex
with less expensive dies. Although open die forging dies come in a wide range of sizes
and have good strength, they are typically utilized for small production cycles.
Impression-die forging, on the other hand, is utilized for more complicated processes.
Impression-die forging is inherently more difficult and costly than open-die forging.

14. Describe the features of a typical forging die.

- Forging is a type of manufacturing process in which compressive forces are applied to the
product component using one or more forging dies, press tools, and/or powered hammers
to give it the desired shape. Hot forging and cold forging are the two main type of
forging. The forging process that is carried out in the presence of a high temperature in
hot forging. Cold forging is when the forging is done at room temperature. A typical
forging die has a range of features. The flash, gutter, parting line, land, rib, web, fillet,
corner, and trim line are common names for these features.

15. Explain what is meant by “load limited,” “energy limited,” and “stroke limited” as these
terms pertain to forging machines.
- A load limit is the maximum capacity of a forging machine; when the needed load
exceeds the load limit, the press will stop. Hydraulic presses, in general, run at fixed
speeds and have a defined load limit. An energy limit is the maximum amount of energy
that a forging machine can produce. This is frequently derived from the forging
procedure or the machine design. The maximum speed of a press is represented by a
stroke limit. Speed will typically vary, with a maximum speed in the middle of a stroke
and zero at the bottom.

16. How can you tell whether a certain part is forged or cast? Explain the features that you would
investigate.
- Non-destructive and destructive test methods, microscopy of the metal's structure, and
part inspection can all be used to distinguish between cast and forged parts. For instance,
tensile test can be used to assess how much a part will deform before it fails. Because
forged parts are more ductile than cast ones, they should bend more under tension than
cast parts. Also, we can use the relative grain size between parts using a microscope, to
distinguish between the two. Where with lower grain sizes being linked with forged
pieces. Deformation in a certain direction can also be seen in forgings, while non-
directional deformation is more common in cast parts. Prior to particular post-production
 treatments, inspection of the surfaces of cast and forged parts demonstrates that the cast
part has a less uniform surface structure. Finally, In comparison to forged parts, dye
penetrant testing will reveal uneven cracks in cast parts.

17. Identify casting design rules, described in Section 12.2, that also can be applied to forging.
- One of the rules for casting that applies to forging is that sharp edges and angles should
be avoided, as they cause high stressor spots in the final product. Whether the item is
casted or forged, it is beneficial to incorporate a little taper in the mold to assist with
the removal. Also, large flat surfaces should be avoided since they tend to warp or curl.

18. Why is control of the volume of the blank important in closed-die forging?
- If the blank loaded into the dies is too large, the press can stall before it completes its
stroke, causing significant forces to be transmitted to the press frame. This can result in
the press and frame structure to fail. Also, the metal will not fill the die entirely if the
blank loaded into the dies is too small, and the intended finishing shape will not be
achieved. So, it's important to control the volume of the blank to achieve the desired
dimensional.

19. By inspecting some forged products, such as hand tools, you will note that the lettering on
them is raised rather than sunk. Offer an explanation as to why they are made that way.
- Part identification or symbols that will be used to identify the finished parts are raised up
letters because it is easier to machine.

20. Calculate the room-temperature forging force for a solid, cylindrical workpiece made of
5052-O aluminum that is 3.5 in. high and 5 in. in diameter and is to be reduced in height by
30%. Let the coefficient of friction be 0.15.
5
- Given data: h𝑜 = 3.5 𝑖𝑛, h𝑓 = (1 − 30%)h𝑜 𝑖𝑛, r𝑜 = 2 𝑖𝑛 = 2.5 𝑖𝑛, 𝜇 = 0.15
5052-O aluminum (table 2.3) - K = 202 MPa = 29.3 Ksi , 𝑛 = 0.13
- Find: the forging force, F
h𝑓 = (1 − 30%)h𝑜 = (1 − 0.3)3.5 = 2.45 in
- Find r𝑓

𝑟𝑜2 h𝑜 2.52 ∗ 3.5

𝑝𝑖 ∗ 𝑟𝑜2 h𝑜 = 𝑝𝑖 ∗ 𝑟𝑓2 h𝑓 => r𝑓 = √ =√ ≈ 3 𝑖𝑛
h𝑓 2.45

h𝑜 𝑛 3.5 0.13
Y𝑓 = K𝜀𝑇𝑛 = K(ln ( )) = 29.3 ksi ∗ (ln ( )) = 25.625 𝑘𝑠𝑖
H𝑓 2.45

2𝜇𝑟𝑓
- F = Y𝑓 ∗ pi𝑟𝑓2 (1 + ),
3 h𝑓
 2(0.15)(3)
𝐹 = 25.625 𝑘𝑠𝑖 ∗ 𝑝𝑖(3𝑖𝑛)2 ∗ (1 + ) = 813.25 𝐾𝑖𝑝
3(2.45)
21. How does sheet-metal forming differ from rolling, forging, and extrusion?
- Sheet metal parts are lighter and more versatile in shape than products made by forging,
rolling, or extrusion. Also, sheet metal processing is usually less expensive and time-
consuming. Sheet metal forming relies on a rigid material's plastic deformation, whereas
forging, rolling, and extrusion rely on the metal moving along its shear planes to be
reshaped.

22. Describe the characteristics of sheet metals that are important in sheet-forming operations.
Explain why they are important.
- Sheet-metal forming is the process of converting bulk metal into small, thin sheets using
techniques such as spinning, bending, shearing, and stretching. Elongation, grain size,
yield strength, Springback, ductility, surface condition, and others are all critical
characteristics for sheet metal forming.
- The ability of a material to tolerate necking or stretching during forming operations is
determined by its elongation. When bending or stretching a sheet metal part, grain size
can alter the appearance of the part by making it look rougher. The ductility and strength
of a material are also affected by grain size. Springback is what happens when a
plastically deformed sheet rises when the pressure is released. Springback might distort
the part and result in dimension discrepancies. The sheet's surface condition is crucial
since it might alter the finished piece's look or cause tears or wrinkles. Compressive
forces in the sheet can cause wrinkles. Depending on the product's intended use, these
can be beneficial.

23. List the properties of materials that influence spring-back. Explain why and how they do so.
- The yield stress of a material is one of the factors that determines Springback. Because
the bent material has more stored ability to rebound when yield stress increases,
Springback will increase. The material's modulus of elasticity is another major factor that
influences Springback. The Springback increases as the elastic modulus falls. This is due
to the fact that a material with a high elastic modulus is stiffer and less likely to loosen
when bent.

24. Define normal anisotropy and explain why it is important in determining the deep
drawability of a material.
- The tendency of a material to shrink during the stretching process is known as normal
anisotropy. A tensile test on a sample of the material is used to determine normal
anisotropy. This is particularly important in deep drawing since the value of normal
anisotropy is a good predictor of how well a metal will extend before failing.
25. Describe earing and why it occurs.
- Earing is when the edges of a component become wavy during the deep-drawing process.
The number of ears or waves created can be determined based on how the original
material was processed and the sheet's microstructure. If the material is consistently
strong just in the rolling direction, for example, only two ears will form. Many ears will
form if the material strength is highly fluctuating, and the strength is in many different
directions at any given time. Earing also happens as a result of planar anisotropy.

26. Explain why cupping tests may not predict well the formability of sheet metals in actual
forming processes.
- Cupping tests are difficult because the deformations are axisymmetric, meaning they are
the same in all directions. In contrast, sheet-metal forming processes are rarely done in an
axisymmetric condition of strain. However, cupping it is still useful because the test is
easy to do, and can give a relative indication of how well a metal will deform compared
to others.

27. Calculate R(avg) for a metal where the R values for the 0◦,45◦, and 90◦ directions are 0.9,
1.7, and 1.8, respectively. What is the limiting drawing ratio (LDR) for this material?
- Given data: R 𝑜 = 0.9 , R 45 = 1.7, R 90 = 1.8

- Find: the forging force, R 𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝑅𝑜 + 2𝑅45 + 𝑅90 0.9 + 2(1.7) + 1.8
R 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 1.53
4 4

- Find LDR

From the graph, we can estimate the LDR to approximately 2.4 - 2.5
28. Calculate the value of R in Problem 16.41. Will any ears form when this material is deep
drawn? Explain.
- Given data: R 𝑜 = 0.9 , R 45 = 1.7, R 90 = 1.8

- Find: the forging force, ∆𝑅

𝑅𝑜 − 2𝑅45 + 𝑅90 0.9 − 2(1.7) + 1.8
∆𝑅 = = = −0.35
4 4
- Since ∆𝑅 is not zero, there will be some ears that will form during deep drawn.

29. What is the minimum bend radius for a 1.0-mm-thick sheet metal with a tensile reduction of
area of 30%? Does the bend angle affect your answer? Explain.
- Given data: 𝑇 = 1.0 𝑚𝑚 , 𝑟 = 30%,
- Find: the forging force, 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
50 50 2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇 ( − 1) = 1.0 ( − 1) = 𝑚𝑚 = 0.666 ̅̅̅̅ mm
𝑟 30 3
- no, the bend angle doesn't affect my answer, since the minimum bend radius of a sheet is
independent of bend angle.

30. In Case Study 16.2, it was stated that the reason for reducing the tops of cans (necking) is to
save material for making the lid. How much material will be saved if the lid diameter is
reduced by 5%? By 20%?
- Given data: 𝑑 = 2.6 𝑖𝑛
- Find: How much material will be saved if d is reduced by 5% & by 20%
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝑅𝑝 = 𝑑 2 = 2.62 = 5.31 𝑖𝑛^2
4 4
- If d is reduced by 5%
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝑅5% = ((1 − 0.05)𝑑)2 = ((1 − 0.05)2.6)2 = 4.79 𝑖𝑛^2
4 4

𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅5% 5.31 − 4.79

%saved = ∗ 100 = 100 = 9.79%
𝑅𝑝 5.31
o So, by reducing the diameter by 5%, they can save about 10% of the materials
- If d is reduced by 20%
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝑅20% = ((1 − 0.2)𝑑)2 = ((1 − 0.2)2.6)2 = 3.4 𝑖𝑛^2
4 4

𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅20% 5.31 − 3.4

%saved = ∗ 100 = 100 = 35.97%
𝑅𝑝 5.31
o So, by reducing the diameter by only 20%, they can save about 36% of the
materials