MODULE1

THE FAMILY
Each and every one of us has a family. However, these families
exist in many variations around the world. In this module, we
discuss definitions of family, family forms, the developmental
trajectory of families, and commonly used theories to understand
families. We also cover factors that influence families such as
culture and societal expectations while incorporating the latest
family relevant statistics.

Learning Objectives

 Understand the various family forms.

 Describe attachment theory.

 Identify different parenting styles.

 Know the typical developmental trajectory of families.

 Understand cultural differences in dating, marriage, and divorce.

 Explain the influence of children and aging parents on families.

 Know concrete tips for increasing happiness within your family.

Introduction
It is often said that humans are social creatures. We make friends, live in communities,
and connect to acquaintances through shared interests. In recent times, social media
has become a new way for people to connect with childhood peers, friends of friends,
and even strangers. Perhaps nothing is more central to the social world than the
concept of family. Our families represent our earliest relationships and—often—our
most enduring ones. In this module, you will learn about the psychology of families. Our
discussion will begin with a basic definition of family and how this has changed across
time and place. Next, we move on to a discussion of family roles and how families
evolve across the lifespan. Finally, we conclude with issues such as divorce and abuse
that are important factors in the psychological health of families.
What is Family?
The definition of family changes across time and across culture. Traditional family has been
defined as two or more people who are related by blood, marriage, and—occasionally—
adoption (Murdock, 1949). Historically, the most standard version of the traditional family has
been the two-parent family. Are there people in your life you consider family who are not
necessarily related to you in the traditional sense? Harry Potter would undoubtedly call his
schoolmates Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger family, even though they do not fit the
traditional definition. Likewise, Harry might consider Hedwig, his snowy owl, a family member,
and he would not be alone in doing so. Research from the US (Harris, 2015) and Japan
(Veldkamp, 2009) finds that many pet owners consider their pets to be members of the family.
Another traditional form of family is the joint family, in which three or more generations of blood
relatives live in a single household or compound. Joint families often include cousins, aunts and
uncles, and other relatives from the extended family.

How Families Develop

Our families are so familiar to us that we can sometimes take for granted the idea that
families develop over time. Nuclear families, those core units of parents and children,
do not simply pop into being. The parents meet one another, they court or date one
another, and they make the decision to have children. Even then the family does not
quit changing. Children grow up and leave home and the roles shift yet again. 

Intimacy
In a psychological sense, families begin with intimacy. The need for intimacy, or close
relationships with others, is universal. We seek out close and meaningful relationships
over the course of our lives. What our adult intimate relationships look like actually
stems from infancy and our relationship with our primary caregiver (historically our
mother)—a process of development described by attachment theory. According to
attachment theory, different styles of caregiving result in different relationship
“attachments.” For example, responsive mothers—mothers who soothe their crying
infants—produce infants who have secure attachments (Ainsworth, 1973; Bowlby,
1969). About 60% of all children are securely attached. As adults, secure individuals
rely on their working models—concepts of how relationships operate—that were
created in infancy, as a result of their interactions with their primary caregiver (mother),
to foster happy and healthy adult intimate relationships. Securely attached adults feel
comfortable being depended on and depending on others. 
Dating, Courtship, and Cohabitation
Over time, the process of finding a mate has changed dramatically. In Victorian
England, for instance, young women in high society trained for years in the arts—to
sing, play music, dance, compose verse, etc. These skills were thought to be vital to the
courtship ritual—a demonstration of feminine worthiness. Once a woman was of
marriageable age, she would attend dances and other public events as a means of
displaying her availability. A young couple interested in one another would find
opportunities to spend time together, such as taking a walk. That era had very different
dating practices from today, in which teenagers have more freedom, more privacy, and
can date more people.

One major difference in the way people find a mate these days is the way we use
technology to both expand and restrict the marriage market—the process by which
potential mates compare assets and liabilities of available prospects and choose the
best option (Benokraitis, 2015). Comparing marriage to a market might sound
unromantic, but think of it as a way to illustrate how people seek out attractive qualities
in a mate. Modern technology has allowed us to expand our “market” by allowing us to
search for potential partners all over the world—as opposed to the days when people
mostly relied on local dating pools. Technology also allows us to filter out undesirable
(albeit available) prospects at the outset, based on factors such as shared interests,
age, and other features.

Engagement and Marriage

While marriage is common across cultures, the details such as “How” and “When” are
often quite different. Now the “Who” of marriage is experiencing an important change as
laws are updated in a growing number of countries and states to give same-sex couples
the same rights and benefits through marriage as heterosexual couples

Children?
Do you want children? Do you already have children? Increasingly, families are
postponing or not having children. Families that choose to forego having children are
known as childfree families, while families that want but are unable to conceive are
referred to as childless families. As more young people pursue their education and
careers, age at first marriage has increased; similarly, so has the age at which people
become parents. The average age for first-time mothers is 25 in the United States (up
from 21 in 1970), 29.4 in Switzerland, and 29.2 in Japan (Matthews & Hamilton, 2014).
The decision to become a parent should not be taken lightly. There are positives and
negatives associated with parenting that should be considered. Many parents report
that having children increases their well-being (White & Dolan, 2009). Researchers
have also found that parents, compared to their non-parent peers, are more positive
about their lives (Nelson, Kushlev, English, Dunn, & Lyubomirsky, 2013). On the other
hand, researchers have also found that parents, compared to non-parents, are more
likely to be depressed, report lower levels of marital quality, and feel like their
relationship with their partner is more businesslike than intimate (Walker, 2011).

If you do become a parent, your parenting style will impact your child’s future success in
romantic and parenting relationships. Authoritative parenting, arguably the best
parenting style, is both demanding and supportive of the child (Maccoby & Martin,
1983). Support refers to the amount of affection, acceptance, and warmth a parent
provides. Demandingness refers to the degree a parent controls his/her child’s
behavior. Children who have authoritative parents are generally happy, capable, and
successful (Maccoby, 1992). 

Parenting in Later Life

Just because children grow up does not mean their family stops being a family. The
concept of family persists across the entire lifespan, but the specific roles and
expectations of its members change over time. One major change comes when a child
reaches adulthood and moves away. When exactly children leave home varies greatly
depending on societal norms and expectations, as well as on economic conditions such
as employment opportunities and affordable housing options. Some parents may
experience sadness when their adult children leave the home—a situation
known as Empty Nest. 

Many parents are also finding that their grown children are struggling to launch into
independence. It’s an increasingly common story: a child goes off to college and, upon
graduation, is unable to find steady employment. In such instances, a frequent outcome
is for the child to return home, becoming a “boomerang kid.” The boomerang
generation, as the phenomenon has come to be known, refers to young adults, mostly
between the ages of 25 and 34, who return home to live with their parents while they
strive for stability in their lives—often in terms of finances, living arrangements, and
sometimes romantic relationships. These boomerang kids can be both good and bad for
families. Within American families, 48% of boomerang kids report having paid rent to
their parents, and 89% say they help out with household expenses—a win for everyone
(Parker, 2012). On the other hand, 24% of boomerang kids report that returning home
hurts their relationship with their parents (Parker, 2012). For better or for worse, the
number of children returning home has been increasing around the world.
In addition to middle-aged parents spending more time, money, and energy taking care
of their adult children, they are also increasingly taking care of their own aging and
ailing parents. Middle-aged people in this set of circumstances are commonly referred
to as the sandwich generation (Dukhovnov & Zagheni, 2015). Of course, cultural
norms and practices again come into play. In some Asian and Hispanic cultures, the
expectation is that adult children are supposed to take care of aging parents and
parents-in-law. In other Western cultures—cultures that emphasize individuality and
self-sustainability—the expectation has historically been that elders either age in place,
modifying their home and receiving services to allow them to continue to live
independently, or enter long-term care facilities. However, given financial constraints,
many families find themselves taking in and caring for their aging parents, increasing
the number of multigenerational homes around the world.

Family Issues and Considerations

Divorce
Divorce refers to the legal dissolution of a marriage. Depending on societal factors,
divorce may be more or less of an option for married couples. Despite popular belief,
divorce rates in the United States actually declined for many years during the 1980s and
1990s, and only just recently started to climb back up—landing at just below 50% of
marriages ending in divorce today (Marriage & Divorce, 2016); however, it should be
noted that divorce rates increase for each subsequent marriage, and there is
considerable debate about the exact divorce rate. Are there specific factors that can
predict divorce? Are certain types of people or certain types of relationships more or
less at risk for breaking up? Indeed, there are several factors that appear to be either
risk factors or protective factors. 

Pursuing education decreases the risk of divorce. So too does waiting until we are older
to marry. Likewise, if our parents are still married we are less likely to divorce. Factors
that increase our risk of divorce include having a child before marriage and living with
multiple partners before marriage, known as serial cohabitation (cohabitation with one’s
expected martial partner does not appear to have the same effect). And, of course,
societal and religious attitudes must also be taken into account. In societies that are
more accepting of divorce, divorce rates tend to be higher. Likewise, in religions that are
less accepting of divorce, divorce rates tend to be lower. See Lyngstad & Jalovaara
(2010) for a more thorough discussion of divorce risk.
Abuse
Abuse can occur in multiple forms and across all family relationships. Breiding, Basile,
Smith, Black, & Mahendra (2015) define the forms of abuse as:

 Physical abuse, the use of intentional physical force to cause harm. Scratching,
pushing, shoving, throwing, grabbing, biting, choking, shaking, slapping, punching, and
hitting are common forms of physical abuse;

 Sexual abuse, the act of forcing someone to participate in a sex act against his or her
will. Such abuse is often referred to as sexual assault or rape. A marital relationship
does not grant anyone the right to demand sex or sexual activity from anyone, even a
spouse;

 Psychological abuse, aggressive behavior that is intended to control someone else.

Such abuse can include threats of physical or sexual abuse, manipulation, bullying, and
stalking.

Abuse between partners is referred to as intimate partner violence; however, such

abuse can also occur between a parent and child (child abuse), adult children and their
aging parents (elder abuse), and even between siblings. 
The most common form of abuse between parents and children is actually that of
neglect. Neglect refers to a family’s failure to provide for a child’s basic physical,
emotional, medical, or educational needs (DePanfilis, 2006). Harry Potter’s aunt and
uncle, as well as Cinderella’s stepmother, could all be prosecuted for neglect in the real
world.

Abuse is a complex issue, especially within families. There are many reasons people
become abusers: poverty, stress, and substance abuse are common characteristics
shared by abusers, although abuse can happen in any family. There are also many
reasons adults stay in abusive relationships: (a) learned helplessness (the abused
person believing he or she has no control over the situation); (b) the belief that the
abuser can/will change; (c) shame, guilt, self-blame, and/or fear; and (d) economic
dependence. All of these factors can play a role.

Children who experience abuse may “act out” or otherwise respond in a variety of
unhealthful ways. These include acts of self-destruction, withdrawal, and aggression, as
well as struggles with depression, anxiety, and academic performance. Researchers
have found that abused children’s brains may produce higher levels of stress hormones.
These hormones can lead to decreased brain development, lower stress thresholds,
suppressed immune responses, and lifelong difficulties with learning and memory
(Middlebrooks & Audage, 2008).

Adoption
Divorce and abuse are important concerns, but not all family hurdles are negative. One
example of a positive family issue is adoption. Adoption has long historical roots (it is
even mentioned in the Bible) and involves taking in and raising someone else’s child
legally as one’s own. Becoming a parent is one of the most fulfilling things a person can
do (Gallup & Newport, 1990), but even with modern reproductive technologies, not all
couples who would like to have children (which is still most) are able to. For these
families, adoption often allows them to feel whole—by completing their family.

Adoption is an important option for creating or expanding a family. Foster care

adoptions and international adoptions are both common. Regardless of why a family
chooses to adopt and from where, traits such as patience, flexibility and strong problem-
solving skills are desirable for adoptive parents

Happy Healthy Families

Our families play a crucial role in our overall development and happiness. They can
support and validate us, but they can also criticize and burden us. For better or worse,
we all have a family. In closing, here are strategies you can use to increase the
happiness of your family:

 Teach morality—fostering a sense of moral development in children can promote

well-being (Damon, 2004).

 Savor the good—celebrate each other’s successes (Gable, Gonzaga &

Strachman, 2006).

 Use the extended family network—family members of all ages, including older
siblings and grandparents, who can act as caregivers can promote family well-
being (Armstrong, Birnie-Lefcovitch & Ungar, 2005).

 Create family identity—share inside jokes, fond memories, and frame the story of
the family (McAdams, 1993).

 Forgive—Don’t hold grudges against one another (McCullough, Worthington &

Rachal, 1997).

Discussion Questions

1. Throughout this module many ‘shifts’ are mentioned—shifts in division of labor,

family roles, marital expectations, divorce, and societal and cultural norms,
among others, were discussed. What shift do you find most interesting and why?
What types of shifts do you think we might see in the future?
2. In the reading we discuss different parenting practices. Much of the literature
suggests that authoritative parenting is best. Do you agree? Why or why not? Are
there times when you think another parenting style would be better? 

3. The section on divorce discusses specific factors that increase or decrease the
chances of divorce. Based on your background, are you more or less at risk for
divorce? Consider things about your family of orientation, culture, religious
practices and beliefs, age, and educational goals. How does this risk make you
feel?
4. The module ends with some tips for happy, healthy families. Are there specific
things you could be doing in your own life to make for a happier, healthier family?
What are some concrete things you could start doing immediately to increase
happiness in your family? 
 MODULE2
Educational and Community-Based Programs

Goal
Increase the quality, availability, and effectiveness of educational and community-based
programs designed to prevent disease and injury, improve health, and enhance quality
of life.

Overview
Educational and community-based programs play a key role in:

 Preventing disease and injury

 Improving health
 Enhancing quality of life
Health status and related health behaviors are determined by influences at multiple
levels: personal, organizational/institutional, environmental, and policy. Because
significant and dynamic interrelationships exist among these different levels of health
determinants, educational and community-based programs are most likely to succeed in
improving health and wellness when they address influences at all levels and in a
variety of environments/settings.

Why Are Educational and Community-Based

Programs Important?
Educational and community-based programs and strategies played an important role in
reaching Healthy People 2010 objectives. Over the next several years, they will
continue to contribute to the improvement of health outcomes in the United States.

Educational and community-based programs and strategies are designed to reach

people outside of traditional health care settings. These settings may include:

 Schools
 Worksites
 Health care facilities
 Communities
Each setting provides opportunities to reach people using existing social structures.
This maximizes impact and reduces the time and resources necessary for program
development. People often have high levels of contact with these settings, both directly
and indirectly. Programs that combine multiple—if not all 4—settings can have a greater
impact than programs using only 1 setting. While populations reached will sometimes
overlap, people who are not accessible in 1 setting may be in another.1
Using nontraditional settings can help encourage informal information sharing within
communities through peer social interaction. Reaching out to people in different settings
also allows for greater tailoring of health information and education.

Educational and community-based programs encourage and enhance health and

wellness by educating communities on topics such as:

 Chronic diseases
 Injury and violence prevention
 Mental illness/behavioral health
 Unintended pregnancy
 Oral health
 Tobacco use
 Substance abuse
 Nutrition 
 Physical activity
 Obesity prevention

Understanding Educational and Community-Based

Programs
Health and quality of life rely on many community systems and factors, not simply on a
well-functioning health and medical care system. Making changes within existing
systems, such as improving school health programs and policies, can effectively
improve the health of many in the community.

For a community to improve its health, its members must often change aspects of the
physical, social, organizational, and even political environments in order to eliminate or
 reduce factors that contribute to health problems or to introduce new elements that
promote better health. Changes might include:

 Instituting new programs, policies, and practices

 Changing aspects of the physical or organizational infrastructure
 Changing community attitudes, beliefs, or social norms
In cases where community health promotion activities are initiated by a health
department or organization, organizers have a responsibility to engage the community.
Realizing the vision of healthy people in healthy communities is possible only if the
community, in its full cultural, social, and economic diversity, is an authentic partner in
changing the conditions for health.

Emerging Issues in Educational and Community-

Based Programs
Three emerging public health issues in the area of educational and community-based
programs have been identified.

1. Adopting a Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child approach to reduce

dropout rates.

The Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model expands on

the 8 elements of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's
(CDC) Coordinated School Health (CSH) approach and is combined with the whole
child framework. CDC and the Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development (ASCD) developed this expanded model—in collaboration with key
leaders from the fields of health, public health, education, and school health—to
strengthen a unified and collaborative approach designed to improve learning and
health in our Nation’s schools.

1. Establishing an evidence base for community health and education policy

interventions to determine their impact and effectiveness.

2. Increasing the number and skill level of community health and other auxiliary public
health workers to support the achievement of healthier communities.
3. These issues are important to the field of public health and warrant further research,
analysis, and monitoring to fully understand their effects on educational and community-
based programs.

ACTIVITY:

Answer the following questions

1. Give atleast three Educational and community-based programs encourage and

enhance health and wellness by educating communities.

2. What are the aspects of the physical, social, organizational, and even political
environments in order to eliminate or reduce factors that contribute to health problems
or to introduce new elements that promote better health?

3. What are the role Educational and community-based program?

4. Why Are Educational and Community-Based Programs Important?

5. In Educational and community-based programs there are strategies designed to reach people
outside of traditional health care settings. These settings may include?
ANSWER KEYS
MODULE1.

1. Parenting in later life Just because children grow up does not mean their family stops
being a family. The concept of family persists across the entire lifespan, but the specific
roles and expectations of its members change over time. One major change comes
when a child reaches adulthood and moves away. When exactly children leave home
varies greatly depending on societal norms and expectations, as well as on economic
conditions such as employment opportunities and affordable housing options. Some
parents may experience sadness when their adult children leave the home—a situation
known as Empty Nest.

 2. YES! Many parents are also finding that their grown children are struggling to launch
into independence. It’s an increasingly common story: a child goes off to college and,
upon graduation, is unable to find steady employment. In such instances, a frequent
outcome is for the child to return home, becoming a “boomerang kid.”

3. Pursuing education decreases the risk of divorce. So too does waiting until we are
older to marry. Likewise, if our parents are still married we are less likely to divorce.
Factors that increase our risk of divorce include having a child before marriage and
living with multiple partners before marriage, known as serial cohabitation (cohabitation
with one’s expected martial partner does not appear to have the same effect)

4. In closing, here are strategies you can use to increase the happiness of your family:

 Teach morality—fostering a sense of moral development in children can promote well-

being (Damon, 2004).

 Savor the good—celebrate each other’s successes (Gable, Gonzaga & Strachman,
2006).

 Use the extended family network—family members of all ages, including older siblings
and grandparents, who can act as caregivers can promote family well-being (Armstrong,
Birnie-Lefcovitch & Ungar, 2005).

 Create family identity—share inside jokes, fond memories, and frame the story of the
family (McAdams, 1993).

 Forgive—Don’t hold grudges against one another (McCullough, Worthington & Rachal,
1997).
 MODULE 2

1. Educational and community-based programs encourage and enhance health and

wellness by educating communities on topics such as

 Chronic diseases
 Injury and violence prevention
 Mental illness/behavioral health
 Unintended pregnancy
 Oral health
 Tobacco use
 Substance abuse
 Nutrition 
 Physical activity
 Obesity prevention

2. factors that contribute to health problems or to introduce new elements that promote
better health. Changes might include:

 Instituting new programs, policies, and practices

 Changing aspects of the physical or organizational infrastructure
 Changing community attitudes, beliefs, or social norms

3. Educational and community-based programs play a key role in:

 Preventing disease and injury

 Improving health
 Enhancing quality of life
Health status and related health behaviors are determined by influences at multiple
levels: personal, organizational/institutional, environmental, and policy. Because
significant and dynamic interrelationships exist among these different levels of health
determinants, educational and community-based programs are most likely to succeed in
improving health and wellness when they address influences at all levels and in a
variety of environments/settings.
 4. Educational and community-based programs and strategies played an important role
in reaching Healthy People 2010 objectives. Over the next several years, they will
continue to contribute to the improvement of health outcomes in the United States.

5. These settings may include:

 Schools
 Worksites
 Health care facilities
 Communities

References
1Gamm L, Castillo G, Williams L. Education and community-based programs in rural
areas: A literature review. In: Rural Healthy People 2010: A companion document to
Healthy People 2010, Volume 3. Gamm L, Hutchison L, editors. College Station, TX:
The Texas A&M University System Health Science Center, School of Rural Public
Health, Southwest Rural Health Research Center; 2004. p.167-86. Available
from: http://www.srph.tamhsc.edu/centers/rhp2010/Volume_3/Vol3Ch4LR.pdf
[PDF - 81 KB]

https://nobaproject.com/modules/the-family#references
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DARAGA COMMUNITY COLLEGE
Salvacion, Daraga, Albay

MC VED
FAMILY AND COMMMUNITY
ENGAGEMENT

Ipinasa ni
Ephrem C. Medalla
BEED II-4
Ipinasa kay
Mrs. Angelica Clemente
GURO