Milk Production Management Dairy Development

Milk Production
Management & Dairy

Development
MILK PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT & DAIRY DEVELOPMENT
Course Developers
Y. Ravindra Reddy, D. Suresh Babu
& Ashish Makwana
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Index
Lesson Page No
Module 1: Introduction to animal husbandry
Lesson 1. Introduction, common terms and definitions in animal husbandry. 5-7
Module 2: Breeds of cattle and buffaloes
Lesson 2. Distinguishing characters of indian cattles. 8-35
Lesson 3. Buffalo breeds. 36-49
Module 3: Systems of breeding
Lesson 4. Inbreeding–out breeding–cross breeding–grading – out crossing 50-51
hybridization–criss crossing–rotational crossing or triple crossing– back crossing –
test cross.
Lesson 5. Methods of selection of dairy animals – individual selection – pedigree 52-54
selection – progeny testing – family selection.
Module 4: General dairy farm practices
Lesson 6. Identification, dehorning, castration, exercising, grooming, weighing, 55-63
farm records – maintenance.
Lesson 7. Care, management of life stages of dairy animals. 64-66
Module 5: Mammary system
Lesson 8. Structure and function of mammary system, milk secretion and milk 67-68
letdown.
Module 6: Milking
Lesson 9. Methods of milking – manual –mull hand – knuckling –stripping. 69-71
Lesson 10. Milking procedure practices for quality milk production. 72-75
Module 7: Maintenance of hygiene and sanitation
Lesson 11. Housing – loose housing, stanchion barn - advantages of each system. 76-79
Lesson 12. Merits and demerits of head to head and tail to tail stanchion barn. 80-81
Module 8: Reproductive system of dairy animals
Lesson 13. Male and female reproductive system. 82-87
Module 9: Feeding of dairy animals
Lesson 14. Feed nutrients required by animal body, feed resources for milk 88-91
production, nutritive value.
Lesson 15. Digestive system of ruminants measures of feed energy nutrient 92-97
requirement for growth and milk production feeding standards.
Module 10: Diseases of dairy animals
Lesson 16. Common diseases in dairy animals, prevention and control. 98-103
Module 11: Maintenance of hygiene and sanitation at dairy farm premises
Lesson 17. Types of sanitizers and disinfectants, sanitation of milking parlour 104-106
equipment, sheds.
Module 12: Biotechnology in dairy animal production
Lesson 18. Cloning, transgenic animals, embryo sexing etc. 107-111
Module 13: Population and production statistics
Lesson 19. Cattle and buffalo population and its distribution, trends in population 112-116
growth, productivity profile of indigenous dairy stock.
Lesson 20. Estimates of milk production. 117-120
Module 14: Dairy development in India: phases and schemes
Lesson 21. Five year plans and dairy development. 121-126
Lesson 22. Key village scheme and its limitation, intensive cattle development 127-128
programme: concept, approach and achievements.
Lesson 23. National Dairy Development Board (NDDB): aims and objectives, 129-130
policy orientation in dairy development, pioneering role of military dairy farms.
Lesson 24. Operation Flood I, II and III, Its programme outlay implementation 131-134
success, achievement.
Lesson 25. Co-operative dairy organizations: anand pattern and perspectives. 135-137
Lesson 26. New developments for improvement of dairy cooperative 138-141
organizations, dairy development corporations: producer companies act.
Lesson 27. Catalytic action of international aid, major aided dairy projects, self 142-145
reliance in dairy development.
Module 15: Functioning pattern of Indian dairying
Lesson 28. Socio economic and geographic features of Indian dairying. 146-147
Lesson 29. Integrated infrastructure of milk production: public sector dairy/milk 148-152
supply schemes, and strategies of cattle development and policies.
Module 16: Dairy manufacturing sector, its status and problems
Lesson 30. Milk product manufacture in private sector, industrial by-products of 153-157
livestock industry, and import substitutions in dairy products.
Lesson 31. Economic burden performance analysis: income and employment 158-164
potential.
Lesson 32. Dairy problems; resource inadequacy, post partition 165-169
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 1. INTRODUCTION, COMMON TERMS AND DEFINITIONS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Module 1. Introduction to animal husbandry
Lesson 1
INTRODUCTION, COMMON TERMS AND DEFINITIONS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Common Animal Husbandry Terms
1.1 Introduction
Historical evidence shows that Veterinary Science was developed during Vedic Era in India and livestock used to play an important role
in the society during 3000 B.C, as evidenced from Mohanjadaro and Harappa Civilization. The importance and role of livestock
gradually increased and during 2000 B.C, Veterinary profession was a flourishing practice which can be traced from ‘Atharvaveda’ and
‘Rigveda’. Aryans who settled around riverine Northern India around 2400 – 1500 B.C were solely dependent on agriculture and
livestock. Cattle were most prized possessions and were symbol of wealth and status. During the rule of Ashoka (300 B.C), hundreds of
well equipped hospitals were established and veterinary profession gained much more importance. Vishnupuranam and Matysapuran
described the criteria for selection of bulls for breeding purpose.
Primitive man first used the members of family bovidae as a source of food. Domestication began when these animals were used as draft
animals. Milking qualities were just sufficient for rearing of young ones. As civilization developed, feed became more abundant, methods
of caring livestock improved. Under man’s selection they acquired qualities like rapid growth, better fat storage in body and increased
milk production.
The domestic animals reared by the modern man serve the humans by providing food, fibre, manure, pleasures, companionship and
service besides nutrient recycling in soil and ecological stability to environment. In recent times the animals are only source of organic
farming and in future, will serve as source of supply of inputs to many life saving pharmaceuticals and therapeutic agents for better
human health and will be useful as animal models for biomedical research.
1.2 Common Animal Husbandry Terms
Buller or Nymphomaniac: A cow apparently always in heat.
Back crossing: Mating of crossbred back to one of the pure parents used to produce it.
Balanced ration: Ration that contains all the nutrients in right proportions and quantities is called balanced ration.
Bull Calf: A male calf under one year of age.
Bull: It is un castrated sexually matured male of the species.
Bullock: Castrated male Ox.
Calf starter: Concentrate feed offered to the young calves after 2 weeks of age.
Calf: A young animal of bovine species under one year of age.
Casting: It is throwing down the animal and securing the limbs for various purposes like surgical operations, castration, hoof trimming,
shearing etc.
Castration: It is the removal of testicles.
Challenge feeding: The practice of feeding higher levels of concentrate to challenge the cow to reach her maximum milk production.
Concentrates: Feeds that contain less than 18% crude fibre are called concentrates such as grains, oilcakes, grain by products etc.
Cow: It is a female of bovine species that has calved at least once.
Crisscrossing or Rotational crossing: Mating of a hybrid to three established breeds in a rotational manner.
Cross breeding: A system of breeding between two established breeds.
Cryptorchid: A male animal in which one or both the testicles fail to descend into the scrotal sac.
Culling: Removal of undesirable or unproductive animals from herd.
Deticking: Removal of the external parasites like ticks, lice, mites present on the body surface of animal.
Deworming: Removal of the internal gastro intestinal parasites from the body.
Disbudding: Removal of the horn buds of the calf by mechanical or chemical methods to arrest growth of horns.
Dry period: The time interval between date of drying off the cow to the date of next calving.
Energy feeds: Feeds containing less than 20% crude protein are called energy feeds.
Free martin: When twin calves of different sexes are born, the bull calf is normal whereas the heifer calf is sterile. The sterile heifer calf
is called freemartin.
Gestation period: The period of pregnancy in animals.
Grading up: Systems of breeding in which pure bulls are used for improvement in non descript females for several generations.
Heifer calf: A female calf under one year of age.
Heifer: A female individual that has not yet calved.
Inbreeding: A system of breeding between very closely related animals.
Inheritance: Transmission of genes from parents to the offspring in next generation.
Intercalving period: No of days between two successive calvings.
Lactation Curve: The graphical representation of the rate of milk secretion during lactation is called Lactation Curve.
Lactation length: The time interval between the date of calving to the date of drying the animal expressed in days.
Maintenance ration: A ration given daily to the animal to maintain in resting non production condition with good health.
Open animal: Female animals that have not been bred.
Parturition: Act of delivery in animals.
Pasture: Fodder crops grown on the land for grazing animals.
Pedigree Bull: The bull whose ancestral record is known.
Persistency: Ability of the animal to sustain good daily milk is for a longer period i.e, the slope of descending phase of lactation curve is
known as Persist-ency.
Phenotype: The visible character of an individual animal.
Production ration: A portion of the ration given daily in excess of maintenance requirement for purpose of growth, production and
work.
Protein supplements: Feeds that contain 20% or more protein are called protein supplements.
Ration: The total amount of feed that an animal is offered during a 24 hour period of time is called ration.
Roughage: Feeds that contain more than 18% crude fiber are called roughage such as hay, silage, fodder etc.
Scrub Bull: It is non-descript type of stray village cattle.
Selection: The process of including certain animals in a population for becoming parents of next generation.
Service period: The period between parturition to successful conception expressed in days.
Silage: Freshly cut green forages cut and offered to the animals.
Stud Bull: Bull that is used for breeding purposes.
Test cross: Mating of a crossbred back to its recessive parent.
Variation: It is a tool to measure differences of character or trait between animals.
Weaning: Separation of the calf from the cow and feeding them artificially.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 2. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF INDIAN AND EXOTIC CATTLE (PART -1)

Module 2. Breeds of cattle and buffaloes
Lesson2
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF INDIAN AND EXOTIC CATTLE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification of Indian cattle breeds
2.1 Introduction
A breed is a sufficiently large group of animals, which have a common ancestry and possess similar morphological, physiological and
economical characters that are inherited more, are less firmly.
2.2 Classification of Indian cattle breeds
Indian cattle known as Zebu cattle are characterized by presence of hump, long face, upright horns, drooping ears, a large dewlap and
slender legs. The basal metabolic rate is low and hence they have better capacity for heat dissipation through cutaneous evaporation.
They have good adaptation to tropical heat and resistance to diseases specially tick borne diseases than Bos Taurus cattle. In US, Zebu
cattle are called Brahman cattle. Zebus are believed to have been brought to India through northern passes between 2200-1500 B.C.
These were imported by USA, South America and Australia for developing tropically adapted Dairy/Beef cattle breeds.
There are 26 Indian cattle breeds and are classified as milch breeds, draught breeds and general utility breeds or dual-purpose breeds
based on utility (Table 2.1).
Dual purpose
(1000- Draft purpose
Milch purpose 1500kg/lactation) (<500 kg/lactation)
(500-1000 kg/lactation)
Sahiwal Ongole Amritmahal
Redsindhi Haryana Nagori
Gir Kankrej Killari
Deoni Gaoao Kangayam
Tharparkar Hallikar
Mewati Malvi
Ratti Khanketha
Dangi Siri
Nimadi Purnea
Alambadi
Ponwar
Bargur
They are also classified based on physical features as below:
1) Group-I : Lyre horned grey cattle with wide forehead, flat/dished face, lyre shaped horns.
Ex: Kankrej, Hissar, Khenkalha, Malvi, Tharparkar
2) Group-II: White (or) light grey cattle with Coffin shaped skull
Ex: Ongole, Gaolao, Hariana, Krishna valley, Mewati, Nagori, Ratti, Bachaur
3) Group-III : Animals with heavy build & curled horns
Ex: Most milch breeds – Gir, Deoni, Red sindhi, Sahiwal, Dangi
4) Group-IV: Mysore breeds with prominent forehead & long horns
Ex: Hallikar, Alambadi, Amritmahal, Bargur, Killari, Kangayam
5) Group-V (Hill Type): Small black, red colored with large patches of white found in hill tract in North India
Ex: Siri in Darjeeling and Ponwar in UP
6) Group VI : Medium sized draught breeds, tight naval flap and dewlap, red and white color
Ex: Dhani breed of Pakistan.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 2. DESCRIPTIVE FEATURES OF DIFFERENT BREED (PART-2)

Lesson 2
DESCRIPTIVE FEATURES OF CATTLE BREEDS
2.2.1 Descriptive and productive features of different Indian cattle breeds
2.2.1.1 Milch breeds
2.2.1.2 Dual purpose breeds
2.2.1 Descriptive and productive features of different Indian cattle breeds
2.2.1.1 Milch breeds
Sahiwal
Synonyms : Lola (loose skin i.e. hanging dewlap)
Origin : Montgomery districts in Pakistan, Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan
Color : Red or brown with or with out white splashes
Head : Broad with stumpy horns
Horns : Short, stumpy (not>3inches)
Dewlap : Large, voluminous
Body : Heavy, short legs, loose skin.
Naval flap : Prominent in females,
Sheath : Pendulous
Udder : Capacious
Tail : Long, whip like reaching up to ground with black switch
body weight- Male : 550 kg
body weight- : 400 kg
Female
Average milk yield/ : 2417 kg
lactation
Age of first calving : 40 months
Calving interval : 400 days
Gir
Synonym : Surti
Origin : Kathiawari district in Gujarat
Color : Black &White, Red &White
Head : Moderately long
Horns : Curved and turning backward
Forehead : Massive, broad, boney
Ears : Droopy/hanging/pendulous/curled leaf like with notch at the
tip of ear
Eyes : Sleepy with sunken eye balls
Body : Medium sized, well proportioned robust constitution, skin is
mellow
Naval flap : Prominent
Udder : Capacious
Tail : Whip like with black switch
Body weight- Male : 450kg
Body weight- Female 400kg
Milk yield : 1400kg per lactation
Age at first Calving : 40 months
Average lactation : 300days
length
Red Sindhi
Synonym : Red Karachi
Origin : Sindh province in Pakistan and also found in
Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karachi in india
Color : Dark red to dark brown, males are darker
Head & neck : Proportionate to body
Horns : Short, thick, emerging laterally, tip is blunt or
stumpy
Ears : Pendulous
Eyes : Black patch is seen around eyes
Dewlap : Well developed
Body : Medium size
Udder : Large, capacious
Body weight- Male : 455 kg
Body weight - Female 320 kg
Average milk yield : 1600 kg
Age at first calving : 42 months
Calving interval : 17 months
Deoni
Synonym : Devani/ Dongarapatti/cattle of Bombay
Origin : South west of Hyderabad and adjoined areas
Color : Black& white to Red& white with irregular patches
Head : Less pronounced Fore head
Horns : Medium size, emerging from top of head
Body : Medium size, Straight Back
Ears : Like Gir but without notch at tip (droopy ears)
Sheath Pendulous
Body weight-male 450kg
:
Body weight-female 400kg
Milk yield : 1000 to 1200 kg/305 days lactation
Draught capacity : Bullocks are suited for heavy work
Characters : Resembles Gir in most of the characters
2.2.1.2 Dual purpose breeds
Ongole
Fig.2.5 (b) Ongole bull
ynonym : Nellore
Origin : Ongole, Nellore, Guntur
Color : White, Dark Gray markings on head
Head : Medium, well proportionate, Coffin shaped, broad forehead,
straight bridge of the nose, black muzzle covers lower lip also.
Horns : well developed short and stumpy
Ears : Droopy, tip is silky & black inside
Neck : Short, thick, moderately large
Dewlap : well developed, fan shaped
Hump : Well developed in bulls, erect
Body : Medium size, Chest is deep, wide between forelegs, legs are strong
and straight, Pastern is Short and Sloppy. Toes are straight;
Barrel/Belly is long, Deep. Ribs are straight well arched. Back is
flat, well muscled, broad loin.
Tail : Well set, head is sloppy, switch is black
Body weight -male : 450kg (male)
Body weight-female 350 - 400kg (female)
Milk yield : 1000 kg/ 300 days
Age at maturity : 2 ½ years
Weight at maturity : 250 kg
Draught capacity : Bullocks are suitable for cart and road work in addition to field
work
Black spots : On horns, hooves, muzzle, hump, knees, switch of tail, perpetual
sheath in male and vulva in females sheath in male, eye lashes
Kankerj
Synonym : Nill
Origin : Gujarat
Color : White/Grey
Head : Proportionate, broad fore head and dished
Horns : Lyre shaped, massive, thick
Dewlap : Moderately developed
Sheath : Pendulous
Body : Large hump is well developed, Chest is broad. Back is
straight. Skin is thick
Tail : Medium length with black switch
Body weight-male : 580kg
Body weight-female 400 – 450kg
Average milk yield/ : 1850 kg
lactation
Draft capacity : Males are Very good draft animals
Characteristic gait : Called Swai chal with 1 1/4 ft space between legs while
walking
This bread is the heaviest of the Indian cattle breads
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 2. HEVIEST OF INDIAN CATTLE BREED (PART-3)

Heaviest of Indian cattle breeds
Haryana
Size : Medium
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Rohtak, Hissar in Haryana state
Head& Neck : Proportionate to body carried high, Forehead is Black
and bony, prominent at poll
Horns : Upward curved
Dewlap : Small
Body : Medium size, compact, moderately long and
proportionate
Naval flap : Absent
Sheath : Small
Udder : Capacious
Tail : Fine up to hocks with black switch
Body weight- male : 500 kg
Body weight- 355 kg
female
Draught capacity : Males are suitable for fast ploughing and road transport
Tharparkar
Synonym : White sindhi
Origin : Pakistan (South – East sindh)
Color : White/ Grey mostly at back bone spine
Head : Moderately long, Forehead is Broad and slightly bulging
Horns : Medium sized
Ears : Large, droopy
Body : Medium size, well proportionate, short limbs
Tail : Long up to fetlock with black switch
Udder : Capacious
Teats : Long (4 inches) especially in young
Body Weight- male : 545 kg
Body Weight-female
386 kg
per lactation
Age at calving : 43 months
Gaolao
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Maharashtra
Color : White
Head : Almond shape
Dewlap : Moderately developed
Hump : Moderately developed
Body : Medium size
Draught capacity : Bullocks are good work animals
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 2. DRAFT PURPOSE BREEDS (PART-4)

2.2.1.3 Draft purpose breeds
2.2.1.3 Draft purpose breeds
Hallikar
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Karnataka
Color : White/Grey
Head : Long, elongated, tapers at muzzle Forehead have a furrow at
middle and bulging
Horns : Well developed, emerging at the top, massive with pointed tip Poll
is less, the skin between horns cover the base to a certain height
Milk production : Cows are poor milkers
Draft capacity : Males are excellent for road and field work
Kangayam
Synonym : Kanganad, Kongu
Origin : Tamilnadu
Color : Males are grey with dark grey to black markings whiled cows
is white with black markings just in front of fetlock on all four
legs and some times on the knees
Head : Narrow face prominent forehead with a furrow in the middle
short neck
Horns : Cobra hood appearance, strong horns with sharp tip
Hump : Well development
Body : Moderately long
Tail : Fine
Milk productions : Cows are poor milkers
Draught capacity : Bullocks are excellent for hard works,
Amrit mahal
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Karnataka - Mysore
Color : Grey
Head : Prominent forehead, depressed at centre, narrow face
Horns : Sweeping horns
Dewlap, sheath and hump : Well developed, hump and dewlap and the sheath is very small
Body : Small sized, compact, short back, Tight skin
Draught capacity : Males are active and famous for power of endurance Bullocks power full
for heavy works
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 2. SUITABLE FOR SINGLE BULLOCK DRAWN CARTS (PART-5)

Killari
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Maharashtra
Color : Tapikillari is white color with pink nose and hooves
Nakili killari is gray with brick dust color over fore
quarters
Mahaswad killari is Grayish and dark color over
forequarters, typical face markings
Head : Head is long, Mottled appearance on face, muzzle,
Light color patch around eyes
Horns : Horns are long, pointed, emerging close to each other
Neck : Short
Eyes and Ears : Small
Body : Body is compact, medium size with clean cut features
Draft capacity : This breed is highly valued for fast paced, power full
draft animals
This breed resembles Hallikar and Amritmahal in most of the characters except
these animals are large in body size.
Malwi
Synonym : Mahadevpuri, Manthani
Origin : Madyapradesh
Color : Grey
Head and Neck : Short
Horns : Horns are short but thick tapering to a blunt point.
Dewlap : Thin
Sheath and Naval flap : Short
Eyes and Ears : Alert and Short
Tail Moderately long with block switch reaching up to
:
fetlock
Body : Deep short and compact body
Draft capacity : Bullocks are good for road and field works
This breed derives its name from the Malvi track, named after the family of kings called
Malwa in Madhya Pradesh. Two types are Malvi are seen such as Agar Type found in
Madhya Pradesh and other is Mandsaur of Bhopal type.
Siri
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Hill tracts of Darjeeling, Sikkim, Bhutan
Color : Block and white or Red and white
Head and Neck : Small, wide and flat fore head
Horns : Horns are sharp.
Ears : Small
Hump : Covered with tuft of hair
Body : Massive
Draft capacity : Bullocks are strong and well suited for cart work.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 2. NEW BREEDS OF CATTLE (PART-6)

2.2.2 New Breeds of Cattle
2.2.3 Descriptive and productive features of Exotic Breeds of Cattle
2.3 Merits of Zebu and Taurus Cattle
2.2.2 New Breeds of Cattle
Attempts have been made to introduce superior Exotic inheritance of Bos taurus into indigenous Bos indicus through cross
breeding. Superior breeds/strains from such cross bred base have been evolved in cattle viz Karan Swiss, Karan Fries and
Sunandini etc. The production performance is superior even to those of our indigenous pure bred dairy breeds besides these have
shown reasonable adaptation to tropical heat and diseases.
Karanswiss
Synonym : Nil
Origin : NDRI Karnal, Haryana, Cross between Sahiwal cow and
Brown Swiss Bull
Color : Light grey to deep brown
Head and Neck : Forehead is slightly dished, neck is medium
Horns : Horns are sharp.
Ears : Small
Hump : absent
Naval flap : Slightly loose
Body : Body is large, Legs are proportationate in size and well set
apart
Tail : Various in length some times reaches up to the ground
Udder : Large size deep, wide bowl shaped excellent capacity.
Body Weight-male : 600 to 750kg
Body Weight-female 400 to 500kg
Milk yield : 3500kg/lactation
KaransFries:
Synonym : Nil
Origin : NDRI Karnal, Haryana, Cross between Tharparkar
cow and Holstein-Friesian Bull
Color : Black patches with white patches on the forehead and
on switch of the tail, Udder and teats
Head and Neck : Proportionate to the body
Udder : Large size deep, excellent capacity.
Age at first calving : 30 to 32 months
Calving Interval : 13-14 months
Sunandini:
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Kerala, Crossing local non descript cattle with
jersey/Brown Swiss/Holstein-Friesian Bull.
Color : Mosaic type
Hump : absent
Body : Body compact
Udder : Well developed
Calving Interval : 13 months
2.2.3 Descriptive and productive features of Exotic Breeds of Cattle
The exotic cattle breeds belong to the group Taurus. They have got certain distinctive characteristics in comparison with
indigenous cattle. They are high milk producers. They are hump less cattle. Though high producer they can’t with stand high
temperature. Many exotic cattle breeds were brought to India for cross breeding and upgrading purpose to improve milk
production potentiality in our cattle. The important exotic cattle breeds were Holstein-Frisian, Jersey, Brown-Swiss, Guernsey,
Red Dane etc.
Holstein – Friesian:
Fig.2.17 (a) Holstein-Friesian Bull
Fig.2.17(b) Holstein-Friesian Cow
World’s heaviest cattle breed and also highest milk producer
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Holland
Colour : Black over white patches
Head / Neck : Long and narrow, Proportionate to body
Ears : Small, erect
Withers : sharp
Angularity of body : Conspicuous
Barrel : Lengthy, Voluminous
Udder : Capacious with medium sized teats
Switch of tail : White
Milk yield : 6000 kg / lactation (Used for cheese making)
Fat % : 3 to 3.5
Age at maturity : 1 year
Jersey:
Fig.2.18 Jersey Cow
Smallest of European breeds
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Jersey Island in English Channel
Color : Fawn
Head : Small, face is Double dished
Ears : Erect
Withers : Sharp
Angularity of body : Present
Udder : Large, Capacious
Teats : Well placed and medium sized
Tail : Long
Switch of tail : Black
Legs : Strong, straight, sufficient width
Body weight-male : 550 kg
Body weight-female 400 to 450 kg
Milk yield : 4000 to 5000 kg / lactation
Fat % : 4 to 4.5
Calving interval : 1 year
This breed is Resistance to high temperature and humidity climatic conditions
Brown Swiss:
Fig.2.19 (a) Brown Swiss-Bull
Fig.2.19 (b) Brown Swiss Cow
Second heaviest of cattle breeds after Holstein Freisien Dual purpose breed
Docile animal and also fleshy
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Switzerland
Color : Different shades of brown, grey
Head : Short
Neck : Lean
Withers : Rounded
Body : Large sized
Back, loin, croup : Leveled
Body weight-male : 600 to 700 kg
Body weight-female : 500 to 600 kg
Milk yield : 5000 kg / lactation with 4% butter fat
Fat% : 5
Ayrshire:
Fig. 2.20(a) Ayrshire bull
Fig.2.20 (b) Ayrshire cow
Most beautiful of the cattle breeds Large animal and over active and difficult to
manage
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Scotland
Color : Reddish spots over white color
Head & Neck : Short and thick neck
Horns : Medium sized, curving upward
Withers : sharp
Rump, croup : Wide
Tail : Up to hock
Udder : Large capacious
Body weight-male : 450-500kg
Body weight-female 400-450kg
Milk yield : 4600 kg/ lactation
Fat % : 3.5 to 4
Guernsey:
Fig.2.21 (a) Guernsey bull
Fig.2.21 (b) Guernsey Cow
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Guernsey island
Color : Brown with white patches
Head & Neck : Proportionate to the body
Horns : Short and Belt
Angularity : Present
Tail : Moderately long
Color of milk Golden yellow because of presence of
:
carotene
2.3 Merits of Zebu and Taurus Cattle
Parameters Zebu Taurus
Hump Present absent
Color Shades of red, brown, Brown, mostly black with

white, black and grey white parches
Body size Small Large
Body weight Less More
Back Slightly curved Straight
Wedges Less prominent More prominent
Dewlap More developed Developed
Feed in take Less More
Water In take Less More
Preference for shade Yes Relatively more
Heat tolerance More Less
Resistance to diseases More Less
Weaning Easy Easier
Management Relatively easy Difficult
Age at maturity 24-36 months 15-18 months

Age at first calving 3-3 1/2 years 2 1/2 years
Calving Interval 18-24 months 13months
Dry period More than 60 days Less than 60 days
Adoptability Good Poor
Milk yield Less More
Composition (%)
Water 86.4 87.5
Fat 4.5 3.6
Protein 3.7 3.5
Lactose 4.7 4.7
Minerals 0.7 0.7
Total solids 13.6 12.5
S.N.F 9.1 8.8

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 3. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF BUFFALO BREEDS (Part-I)

Lesson 3
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF BUFFALO BREEDS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Buffalo Breeds
3.1 Introduction
Indian buffaloes are an important source of milk supply and yield milk nearly three times as much as cows. The Indian buffaloes or
water buffaloes are found all over the plains and lower hills in the country. Swamp buffaloes are also found in the southern and western
states. They are powerful draught animals. These are about seven indigenous breeds of buffaloes which are well known for their milk
qualities.
3.2 Buffalo Breeds
Table 3.1 Classification of buffalo breeds based on geographical location
Murrah Group Gujarat Uttar Pradesh Central Indian South Indian
Murrah Surti Bhadawari Nagpuri Toda(TN)
South canara
Nili-ravi Jaffarbadi, Tarai Pandhapur,
(Karnataka)
Kundi Mehsana Sambalpuri,
Godavari Manda
Kalahandi
Jerangi
Murrah
Synonym : Delhi buffalo
Origin : Delhi, Haryana, Punjab
Color Jet black with white markings on tail, fore head
:
and extremities
Head, Neck : Proportionate to body
Horns : Tightly coiled and emerge laterally
Ears : Erect
Fore head : Bulged
Body : Short, deep, broad back, short and scanty hair
Barrel : Sufficient depth, width
Hind quarters : Droopy, sloppy
Legs : Strong, short
Pastern : White marks
Switch of tail : White, tail reaching up to fetlocks
Udder : Large, Capacious with convenient sized teats
Teats : Well spaced and hind teats are more larger than
fore teats
Body weight -male : 600 kg
Body weight -female 400 to 500 kg
Fat % : 7
Calving interval : 450 to 500 days
Nili-ravi
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Along banks of Sutlej and Ravi rivers in Punjab
Color : Black with white markings on fore head, face, muzzle
and legs
Head : Bulging at top and slightly elongated depressed
between
eyes, fine muzzle
Horn pattern : Tightly curled
Eyes : Wall eyes, Greyish
Fore head : White patch
Bricket : Well developed
Body : Massive with sparse hair coat, medium sized
Hind quarters : Sloppy
Tail : Long reaching up to ground
Udder : Pink patches on the udder
Body weight-male : 600 kg
Average lactation : 1850 kgs
milk yield
Calving interval : 450 to 500 days
Jaffarbadi
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Kathiawar district in Gujarat
Color : Black
Head : Elongated, massive, forehead prominent
Fore head : Massive
Horns : Droopy, inclined to drop on each side of neck
turning upward
:
Brisket : Well developed
Body : Lengthy and medium sized
Legs : Strong
Switch of tail : Yellowish white
Body weight -male : 550-600 kg
Body weight -female 450-500 kg
Milk yield : 1800 - 2700 kg / lactation
Fat % : 9 to 10
Calving interval : 480 days
Surti
Small buffalo Economical milk producer
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Anand, Baroda in Gujarat
Color : Grayish – brown or black sometimes white color at brisket
Head : Small, rounded between the horns and broader
Neck : Medium sized, 2 white collars one below the jowl and
another above the brisket
Fore head : White patch
Horn pattern : Sickle shaped
Body : Wedge shaped and medium sized
Hind Quarters : Sloppy
Tail : Up to hock
Switch of tail : White switch
Udder : Well developed and finely shaped and squarely placed
between the hindlegs
Body weight -female : 400 kg
Milk yield : 1370 kg / lactation
Fat(%) : 7
Nagpuri
Synonym : Marathwada, Berari, Ellichpuri
Origin : Maharastra
Color : Black
Head : Long
Neck : Lengthy and medium sized
Horns : Long resembling sword like with pointed tip
Ears : Droopy
Body : Large
Body weight-male 525kg
:
Body weight-female 425kg
Milk yield : 1000kg / lactation
Fat % : 7
Badhwari
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Agra district in Uttar Pradesh
Color : Copper colored
Head : Relatively smaller and bulged
Horns : Curved horns
Forehead : Broad and deep, face is narrow.
Eyes : Eyes are prominent, bright.
Body : Wedge shaped, medium sized
Legs : Short and stout, hooves of hind quarters are
more backward than fore quarters.
Barrel : Short but well developed
Tail : Long up to hocks with white switch
Hind quarters : Heavier and higher than fore quarter in female
Udder : moderately developed
Body weight -female 386 kg
Milk Yield/Lactation : 1000 kg
Fat % : 12-13 Highest fat percent is observed in this
breed.
Mehsana
Produced by crossing Murrah × Surti
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Gujrat
Color : Blackish grey
Head & Neck : Proportionate, Neck is long and fine.
Horns : Resemble Surti or Murrah
Body : Medium size, deep and low set
Tail : Up to hock with white markings on switch of the
tail
Udder : Well developed hind quarters or more developed
than fore quarters with uniformly placed teats
Body weight-male : 500 to 550 kg
Milk yield/Lactation : 1300 to 1500 kg
Tarai
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Uttar Pradesh
Color : Black to Brown
Head : Convex
Horns Long and flat with coils bending backward
:
and upward having pointed tips.
Eyes & Ears : Eyes are small and Ears are long.
Body : Moderate size
Legs : Short and strong
Tail : Long up to hocks switch of the tail is white
Milk Yield/Lactation : Poor regarding milk production
Pandherpuri
Synonym : Pandharpur, Dharwari
Origin : Maharastra and parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
Color : Black
Head : Long and narrow face
Horns : Flat twisted thin horns
Body : Medium size
Males are hardy and well suited for draft purpose
Manda
Synonym : Parlakimedi, Ganjam
Origin : Orissa and Andhra Pradesh
Color : Brown
Head : Forehead is flat with short muzzle
Neck : Short
Horns Horns are broad and semi circular extending backward
:
and inward
Eyes : Sharp with a broad red margin around the eye lids
Chest : Well developed
Legs : Fore legs short
Body : Medium Size
Males are hardy and can work in the hot sun and can draw a load of about 1 tone at a slow pace
Sambalpur
Synonym : Kimedi, Gowdoo
Origin : Orissa
Color : Black
Head : Prominent forehead
Males are very active and good for draft purpose
Kalahandi
Synonym : Peddakimedi
Origin Eastern part of Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas of
:
Orissa
Color Grey and hash Grey. Due to light color it tolerate heat
:
more than dark color buffaloes
Horns : Broad horns half curved running backward at the tip
Eyes Prominent and large with narrow red margin around the
:
lids
Chest : Well developed
Legs : Strong forelegs
Tail : Medium length with white switch
Animals are docile and hardy. They are used to carry loads in hilly areas as well as for ploughing in plains
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Niligiri hills of Tamilnadu
Color : Black
Head : Large
Horns : Variable in shape set wide apart run outward ,upward and
then inward at the top
Neck : Along the crest of the neck there is a thick growth of hair
like mane which imparts a bison like appearance
Body : Large
Milk yield : Females are good milkers 4.5 to 8.5 its daily
Fat % : 7
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Orissa and Northern parts of Andhra Pradesh
Color : Black
Horns : Horns are conical and run backward
Legs One of the dwarf breeds of buffaloes and its height does
:
not exceed four feet.
These animals are used for ploughing in water logged paddy fields
Toda
Synonym : Nil
Origin : Niligiri hills of Tamilnadu
Color : Black
Head : Large
Horns : Variable in shape set wide apart run outward ,upward and
then inward at the top
Neck : Along the crest of the neck there is a thick growth of hair
like mane which imparts a bison like appearance
Body : Large
Milk yield : Females are good milkers 4.5 to 8.5 its daily
Fat % : 7

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 3. EXOTIC BREEDS OF CATTLE (PART-2)

EXOTIC BREEDS OF CATTLE
Introduction
The exotic cattle breeds belong to the group Taurus. They have got certain distinctive characteristics in comparison with indigenous
cattle. They are high milk produces, they hapless cattle. Though high producer they can’t with stand high temperature. Many exotic
cattle breeds were brought to India for cross breeding and upgrading purpose to improve milk production potentiality in our cattle. The
important exotic cattle breeds were Holstein-Frisian, Jersey, Brown-Swiss, Guernsey, Red Dane etc.
Exotic Breeds of Cattle
Holstein – Friesian
World’s heaviest cattle breed highest milk producer
Origin : Holland
Ears : Small, erect
Head / Neck : Proportionate to body
Withers : sharp
Angularity of body : Conspicuous
Barrel : Lengthy, Voluminous
Udder : Capacious with medium sized teats
Color : Black over white patches
Age at maturity : 1 year
Milk yield 6000 kg / lactation (Used for cheese
:
making)
Fat % 3 to 3.5
:
Jersey
Smallest of European breeds
Origin Jersey Island in English Channel
Resistance to : high temperature and humadity
Face : Double dished
Head : Small
Ears : Erect
Color : Fawn
Withers : Sharp
Teats : Well placed and medium sized
Tail : Long
Switch of tail : Black
Legs : Strong, straight, sufficient width
Fat % : 4 to 4.5
Body weight 550 kg (male)
:
400 to 450 kg (female)
Brown Swiss:
Second heaviest breed after Holstein Freisien
Dual purpose breed
Docile animal and also fleshy
Body : Large sized
Head : Short
Neck : Lean
Head and Neck : Proportionate to body
Back, loin, croup : Leveled
Color : Different shades of brown, grey
Withers : Rounded
Milk yield : 5000 kg / lactation with 4% butter fat
Fat% : 5
Body weight : 600 to 700 kg (male)
: 500 to 600 kg (female)
Ayrshire
Beautiful cattle breed
Origin : Scotland
Large animal and active
Color : Reddish spots over white color
Withers : sharp
Rump, croup : Wide
Tail : Up to hock
Horns : Medium sized, curving upward
Udder : Large capacious
Milk yield : 4600 kg/ lactation
Fat % : 3.5 to 4
Body weight 450-500kg (male)
: 400-450kg (female)
Gurunsey
Origin : Gurunsey island
Color of milk Golden yellow because of presence of
:
carotene
Color : Brown with white patches
Angularity : Present
Age at first calving 26 to 27 months
:
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 4. SYSTEMS OF BREEDING FOR DAIRY CATTLE

Module 3. System of breeding
Lesson 4
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING FOR DAIRY CATTLE
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Systems of Breeding
4.2.1 Inbreeding
4.2.2 Out breeding
4.2.3 Cross breeding
4.2.4 Grading up
4.2.5 Out crossing
4.2.6 Back crossing
4.2.7 Rotational crossing
4.1 Introduction
Breeding systems play a significant role in the livestock production depending upon the purpose. The type of the breeding system
depends upon the size of the herd, likes and dislikes of the farms/entrepreneur and need for any breed registry/herd registry scheme etc.
Basically there are two systems of breeding. Pure breeding is used for registry in the breed associations and these animals will perform
better than non-pure breeds. Cross breeding is used mostly by many commercial producer and animals also have good performance
because of hybrid vigour.
4.2 Systems of Breeding
A number of breeding systems are available for improving the performance of dairy animals in terms of growth, production and
reproduction. The aim of breeding systems is breed improvement. The system of breeding to be used depends on livestock operation,
goals of the farmer or breeder and size of the herd etc.
4.2.1 Inbreeding
The method of mating between individuals which are more closely related, such as brothers and sisters and of sires with daughters is
called inbreeding. After many years of inbreeding it is possible to obtain lines which produce uniform offspring. Commercial and
purebred producers exploit this method to obtain hybrid vigour by crossing between two or more inbred lines. Inbreeding increases the
genetic purity of the stock produced, but reduces performance. After several generations of inbreeding, both desirable and undesirable
traits become more visible. A good program of selection of desirable traits and culling of undesirable traits results in a breeding stock with
more desirable traits. The ill effects of long term inbreeding are lowered production in terms of milk yield and fat %, increased
susceptibility to diseases resulting in more mortality. All the effects are due to undesirable recessive genes becoming homozygous.
4.2.2 Out breeding
It is a practice of breeding the farm animals which are not closely related within the same breed. It is popular system of breeding the
dairy herds with average production and small livestock owners. Out crossing combined with selection is responsible for most of the
changes and improvements in most of purebreds of dairy cattle. The effect of outbreeding are opposite to the inbreeding since without
breeding heterozygosity is increased.
4.2.3 Cross breeding
It is the mating of the animals belonging to two different breeds. It is done to take advantage of good qualities of two or more breeds.
Extensive research on cross breeding of dairy cattle is under taken by military dairy farms in India. The out come of all the crossbreeding
studies showed that combination of 50 percent exotic inheritance and 50 percent indigenous inheritance excelled in terms of growth rates,
production traits and adaptability to Indian climate. It contributed to make India to stand first in milk production in the world. The level
of exotic inheritance should never exceed 62.5% to exploit the full genetic potential of the animal for a sustainable production. The cross
breeding programme was under taken to exploit the milk yield potential of the exotic breeds combined with heat tolerance, disease
resistance of indigenous breeds. Cross breeds of Jersey, Holstein Fresian and Brown Swiss are early maturing, yielding more milk
compared to indigenous breeds. All India Coordinated Research Project on cattle resulted in development of synthetic breeds like Karan
Swiss, Karan Fries, Frieswal, and Sunandini etc. Crossbreeding usually results in improved traits in the offspring. Superior traits that
results from cross breeding are called hybrid vigor or heterosis.
4.2.4 Grading up
It is mating of pure bred males of a established breed with nondescript females successively over several generations to produce a
progeny that resembles and performs similar to the pure breed. Grading up is the system of breeding mostly adopted for genetic
improvement of the buffaloes. It is to be taken up in areas having more number of the non descriptive female population. After seven
generations of crossing, the non-descriptive females acquire the characters of a pure breed. Murrah buffalo bulls are used on local
buffaloes for genetic improvement in India. The amount of improvement that results is dependent on the quality of sire used for the
breeding programme. Godavari breed of buffalo is developed by crossing of the local buffalos of coastal region of Andhra Pradesh breed
with Murrah breed over several generations.
4.2.5 Out crossing
Mating of the unrelated pure breed animals, within the same breed is called out crossing. The animals mated have no common ancestor
on either of their pedigree up to 4 to 6 generations and the offspring of such a mating is called the outcross. The purpose out crossing is
to bring into the breeding programme traits that are desirable but not present in the original animals. This results in few undesirable genes
being fixed in the population. For traits with high heretabilities like growth rates, this is the most effective method. Out crossing is useful
procedure when a drastic change in the type of either seed stock or commercial herd is desired.
4.2.6 Back crossing
The cross bred females obtained by crossing two breeds are mated to males from one of the two parental breeds.
4.2.7 Rotational crossing
In rotational crossing, males from one of the pure breeds are used in alternate generations to breed the cross bred females. This
rotational crossing could be between two breeds is called crisscrossing and among three breeds is called triple crossing. The heterosis
among crossbreds produced by rotational crossing will not be 100 percent after several generations of rotational crossing: The individual
heterosis is about 67 percent in the rotational crossing, while it is about 85 percent in triple crossing. Triple crossing offers maximum
individual heterosis and maternal heterosis.
Cross breeding is the system of breeding mostly used for genetic improvement of cattle where as Grading up is the method used for
genetic improvement of the buffalos.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 5. METHODS OF SELECTION OF DAIRY ANIMALS

Module 3. System of breeding
Lesson 5
METHODS OF SELECTION OF DAIRY ANIMALS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Methods of Selection
5.2.1 Individual selection
5.2.2 Pedigree selection
5.2.3 Family selection
5.2.4 Progeny testing
5.2.5 Unified score card system
5.2.6 Body Condition Score (BCS) system
5.1 Introduction
Selection is the tool in the hand of the breeder to improve the performance of the animal.
5.2 Methods of Selection
Selection is defined as a process in which certain individuals in a population are preferred over others for producing next generation.
Selection does not create new genes, but it only increase frequency of desirable genes. Selection may be natural or artificial. Natural
selection goes by time with nature. Man, aimed at improving genetic potential of farm animals, controls artificial selection.
5.2.1 Individual selection
Selection on the basis of individual phenotypic performance is called individual selection. It is the most commonly used basis for
improvement in livestock. Characters like body type, growth rate are evaluated directly from the individual animal performance. The
limitations of individual selection are:
1) Some important traits like milk production, maternal abilities in cows are expressed only in females.
2) The performance records for milk and other maternal qualities are available only after sexual maturity is reached.
3) When the heritability of a trait is high, individual merit is a poor indicator of breeding value.
5.2.2 Pedigree selection
Selection on the basis of performance of the ancestors is called as pedigree selection. Pedigree selection is very useful when the traits
selected are highly heritable. If a performance record of individual is available, the addition of pedigree information usually adds little to
accuracy of estimates of breeding value of individual. Pedigree selection is specially useful for early selection of individuals as in case of
selection of young bulls for progeny testing. Limitation of pedigree selection is that the environment under which ancestor records were
made several years ago are quite different from the existing environmental conditions when an individual is evaluated for selection.
5.2.3 Family selection
Family represents a group of animals having common genetic relationship. Generally full sibs and half sibs are the most common
collateral relatives, whose records are often used to estimate the breeding value. When individual’s performance is also included in
calculating the sibs average performance, it is called family selection. Family selection is very useful in case of traits with low heritability.
5.2.4 Progeny testing
Selection of the individuals on the basis of average performance of their progeny is called progeny testing. It is the estimation of an
individual by evaluating its off springs. It is very useful tool in evaluating breeding worth of dairy cattle. It offers best means of achieving
genetic improvement in traits of moderate to low heritability. The rate of progress achieved by this method is double to that possible by
phenotypic selection. Progeny testing is generally used for selecting males as a large number of progeny can be obtained for each male,
while the number of progeny produced by a female is limited. A major limitation of progeny testing is prolonged generation interval as
individuals are to be selected only after their test progeny performance is evaluated. It is also very expensive since a large number of
animals are to be performance recorded. For practical genetic consideration, the number of unselected daughters studied to evaluate a
bull should be between 30 and 50.
5.2.5 Unified score card system
The unified score card system (Table 5.1) gives a good index of Dairy confirmation of animals
Table 5.1 card system
A. General appearance : 18
1 Size of animal- ideal to breed and age 3
2 Form of animal- symmetrical or stylish 2
3 Dairy character –lean ,angular 5
4 Skin quality-thin, pliable, hairs smooth, fine and soft 4
5 Temperament- active vigorous disposition and docile 4
B. Head and neck : 09
6 Muzzle- wide nostrils and large 2
7 Face – clean cut , facial veins prominent. 1
8 Forehead- wide fine at poll 1
9 Horns- fine , typical of breed 1
10 Neck-Slender, medium length 1
11 Eyes- Large , bright prominent 1
12 Ears- Typical of breed size, well set 1
13 Dewlap- Thin, light, graceful folds 1
C. Fore-Quarters :07
14 Withers-Clean refined , free from fleshiness 3
15 Shoulders- light oblique, well attached free from fleshiness 2
16 Legs-Straight, well apart, fine and smooth 2
D. Body :20
17 Chest, wide, deep fore-flank full 6
18 Back-Straight, strong, vertebra, well defined 4
19 Lion- Broad strong , leveled, free from flesh 3
20 Ribs – wide apart and well sprung 6
21 Flanks- Thin, deep and full 1
E. Hind Quarters :12
22 Hip bones- Prominent, and wide apart 2
23 Rump-Long, wide leveled. 3
24 Pin bones-Prominent ,and wide apart 2
25 Tail setting –Long fine, tapering. 1
26 Thigh- Thin, widely separated and incurring. 2
27 Hind legs- Straight carried well apart, fine shank. 2
F. Mammary Development :34
28 Udder, (a) Shape
(i) Fore Udder: Full attached forward 5
(ii) Rear Udder: Full Attached, high and wide 5
(B) Symmetry: Quarters even balanced, floor of udder leveled 3
(C) Capacity: Large, Texture, pliable, Free from fat and fibrous tissue 12
29 Teats: medium sized, squarely placed 4
30 Milk Veins: Long, Tortuous 3
31 Milk Wells: Large, numerous 2
Total 100
Classify the cows based on Dairy type as follows
Grade Score
Excellent 90 and Above
Very Good 85 to 90
Good 80 to 85
Acceptable 70 to 80
Fair 60 to 70
Poor below 60
Animals scoring below 75 must be discarded.
5.2.6 Body Condition Score (BCS) system
Body condition is defined as the ratio of the amount of fat to the amount of non-fatty matter in the body of the living animal. Body
conditions are reflection of the fat reserves carried by the animal. The ability to estimate the body condition more accurately and relate it
to milk and milk components production would help the farmers in the selection of dairy animals and to increase the overall efficiency of
feeding and management of dairy animals.
It is helpful as a cheap tool for the selection of dairy animals. BCS was observed to be highly correlated with both body weight and heart
girth. Cows with BCS above 3.5 had more heart girth which is a true indicative of health condition and productive performance. The
cows of large frame size and measurements of physical parameters viz., wither height, hook height, intercostals space, heart girth and
body weight did not receive high BCS indicating that assessment of the cows is based on body condition check points but not on body
weight or frame size. The ideal BCS suggested for different life stages of cattle are presented in table 5.2
Table 5.2 Ideal BCS suggested for different life stages
Cows with BCS of below 2 will be considered as under conditioned and above 4.5 as over conditioned.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 6. GENERAL DAIRY FARM PRACTICES AND IDENTIFICATION OF CATTLE (PART-1)

Module 4. General dairy farm practices
Lesson 6
GENERAL DAIRY FARM PRACTICES AND IDENTIFICATION OF CATTLE
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Identification
6.2.1 Branding
6.2.2 Tattooing
6.2.3 Tagging
6.2.4 Photographing
6.2.5 Electronic tags
6.3 General Dairy Farm Practices
6.3.1 Exercising
6.3.2 Grooming
6.3.3 Bedding
6.3.4 Dehorning / Disbudding
6.3.4.1 Chemical method
6.3.4.2 Hot iron method
6.3.4.3 Dehorning saw or clippers
6.3.4.4 Elastrator
6.3.4.5 Castration
6.4 Weighing of animals
6.4.1 Direct method
6.4.2 Indirect method
6.5 Farm Record Maintenance
6.1 Introduction
Dairy farm practices include identification of animals, dehorning, bedding, grooming, castration, exercising etc., Animal’s identification is essential for successful
recording of data of a farm. Each and every calf born is identified as to its dam (mother) and sire (father). It also helps in differentiation of the superior and
inferior animals in a herd. Several methods with different instruments are available for permanent individual identification of each animal in the herd. Animal
handling measures are designed for overall working efficiency, better managerial practices and to reduce handling stress on animals.
6.2 Identification
Identification of each animal is necessary for the following purposes
1. To know the performance and history of each animal
2. To carry out the daily farm operations like feeding, breeding and health care of animals
3. To maintain accuracy in recording of animal data
4. To clear the disputes over the lost or stolen cattle
5. To claim insurance of animals
6. For entry into herd book of pedigree animals
The various methods of identification that are followed in Cattle and Buffalo are
* Branding
* Tattooing
* Tagging
* Photographing
* Electronic tagging with microchips
6.2.1 Branding
It involves putting numbers, letters, designs or a combination of these on the skin with hot iron or chemicals. Branding is used for marking cattle. Calves should be
branded by the time they are one year old. Branding is of three types (1) hot iron branding (2) Chemical branding (3) Cryo branding.
Sets of branding irons are available comprising of letters A to Z and numbers from 0 to 9. The desired branding iron rod is heated to bright red hot and applied to
skin on the sides of thigh with light pressure for not more than 3 seconds. Neem oil is mixed with Boric acid and zinc oxide and smeared over the burns for quick
healing.
Chemical branding irons have a shallow groove to have better contact surface and to hold sufficient branding ink. Chemical branding is less permanent if carried
out by inexperienced person. In Cryo branding liquid nitrogen is used for branding of animal.
6.2.2 Tattooing
It consists of piercing outlines of desired number or letter or a combination of both on inner side of ear and applying black vegetable pigment into the punctures. It
is most suited for marking calves. Tattooing set comprises of Tattooing forceps, tattooing ink and series of letters and numbers.
The imprints should be made conveniently on inner side of ear avoiding ear veins. The part to be tattooed should be thoroughly scrubbed with soap and water,
wiped dry and spirit is applied to remove grease. Later tattooing ink is liberally applied over the part. The desired number or letter is fixed into the tattooing
forceps and firmly printed over the part by pressing the forceps. The desired tattoo number is to be checked on a leaf before applying the tattooing forceps on
animal. After tattooing some more ink is rubbed into tattooed punctures with thumb finger to get into punctures deeply.
Fig. 6.2 Tattooing
6.2.3 Tagging
Tags are made of aluminum, brass, strong plastic with the numbers stamped on them and fixed to ear with tagging forceps. Two types of tags are available 1).
Self-piercing type 2). Non-piercing type.
Self-piercing variety has sharp ends and can be directly fixed to the ear with a forceps. In non-piercing type, a hole is made with a tag punch. One end of tag is
placed through the hole and locked in position with pincers. The hole is punctured in the upper edge of ear as close to head as possible. The hole should be far
enough from edge so that the tag is neither tight on ear nor freely swinging leaving sufficient space for growth of ear. The numbered side of tag should be on top
of ear. Several types of tags are available like Aluminum tags, plastic tags, bronze tags along with a separate tagging forceps suitable to each type.
Fig. 6.3 Tagging
6.2.4 Photographing
Generally animals are photographed to get side view, rear and hind views. The animal should be photographed in such a way the angle of vision of camera
shouldn’t exceed the angled vision of human eye.
6.2.5 Electronic tags
Electronic tagging is carried with the help of a syringe. It is specially designed to push the chips just under the skin of the animal. The implanted chips bear a
number which is read by a scanner.
6.3 General Dairy Farm Practices
The general management practices that help the animals to be active, healthy, cleanliness and comfortable are –
1. Exercising
2. Grooming
3. Bedding
4. Dehorning
5. Castration
6.3.1 Exercising
Minimum exercise is necessary for all animals. It keeps the animals thrifty and active. It helps in normal metabolic process and maintenance of good health.
Exercising is to make muscles active and the animal physically fit. Outdoor exercise by exposure to sunlight helps in supply of vitamin D. Breeding bulls are to be
provided loafing area of about 120 square meters for each bull to keep them in good condition. In large livestock farms and semen banks, a bull exerciser is used
to exercise a number of bulls simultaneously avoiding obesity in animals.
6.3.2 Grooming
Grooming comprises of brushing the hair coat of animals. It is essential for all the show animals. It is done for cleanliness, improve appearance, massage and
stimulate cutaneous and lymph blood circulation, removal of waste products like skin secretions, loose hair, skin parasites from hair. It helps in keeping the skin
pliable and brings out natural oil in the hair. Cows are regularly groomed before milking to avoid falling of dust in milk. Before milking, brushing of rump, sides of
thigh and buttocks should be done.
Dandy brush made of stiff fibres, whisks of paddy straw or any brush with stiff bristles can be used for grooming the animal. Start grooming at the neck behind
the ears and is carried out in same direction as the flow of hair. At times, brushing has to be carried out against flow of hair to remove dirt sticking to hair. Work
bullocks are also groomed to keep them active and to make them recover from tiredness and fatigue quickly.
Fig.6.4 Grooming
6.3.3 Bedding
During winter suitable bedding should be provided to young calves to provide warmth. In tropical countries like India, provision of bedding is not important as in
western countries. Bedding is used primarily for keeping animals clean and comfortable. Bedding soils up the urine and makes manure handling easier.
6.3.4 Dehorning / Disbudding
Dehorning is removal of horns of animals. Disbudding means arresting the growth of horn buds at an early age. Horns serve no useful purpose on dairy cattle.
They can cause many body and udder injuries on other animals. Horned cattle require more space. Dehorn calves as early as possible, when horn buds are very
small, causing little discomfort to animal. Dehorn the calf when it is four to 10 days old or as soon as horn buds can be easily detected. Dehorning is done mostly
in spring or post monsoon season to avoid flies.
There are several ways of dehorning by using chemicals, saws, clippers, hot iron,
6.3.4.1 Chemical method
Chemicals like caustic soda (NaOH) or caustic potash (KOH) are commonly used chemicals available in form of sticks, paste. Clip the hair around the horn bud
of calves and surround the area with grease or Vaseline to protect the eyes from chemicals. Rub the chemical over the horn bud until blood appears resulting in
arrest of growth of horn buds.
6.3.4.2 Hot iron method
A specially designed hot iron rod is applied on horn buds of young calves. The dehorning irons are heated in portable forge. The hot iron method is bloodless and
used in any season of year for young calves only. Electric dehorner is also available which has even temperature of iron rod.
Fig.6.5 Electrical dehorner
6.3.4.3 Dehorning saw or clippers
Clippers are useful for removing horns of young cattle whereas, dehorning saw is used to remove brittle horns of adult cattle.
6.3.4.4 Elastrator
It is an instrument of specially made rubber ring for dehorning cattle with horns of 5 to 10 cm long. Smaller horns drop off in 3 to 6 weeks, where as longer horns
may take 2 months to drop off.
6.3.4.5 Castration
It is the removal of testicles which produce male germ cells. Male cattle & buffaloes used for work are castrated so that they are docile and amenable. Male calves
are castrated at one year of age. Castration should be performed during cold season, strictly avoiding rainy season for fear of fly menace. Under Indian conditions
the best method for castrating cattle and buffaloes is with pair of Burdizzo castrator.
Burdizzo method of castration is bloodless in which the testicles are made functionless by destroying nourishment to them. When using Burdizzo castrator, see
that the spermatic cord does not slip out and one cord is clamped at a time for few seconds. Complete atrophy of testicle occurs. A simple castration knife can
also be used for the purpose. The knife as well as the operators hand should be clean and disinfected. Grasp the tip of scrotum and hold it tight while cutting off
the lower end. Draw out the exposed testicles together with the surrounding membranes with hands and tear off.
Fig. 6.6 Castration
6.4 Weighing of animals
Weighing of animals is an important operation in a dairy farm to know the growth rate of calves, to calculate the amount of feed and fodder to be offered to
animals and for calculation of drug dosage of animals. Weighing of the animals can be done by two ways,
1. Direct Method
2. Indirect Method
6.4.1 Direct method
The animals are passed through the weighing yard and weighing is carried out on the platform balances. Allow the animal to stand for a while on the platform
before recording the weight.
Weighments of the animals are to be done in the morning before feeding and watering to get the accurate weights. This method is followed mostly in organized
farms.
Fig. 6.7 Direct Method
6.4.2 Indirect method
The weight of the animal can be obtained indirectly by measuring the girth and length of the animal using a measuring tape. The length of the animal is obtained
by measuring the distance between the points of shoulder to the point of pin bones. The girth of the animal can be obtained by measuring the circumference of the
chest of the animal just behind the elbows. After obtaining the length and girth of the animal, the following formulae are applied to get the weight of animal.
1. Shaeffers formula: It is commonly used for cattle and buffaloes.
Live weight in lbs = Length × (Girth)2 / 300
2. Aggarwal’s modified Shaeffers formula
Live weight in seers = (Girth × length) / Y
Where 1 seer is equal to 0.93kg
Where Y is equal 9.0 if girth is less than 65”
Y is equal to 8.5 if girth is between 65-80”
Y is equal to 8.0 if girth is over 80”.
3. Mullick’s formula buffaloes
X = 25.156(Y) – 960.232
X = estimate of body weight in lbs
Y = Heart girth in inches.
6.5 Farm Record Maintenance
Record keeping is key operation to know the progress of dairy farm. It is maintained for the following purposes.
1. To know the pedigree and history of the animals maintained.
2. It helps in knowing the dairy activities carried out in the farm like deworming, Vaccination, deticking, castration, identification etc.
3. It helps in identification of each animal in the herd and knowing the production performance of the animals.
4. It helps in knowing the herd average, milch average, average daily milk yield, lactation number, lactation length etc.
5. It aids in breed wise improvement of herd.
6. It helps in culling and removal of the unproductive stock from the farm.
7. The economics of the farm can be worked out.
8. It helps in selection of the animals for future breeding purposes.
9. It helps in identifying the elite animals and registration of animals in central herd registration book.
Some of the registers which are essential in the dairy farm are livestock register, calving register, lactation record, mortality register, morbidity register, feed
register, breeding register, day book, vaccination register etc.
Table 6.1 Stock register of cattle
Stock Register of cattle
Name of the farm……………………………..Address……………………………
For the Year………………………….
Serial Tattoo When Date Value Approximate Pedigree How Page of Remarks
No. No. purchased of age disposed Herd
and birth When Dam sire of Register
name purchased
of the
animal
Table 6.2 Lactation Record
Lactation Record
For the Year…………………………
Animals Months of the year Yield lit Average No. in Date Remarks
particular during Fat % days in and
number Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July August Sep Oct Nov Dec lactation a days
period lactation dry
off
Table 6.3 Calf register
Calf Register
Serial No. Date of numbering Ear No. Sex of the calf Sire Dam Disposal Remarks
How the calf was disposed Date
Table 6.4 Service register
Service Register
S. No. of Date of Date of Time of No. of Expected Date to be Date of Weight of Sex of Time taken Remarks
No. cows Last service service bull date to dried off calving The calf The for the
calving calve calf expulsion of
placenta
Table 6.5 Feed register
Feed Register
Number of Cows Date Hay Silage Other feed
Grain Ration No…………
A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M.
Table 6.6 Milk record sheet
Milk Record Sheet
Owner of the berd…………………………………… Post office ………………………………….. District
Date Time Name and number of cows Name and number of cows Name and number of cows Name and number of cows Name and number of cows
1 A.M.
P.M.
2 A.M.
P.M.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 6. GENERAL DAIRY FARM PRACTICES (PART-2)

GENERAL DAIRY FARM PRACTICES
Introduction
The general management practices that help the animals to be active, healthy, cleanliness and comfortable are:
1. Exercising
2. Grooming
3. Bedding
4. Dehorning
5. Castration
Exercising
Minimum exercise is necessary for all animals. It keeps the animals thrifty and active. It helps in normal metabolic process and
maintenance of good health. Exercising is to make muscles active and the animal physically fit. Outdoor exercise by exposure to
sunlight helps in supply of vitamin D. Breeding bulls are to be provided loafing area of about 120 square meters for each bull to keep
them in good condition. In large livestock farms and semen banks, a bull exerciser is used to exercise a number of bulls simultaneously
avoiding obesity in animals.
Grooming
Grooming comprises of brushing the hair coat of animals. It is essential for all the show animals. It is done for cleanliness, improve
appearance, massage and stimulate cutaneous and lymph blood circulation, removal of waste products like skin secretions, loose hair,
skin parasites from hair. It helps in keeping the skin pliable and brings out natural oil in the hair. Cows are regularly groomed before
milking to avoid falling of dust in milk. Before milking, brushing of rump, sides of thigh and buttocks should be done.
Dandy brush made of stiff fibres, whisks of paddy straw or any brush with stiff bristles can be used for grooming the animal. Start
grooming at the neck behind the ears and is carried out in same direction as the flow of hair. At times, brushing has to be carried out
against flow of hair to remove dirt sticking to hair. Work bullocks are also groomed to keep them active and to make them recover from
tiredness and fatigue quickly.
Bedding
During winter suitable bedding should be provided to young calves to provide warmth. In tropical countries like India, provision of
bedding is not important as in western countries. Bedding is used primarily for keeping animals clean and comfortable. Bedding soils up
the urine and makes manure handling easier.
Dehorning / Disbudding
Dehorning is removal of horns of animals. Disbudding means arresting the growth of horn buds at an early age. Horns serve no useful
purpose on dairy cattle. They can cause many body and udder injuries on other animals. Horned cattle require more space. Dehorn
calves as early as possible, when horn buds are very small, causing little discomfort to animal. Dehorn the calf when it is four to 10
days old or as soon as horn buds can be easily detected. Dehorning is done mostly in spring or post monsoon season to avoid flies.
There are several ways of dehorning by using chemicals, saws, clippers, hot iron,
Chemical method
Chemicals like caustic soda (NaoH) or caustic potash (KoH) are commonly used chemicals available in form of sticks, paste. Clip the
hair around the horn bud of calves and surround the area with grease or Vaseline to protect the eyes from chemicals. Rub the chemical
over the horn bud until blood appears resulting in arrest of growth of horn buds.
Hot iron method
A specially designed hot iron rod is applied on horn buds of young calves. The dehorning irons are heated in portable forge. The hot
iron method is bloodless and used in any season of year for young calves only. Electric dehorner is also available which has even
temperature of iron rod.
Dehorning saw or clippers: Clippers are useful for removing horns of young cattle whereas, dehorning saw is used to remove brittle
horns of adult cattle.
Elastrator: It is an instrument of specially made rubber ring for dehorning cattle with horns of 5 to 10 cm long. Smaller horns drop off
in 3 to 6 weeks, where as longer horns may take 2 months to drop off.
Castration: It is the removal of testicles which produce male germ cells. Male cattle & buffaloes used for work are castrated so that
they are docile and amenable. Male calves are castrated at one year of age. Castration should be performed during cold season, strictly
avoiding rainy season for fear of fly menace. Under Indian conditions the best method for castrating cattle and buffaloes is with pair of
Burdizzo castrator.
Burdizzo method of castration is bloodless in which the testicles are made functionless by destroying nourishment to them. When using
Burdizzo castrator, see that the spermatic cord does not slip out and one cord is clamped at a time for few seconds. Complete atrophy
of testicle occurs. A simple castration knife can also be used for the purpose. The knife as well as the operators hand should be clean
and disinfected. Grasp the tip of scrotum and hold it tight while cutting off the lower end. Draw out the exposed testicles together with
the surrounding membranes with hands and tear off.
Weighing of animals: Weighing of animals is an important operation in a dairy farm to know the growth rate of calves, to calculate the
amount of feed and fodder to be offered to animals and for calculation of drug dosage of animals. Weighing of the animals can be done
by two ways,
1. Direct Method
2. Indirect Method
1.Direct Method: The animals are passed through the weighing yard and weighing is carried out on the platform balances. Allow the
animal to stand for a while on the platform before recording the weight.
Weighments of the animals are to be done in the morning before feeding and watering to get the accurate weights. This method is
followed mostly in organized farms.
2 Indirect Method: The weight of the animal can be obtained indirectly by measuring the girth and length of the animal using a
measuring tape. The length of the animal is obtained by measuring the distance between the point of shoulder to the point of pin bones.
The girth of the animal can be obtained by measuring the circumference of the chest of the animal just behind the elbows. After
obtaining the length and girth of the animal, the following formulae are applied to get the weight of animal.
1. Shaeffers formula: It is commonly used for cattle and buffaloes.
Live weight in lbs = Length × (Girth)2 / 300
2. Aggarwal’s modified Shaeffers formula
Live weight in seers = (Girth × length) / Y
Where 1 seer is equal to 0.93kg
Where Y is equal 9.0 if girth is less than 65”
Y is equal to 8.5 if girth is between 65-80”
Y is equal to 8.0 if girth is over 80”.
3. Mullick’s formula buffaloes
X = 25.156(Y) – 960.232
X = estimate of body weight in lbs
Y = Heart girth in inches.
Farm Record Maintenance
Record keeping is key operation to know the progress of dairy farm. It is maintained for the following purposes.
To know the pedigree and history of the animals maintained.
It helps in knowing the dairy activities carried out in the farm like deworming, Vaccination, deticking, castration, identification etc.
It helps in identification of each animal in the herd and knowing the production performance of the animals.
It helps in knowing the herd average, milch average, average daily milk yield, lactation number, lactation length etc.
It aids in breed wise improvement of herd.
It helps in culling and removal of the unproductive stock from the farm.
The economics of the farm can be worked out.
It helps in selection of the animals for future breeding purposes.
It helps in identifying the elite animals and registration of animals in central herd registration book.
Some of the registers which are essential in the dairy farm are livestock register, calving register, lactation record, mortality register,
morbidity register, feed register, breeding register, day book, vaccination register etc.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 7. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LIFE STAGES OF DAIRY ANIMALS

Module 4. General dairy farm practices
Lesson 7
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LIFE STAGES OF DAIRY ANIMALS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Care of the Animal Calving
7.3 Management of Neonate
7.4 Care and Management of Heifers
7.4.1 Outdoor system
7.4.2 Indoor system
7.5 Management of Dry Cows
7.6 Management of Milch Animals
7.7 Management of Bulls
7.1 Introduction
Calving is a critical period for both the cow and calf especially the first calves as they are in experienced. Care of the calved animal and
new born is essential in order to protect the calf from inclement weather to reduce mortality and to maintain the milk production of the
calved animal. The expected date of calving record should be maintained in order to separate the animal 2 weeks before the enert of
parturition and kept parturition in calving pens. A separate bedding and comfortable space with feeding and water arrangement is a must.
The calved animal is to be washed properly and offered water and udder cleaned for suckling of calf with in half an hour after birth. The
calf should be taken care by providing colostrum, milk, calf starter, legume fodder etc for good growth.
7.2 Care of the Animal Calving
The animal in the advanced stage of pregnancy should be separated from the rest of the animals and placed in the maternity or calving
room separately two weeks before the expected date of calving. Check the flooring of the calving pens, which should not be slippery.
The floor should be well bedded. Care should be taken to provide water at all times. Two weeks before calving administer calcium
intravenously to prevent milk fever in case of high yielder. An attendant should be kept watching the animal. Just before calving, there
will be sinking of the croup region. Once the animal starts calving it will show the symptoms like frequent standing and lying down
positions. There will be swelling of the udder, vulva region and discharges are noticed. The animal will make peculiar sounds to deliver
the calf. Normal birth process takes place around two hours. As a first sign the two front feet of the calf should appear followed by the
head of calf. Any abnormal presentation should require assistance by a veterinarian immediately and also in cases which requires more
than two hours for calving. Immediately after calving the external genitalia, flank region, tail region should be washed with clean water.
The cow should be given adequate amount of water immediately after calving. Once the calf is delivered, the cow will lick its body to
make the body of calf warm. If it does not lick, mucous discharges around nostrils should be removed and the body of calf cleaned with
clean cloth or with the paddy straw. Normally the placental membranes will fall off within 2 to 4 hours after birth and disposed of
properly. Care should be taken to avoid ingestion of placenta by the cow.
7.3 Management of Neonate
Care of calf or Neonate starts when the calf is in the womb of mother. Cows that have been properly fed during the dry period produce
up to 25 percent more milk and fat than cows not conditioned. A 0.5 kg gain in body weight per day during the dry period seems to be
optimum for satisfactory milk production in ensuring lactation. Immediately after calving the cow licks the body of the calf. If it doesn’t
happen, remove the mucous discharges from the nostrils. Clean the body of the calf with clean cloth or handful of paddy straw and
make the calf dry. If the umbilical cord is not cut, put a ligature 2-3 cm away from body. Cut the navel 1 cm away from ligature with
clean scissors. Apply tincture of iodine to the navel cord to prevent infection. Provide clean and warm environment for the calf.
Colostrum should be fed at rate of 8 to 10% of body weight for first 2 to 3 days. Gamma globulins are transferred from mother to calf
through colostrums. It works as resistance system for the calf against diseases in the early stages. Colostrums is highly nutritious. It is
slightly laxative and prevents constipation. If the calf is weak to drink milk on its own, it is assisted by holding it up to its mother and
pour milk into its mouth. The calf is fed with whole milk for a period of 10 to 14 days.
After this, the whole milk may be substituted with skimmed milk, partially in the beginning and completely after two months. The calf
should be fed according to its weight, at the rate of 1 kg milk for every 10 to 12 kg body weight per day. Milk replacer is given after 2
weeks of calf age to replace milk. Milk replacer which is, highly digestible should contain minimum of 22% total protein or 20%
digestible protein and 10% fat. When calf are raised on limited milk, balanced high energy protein concentrate mixture called as calf
starter can be fed from 2nd week onwards till 90 days of age.
A calf starter with 20% protein would be give better growth but it must not contain less than 16% DCP and 70% TDN. A 100 kg Calf
starter can be prepared with the following ingredients.
Maize – 50, Ground nut cake – 30, Wheat bran / Rice bran – 8, Fish meal – 10, Mineral Mixture – 2
Besides these, Calves should be fed with good legume grasses or early cut green fodder from second week onwards. This will stimulate
rumen development and establishment of rumen microbes. The ideal feeding schedule of calves in general for obtaining optimal growth is
as follows.
Colostrum - 3 to 5 days
Whole milk -6th to 40th day
Milk replacer -41st day to 90 days
Calf starter -2nd week to 90 days
7.4 Care and Management of Heifers
Well grown and developed heifers are the best foundation stock of a Dairy herd. The female calves after six months of age should be
raised separately. Rate of growth is maximum until puberty and then decreases until maturity . Raising of heifers is aimed at
1. Maximum growth and development of heifer
2. Earliest maturity
3. Raising heifer at minimum cost and getting early returns
4. Obtaining good milk yield in first lactation.
Management of heifers can be done in two ways
1. Outdoor system.
2. Indoor system.
7.4.1 Outdoor system
The heifers are raised mainly on grazing conditions rotationally on pasture plots containing legume grass. They are to be shifted from one
grazing field to another. Concentrate feeding can be provided through feed troughs centrally located in the grazing field.
7.4.2 Indoor system
Heifers are kept in the sheds with adequate shade. They should be provide with good quality hays along with the concentrates. The
green forages should be fed free of choice and of good quality. Under good conditions of feeding and management a crossbred has to
attain minimum of 250 kg to be considered for breeding.
7.5 Management of Dry Cows
The pregnant dry cows should be housed in a comfortable paddock and least disturbed .The management of the dry cow is aimed at
1. To give rest to cows udder and recoup its condition lost in previous lactation.
2. Repair and regeneration of secretary cells of udder.
Cows should be properly fed during dry period in order to produce 25 % more milk than which are not conditioned. A 0.5 kg gain in
body weight during dry period is optimum for satisfactory milk production in ensuing lactation.
7.6 Management of Milch Animals
Management should be aimed such that there is high proportion of milch cows in herd at any given stage. The managemental practices
for higher milk production for longer periods include
1. Feeding balanced ration especially making available good quality green fodders round the year
2. The herd can be divided into high yielders, medium yielders and low yielders and feed them accordingly
3. Providing clean and comfortable houses
4. Prevention of possible management stresses by
A) careful handling and movement of stock,
B) avoiding over stocking,
C) grouping of cows according to age or production,
D) protection of high yielders against thermal stress conditions of summer,
5. Maintenance of high reproduction efficiency in herd.
7.7 Management of Bulls
Bulls should be kept in prime breeding condition by providing them with good rations. The young bulls should be trained for handling
and leading. Mature bulls are to be feed daily about 1 kg hay and 0.5 kg concentrate per 100 kg body weight. Growing and mature bulls
should be regularly exercised so as to remain in thrifty condition. Excess fatness in mature bulls should be avoided as it reduces libido.
The breeding bull should never be allowed to run with herd.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 8. MAMMARY SYSTEM, MILK SECRETION AND MILK LETDOWN

Module 5. Mammary system
Lesson 8
MAMMARY SYSTEM, MILK SECRETION AND MILK LETDOWN
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Structure and Function of Mammary System
8.3 Hormones Involved in Milk Synthesis and Let Down
8.4 Milk Let Down
8.1 Introduction
The first three months of the new born calf depends upon the milk for normal growth and development. In this scenario it is essential to
know about the structure and function of the mammary gland for better feeding and survival of the calves. The size and shape of the
mammary gland varies from species to species, wherever the anatomical microscopic structure of the mammary gland is same in all the
domestic animals. The mammary gland begins its development during the foetal life. Once the animals attain puberty, the surge of
hormone secretions results in increase in the rate of growth of mammary gland is relation to whole body. After parturition, mammary
tissues continue to proliferate and milk secretion accelerates. The secretary cells reach their peak few weeks after parturition. Milk
secretion is under the control of several hormones.
8.2 Structure and Function of Mammary System
Udder is located at and in between hind limbs in inguinal region supported by various ligaments and connective tissue. The mammary
system or udder of the cow should be capacious, leveled and strongly attached with tortuous milk vein. The texture should be soft,
pliable and elastic and collapsible after milking.
It can be divided into two halves separated by inter mammary groove. The half is again divided into two separate units (called as
quarters) by thin membranes. The front portion is called the fore udder and the rear portion is called the rear udder. The four quarters
are independent with no communication between them. The two rear quarters are larger and produce 60 percent of the milk whereas the
fore quarters produce about 40 percent of the milk. The size, shape and placement of the udder is done by the median and lateral
suspensory ligaments.
Each quarter of the udder is composed of the secretary tissue and the connective tissue. The alveolus is a microscopic structure almost
spherical in shape lined by single layer of epithetical cells or the milk secretary cells.
Fig. 8.1 Structure of udder
The alveoli are surrounded by a capillary network which provides nutrients. The myoepithetical cells surrounding the alveolus contract
during milking causing milk let down. The alveolus is grouped together into lobules. A group of lobules form a lobe. The secretary tissue
contains the terminal ducts. Intralobular ducts unite to form interlobular ducts. There ducts communicate into gland cistern and teat
cisternae. The teat cisterna is joined with streak canal. It is surrounded by teat sphincter responsible for preventing the entry of the
pathogens onto teat
8.3 Hormones Involved in Milk Synthesis and Let Down
1. Oxytocin - Milk let down
2. Prolactin - Anterior pitutary gland secretion helping in synthesis and maintenance of milk secretion.
8.4 Milk Let Down
During the milk secretion the alveoli, ducts and gland and teat cisterns are gradually filled with milk. Milk in the cisterns and larger ducts
can be removed readily, but the milk in the smaller ducts and alveoli does not flow out easily. Milk ejection is an involuntary act on the
part of cow. It is a neurohormonal reflex that is very important if maximum milk production is to be obtained. Stimulation of the central
nervous system by something associated with the milking process is necessary to initiate the reaction. Stimulation of nerve endings in the
teats that are sensitive to touch, pressure, or warmth is the usual mechanism. Milk ejection is initiated by a stimulus such as washing of
udder, manipulating the teats, suckling of a calf. The sucking action of the ‘calf is ideal for this milk let down.
Stimulation is carried by the nerves to the brain which is connected with the pitutary gland located at its base. The brain causes the
release of hormone Oxytocin from posterior pituitary gland into blood system, which carries into mammary gland.
Fig. 8.2 Mechanism of milk let down
Oxytocin acts on the myoepithelial cells that surround the alveoli and ducts and contracts them. This creates pressure forcing the milk
out of the alveoli and smaller ducts as fast as it can be removed through the teat resulting in milk ejection. The process occurs in about
45 to 60 seconds after stimulation. The maximum effect starts only 7-8 minutes. Prompt initiation of milking and rapid milking are
important in obtaining maximum milk yield.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 9. METHODS OF MILKING

Module 6. Milking
Lesson 9
METHODS OF MILKING
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Milking Methods
9.2.1 Stripping method
9.2.2 Full hand method
9.2.3 Machine milking
9.1 Introduction
Methods of milking influence the quality and quantity of milk produced at the dairy farm. Proper method of milking results in the
removal of entire milk present in the udder resulting in optimal milk production in a particular lactation besides avoiding injuries to the
teat and udder and improving the udder health. Disturbances like noises, movement of personnel during milking etc are to be avoided to
cause least disturbance to the milking cows and avoiding with holding of milk at some times.
9.2 Milking Methods
Cows are milked from left side. Teats may be milked diagonally or forequarters together and then hind quarters together. The milk must
be squeezed and not dragged out of teats in order to prevent injury to teats. The first few strips of milk from each teat are let on strip-
cup to check for possible incidence of mastitis. It also helps in discharging out of bacteria which have accessed and collected in teat
canal. Dry milking is preferred since there is no contamination by water. Wet milking after wetting the udder is not advisable as water
itself may be a source of contamination. The different milking methods are
1. Stripping method
2. Full hand method
3. Knuckling method
4. Machine milking
9.2.1 Stripping method
Stripping consists of firmly seizing the teat at its base between the thumb and forefinger and drawing them down. The entire length of
the teat is pressed simultaneously to cause milk ejection and to flow down in streams. The process is repeated in succession. Generally
stripping method is adopted in small cows with narrow teats. Sometimes it is followed to draw the last strips of milk containing more fat.
A combination of initial full hand milking method followed by stripping at the end is a good method of milking.
Fig. 9.1 Stripping
9.2.2 Full hand method
It is the best method as it causes minimum injuries to the teats. In this method teat is circled with index finger and thumb at the junction
of teat and udder, the other portion of teat is closed with remaining fingers and pressed on all sides against the palm.
Fig.9.2 Full hand
Full hand milking stimulates natural suckling of a calf. Cows with large teats and buffaloes are milked with full hand method. Full hand
method removes milk quicker than stripping because of no loss of time in changing the position of the hand. Even by efficient method of
milking only 85% of milk comes out from udder and 15% still remains in udder which is called residual milk.
Fig. 9.3 Knuckling method
It is pressing the thumb against the teats while the teats are in between thumb and fingers. It may cause injury to the teat. This method is
not advisable and is least recommended of all milking methods
9.2.3 Machine milking
Milking is done by using machine and generally adopted for herds with large number of cows and with high yielders. The milk flow is
continuous in this method. Advantages are reduced labour cost, short time for milking, less injury to teats, hygienic method of milk
production etc. The parts of a machine milking system are milking unit, pulsator system, vacuum supply system and milk flow system.
The milking unit attached to the udder has a teat-cup assembly, suspension cup, and connecting air and milk tubes. The teat cup consists
of a steel shell with a liner which fits over teats called as inflation. The inflation squeezes and relaxes on the teat as the pulsator operates
causing the milk to flow into the system. The pulsation ratio is the time between milking and resting phases of pulsation cycle. The
pulsation ratio refers to the number of pulsations per minute. The pulsation ratio usually varies from 1:1 to 2.5:1. Set the pulsation rate
around 48 to 72 cycles per minute to avoid excessive slow or fast speed and subsequent decline in milk flow rate. Always maintain the
measure of vacuum by operating the milking machine between 10 and 16 inches of Hg. Apply milking machine gently within 30 to 60
seconds of washing of udder. Remove milking machine promptly as soon as milk flow stops by breaking vacuum first. Disinfect the teat
ends by dipping them in antiseptic solution. Milk utensils and teat cups are immediately washed with warm water.
Fig. 9.4 Machine milking
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 10. MILKING PROCEDURE AND PRACTICES FOR QUALITY MILK PRODUCTION

Module 6. Milking
Lesson 10
MILKING PROCEDURE AND PRACTICES FOR QUALITY MILK PRODUCTION
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Milking Procedures for Clean Milk Production
10.2.1 Cleanliness of animal
10.2.2 Cleanliness of utensils and milkers
10.2.3 Health condition of cows
10.2.4 Proper cleaning of the milking area
10.3 Practices for Quality Milk Production
10.3.1 Animals
10.3.2 Milker
10.3.3 Utensils
10.3.4 Milking processes
10.3.5 Environment
10.3.6 Others
10.1 Introduction
Knowledge of the possible unhygienic practices that lead to the gross contamination of milk will be useful in realizing the gravity of the
situation and in evolving improved strategies. The possible undesirable practices that are prevalent may broadly be classified into four
categories:
· Practices related to the animal: unhealthy animal, unclean body and udder of the animal
· Practices related to the milking personnel: unhealthy milker, unclean hands and clothes of the milker, unhygienic personal habits
of the milker
· Practices related to the milking process: incomplete milking, wrong milking procedure, unclean vessels for milk collection
· Practices related to the environment: poor housing and feeding of the animal, unhygienic surroundings
10.2 Milking Procedures for Clean Milk Production
Milk is considered clean or of high quality if it is free from dirt, sediments and has low bacterial & somatic cell counts, with no addition
of water and off flavors. The managemental factors that influence the clean milk production are
1. Cleanliness of animal
2. Cleanliness of utensils and milkers
3. Health condition of cows
4. Proper cleaning of the milking area.
10.2.1 Cleanliness of animal
The coat of the animal should be washed, brushed and clipped regularly. This is more important in the case of buffaloes, as they wallow
in dirty ponds and carry mud and filth on their body. The grooming of the animals should be done well before the milking process, so
that the dirt particles in the air do not fall into milk. From time to time, hair from hind legs, udder and tail of the animal to be milked
should be shaved off.

Fig. 10.1 Cleanliness of animal
10.2.2 Cleanliness of utensils and milkers
All milking utensils should be of uniform size. They should have small mouths to avoid external contamination. They should be made of
a non-rusting and non-absorbent material such as aluminium or galvanized iron. Stainless steel would be ideal, but for the cost
considerations.The utensils to be used for milking should be clean and sterilized. Dome shaped stainless steel vessels are desirable and
washed with 200 ppm of chlorine solution. They should be regularly cleaned with sanitizers.
Clothes & attire of the milking personnel should be clean. They should cover their head to avoid hair falling into the milk. Persons with
injury, skin and infectious diseases should not handle the milk. There should be no smoking, eating, chewing pan, spitting, cleaning nose
etc. during milking. The milker should keep his fingernails short and clean. He should clean his hands with soap and clean water followed
by an antiseptic solution. They should then be wiped dry with a clean towel. It is recommended that persons engaged in milking and
handling of milk should be subjected to regular medical inspection.
10.2.3 Health condition of cows
The animals should be examined periodically for udder and other infections. Infected animals should be treated by a qualified
veterinarian and should be isolated. Sanitary precautions to prevent and control the disease should be adopted. In case of disease like
mastitis, animals which are in healthy condition are to be milked first followed by infected animals. In case of infected animals, the
quarters which are not affected are to be milked first. Milk of the infected animal should never be pooled with the bulk milk and
disposed off properly until the animal recovers from the illness fully.
Fig. 10.2 Regular inspection of animals
10.2.4 Proper cleaning of the milking area
Before milking, the surrounding area should be thoroughly cleaned. All gutters, floor should be cleaned well. In case of mud floors, water
is to be sprinkled to prevent dust falling into milk.
Fig.10.3 Cleaning of milking area
10.3 Practices for Quality Milk Production
General practices followed for obtaining a good quality and low bacterial count milk are:
10.3.1 Animals
· Purchased animals are tested for Tuberculosis and brucellosis and quarantined
· Animals are regularly checked for mastitis and udder lesions
· Isolation of infected animals and following prescribed treatment
· Milk of infected animal should not be mixed with bulk milk.
· Clean the animals atleast 15min before milking.
· Clip the long hair around flanks, udder and tail.
· Udder and teats are cleaned just before milking and wiping with a cloth. use warm water if possible & usage of chlorinated water
is good practice.
10.3.2 Milker
Milker should be free from infectious diseases
· Milker should cut his nails regularly (to avoid staphyolococci)
· Milker should clean hands with soap and water before milking
· Milker should wear clean cloths and caps
10.3.3 Utensils
· Use utensils which have smooth surface and free from dents and crevices
· Utensils should be cleaned with detergent – sanitizer formulae (Sod.carb+Iodophores)
· Do not use wider mouth utensils
10.3.4 Milking processes
· Complete milking and elimination of fore milk which contains higher bacteria.
· Follow full hand milking; Dry milking and Fat milking (a flavourless fat as lubricant; not used widely but a good method).
· Use strip cup test.
· Cool milk on farm preferably to <5°c
10.3.5 Environment
· Separate housing away from human dwelling, sewage, manure pits and stagnant water pools.
· House – well ventilated; normal sloppy drainage, water proof floors, hard and easy to clean.
· Feed manger smooth without ridges.
· Ample sunlight – North & south direction.
· Air space 500 cft/cow.
· Dry bedding.
· Periodic lime washing.
10.3.6 Others
· General quietness in the shed.
· Speedy milking is desirable.
· Clean and adequate water supply on the farm.
· Use wet or pellet food stuffs during milking.
· Keep feed and weed flavours out of milk.
· Proper manure disposal – pit away from farm and remove manure periodically.
· Control of flies and insects.
· Employing incentive payment plan
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 11. HOUSING SYSTEMS AND REQUIREMENTS FOR DAIRY ANIMALS

Module 7. Systems of housing
Lesson 11
HOUSING SYSTEMS AND REQUIREMENTS FOR DAIRY ANIMALS
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Systems of Housing
11.2.1 Conventional barns
11.2.2 Loose housing system
11.2.3 Free-range system
11.3 Buildings for Dairy Animals
11.3.1 Essential buildings
11.3.1.1 Milking barn
11.3.1.2 Milch/ dry animal sheds
11.3.1.3 Maternity pens
11.3.1.4 Calf sheds
11.3.1.5 Young stock shed
11.3.1.6 Bull shed
11.3.2 Ancillary buildings
11.3.2.1 Feed stores
11.3.2.2 Hay/Straw shed
11.4 Floor Space Requirements
11.5 Feeding and Watering Space Requirements
11.6 Layout for Dairy Farms
11.1 Introduction
Animal Housing is required to protect the animals from inclement weather, provide clean, comfortable stay for good health of animals
and for efficient management. Inadequate and improper planning results in additional labour charges and increased costs in maintenance
of sheds. Adequate housing to animals is aimed at increased milk production, better labour utilization, better health of animals, disease
control, better care and management of animals resulting in production of high quality milk resulting in a remunerative price and better
profit of the farm.
Several types of housing are available. The farmer has to select the suitable housing system keeping in view the local environment and
economic status. Minimum investment should be put towards housing of animals by utilizing the locally available materials for
construction of roof, floor and walls without compromising the comfort of animals.
11.2 Systems of Housing
Different housing system available are loose housing, conventional barn system and free range system. Type of housing should be
choosen depending upon the geographical and local conditions with likes and dislikes of the farmer keeping economics in mind. Loose
housing system is more suitable to Indian conditions.
11.2.1 Conventional barns
The conventional dairy barns are becoming less popular day by day as they are comparatively costly. Cattle are more protected from
adverse climatic condition in conventional barns. These are also called stanchion barns. Animals in this system are confined on a plat-
form and secured at neck by stanchions or neck chains or ropes. The cows are fed with fodders, concentrate and as well milked in the
barn. The barns are completely roofed and walls are also complete with windows or ventilators at suitable places. Conventional barns are
constructed in temperate Himalayan regions, where winter is prolonged and severe.
Advantages
1. Animals are less exposed to harsh weather conditions.
2. The animals can be kept cleaner and diseases can controlled better in barns.
3. No need to have a separate milking parlour
Disadvantages
1. The construction cost of shed is more when compared to loose housing system.
2. Conventional barn system is not suitable to hot and humid climates
3. Not possible for future expansion of shed
11.2.2 Loose housing system
This system comprises of keeping animals loose in an open paddock or pasture throughout the day and night except at milking time. The
open paddock is provided with shelter along one side under which the animals stay when it is hot or cold or during rains. A common
watering tank and common fodder manger is provided within the shed. Concentrates are fed at time of milking in a separate milking
barn. The open paddock is enclosed by half walls & wooden or plain wire fences of suitable height. This type of housing is suitable to
most parts of the country except in temperate Himalayan region and heavy rainfall areas. A milking barn or parlour is always to be
constructed in which cows are milked at milking time.
Advantages
1. The loose houses are cheaper to construct, easier to expand and flexible in utility.
2. Feeding and management of stock is easier because of common feeding and watering arrangement.
3. Animals are more comfortable as they move about freely.
4. At least 10 to 15 percent more stock than the standard can be accommodated for shorter periods without unduly affecting their
performance.
5. Detection of heat in animals is easier.
6. Animals also get sufficient exercise which is extremely important for better health production.
Disadvantages
1. More floor space is required when compared to conventional barn system
2. Competition for feed and fodder among animals
3. Individual animal attention is not possible
4. Provision for a separate milking barn is needed
5. Not suitable in heavy rainfall and temperate areas
11.2.3 Free-range system
It comprises of leaving the animals free in a large estate. Free ranges system or ranches indicate a type of stock management rather than
a type of housing. The area is generally a natural or cultivated pasture land with watering points and shelter located at convenient places.
This type of farming is suited to animals that are not handled daily, such as beef cattle. Big cattle and sheep ranches are quite common in
southern parts of America and Australia. In India there is scope for rearing sheep in North Western arid parts and hilly region under
ranch system.
11.3 Buildings for Dairy Animals
The different buildings required for Dairy animals can be classified as
1. Essential buildings
2. Ancillary buildings
11.3.1 Essential buildings
These buildings include milking barn, shed for milch/ dry cows, maternity pens, calf sheds, young stock shed, bull shed and sick animal
shed.
11.3.1.1 Milking barn
It is fully covered barn in which milch animals are milked and located at central place with all other buildings around it. The length and
width of standing space depends on size of animal and range from 1.5 to 1.7 meters in length and 1.05 to 1.2 meters in width. The width
of central passage shall be 1.5 to 1.8 meters. Two continuous feed mangers on either side of shed with a 0.75 meter wide feeding alley
beyond each manger. A shallow U shaped drain about 20 centimeter wide is located on either side of central passage. The roof of shed
should be gabled. The eaves of roof should be at least 50cm away from side walls. Large open spaces may be left on side walls.
11.3.1.2 Milch/ dry animal sheds
The sheds are for housing milch cows and dry cows separately. These are simple sheds comprising a closed area and adjoining open
paddock. The covered area should be preferably cement concrete. Brick on edge or stone shed flooring or konkar or moorum flooring
can be used for open paddock, brick on edge better one.
11.3.1.3 Maternity pens
Pregnant animals are transferred to maternity pens two to three weeks before date of calving. The number of maternity pens required is
about 5% of number of breedable stock. The dimensions are 3x4 meters for covered area and another 3x4 meters for open paddock.
11.3.1.4 Calf sheds
The calf shed are constructed nearer to the milking barn. The dimensions of calf sheds depend on the number of calves to be housed. If
large number of calves are present then calves of different age groups should be housed separately for better feeding and management.
11.3.1.5 Young stock shed
Calves from six months of age to one year of age are to be housed separately from suckling calves. Generally all male calves above six
months of age are disposed off.
11.3.1.6 Bull shed
The bull shed should be located towards one side of form with one bull for shed. The bull shed can have covered area of 3 x 4 meter
with an open paddock 120 Sq. m. One bull is required for every 50 breedable cows in case of natural service.
11.3.2 Ancillary buildings
11.3.2.1 Feed stores
It is required for storing concentrates. There should be one concentrate-cum- feed mixing room at a distant place and a small feed ration
room near the milking barn. The feed room must be damp free and rodent proof. The size of the room is based on the assumption that
0.2 meter storage space is required for each adult unit.
Silos: Under Indian conditions trench silos are convenient. It is constructed by excavation in the hard ground and floor and sides are
lined with cement concrete or brick or stone slab which are seepage proof.
11.3.2.2 Hay/Straw shed
Shed with walls on three sides are better for storing of Hay / straw. The shed should be away from animal sheds because of fire hazards.
11.4 Floor Space Requirements
Open or paddock areas of sufficient space is provided to cattle and buffaloes in warm regions since these animals lie down during the
night. Maximum number of animals housed per pen also determines the comfortness of the animal.
Table 11.1 Floor space requirements for different types of animals
Types of animal Floor space Maximum Height of the

requirement(m2) n u m b e r o f shed (cm)
animals/ pen
Covered Open area
area
Cattle and Buffaloes
Bulls 12.0 24.0 1 175 cm in

medium and
heavy rainfall
Cows 3.5 7.0 50
and 220 in
dry areas
Buffaloes 4.0 8.0 50
Down-calves 12.0 12.0 1
Young- calves 1.0 2.0 30

11.5 Feeding and Watering Space Requirements
A free access and sufficient feeding or watering space must be allocated. The animals should be at comfortable position and with no
competition while in activity. Feeding through or manger must accommodate all the animals at a time. Water through must accommodate
at least 10% of the stock.
Table 11.2 Feeding and watering
Type of animal Space/animal Total manger length Total water tank

(cm) length in a pen for
In a pen for 100 animals (cm) 100 animals (cm)
Adult cattle and 60-75 6000-7500 600-750

buffaloes
Calves 40-50 4000-5000 400-500
11.6 Layout for Dairy Farms
The lay outs are intended to show the size, numbers and locations of different functional units. Each lay out can be planned based on the
size of the farm and the economic returns. A dairy farm should preferably start with a small herd and increase the herd strength later on.
An entrepreneur/ farmer may modify layout suitable to his location and personal likes and dislikes.
Fig. 11.1 Layouts for dairy farms
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 12. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF HEAD TO HEAD AND TAIL TO TAIL STANCHION BARN

Module 7. Systems of housing
Lesson 12
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF HEAD TO HEAD AND TAIL TO TAIL STANCHION BARN
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Tail to tail system of arrangement of animals
12.3 Head to Head System of Arrangement of Animals
12.1 Introduction
The conventional/stanchion barn system is comparatively costly, but the animals are protected from adverse climatic conditions. When
the animals are small in number (up to 10) can be arranged in single row while double row system is needed for larger herds. In double
row system of cattle housing, either tail to tail system or head to head system may be followed as per the preference of the person. In
double row housing, the stable should be so arranged that the cows face out (tails to tail system) or face in (head to head system) as
preferred
12.2 Tail to tail system of arrangement of animals
In tail to tail system, the central passage with gutter on the both sides of central passage is located in the centre of the shed. The feed
mangers along with feed alley are arranged on either side of standing space of the animal.
The advantages are
1. Lesser possibility of spread of diseases from animal to animal.
2. Cows can always get fresh air from outside.
3. Inspection of the milkmen during milking on both sides is possible by standing in central passage.
4. Cleaning of the animals and washing/disposal of dung of the animal is easy for animals on both sides.
5. Detection of the animals in heat can be noticed easily on both sides.
Fig. 12.1 Tail to tail system
12.3 Head to Head System of Arrangement of Animals
The advantage in head to head system of arrangement is that the distribution of feed and fodder to the animals can be done
simultaneously on the both sides of feed mangers. In this system the animals can be displayed to the visitors in a better manner. The
animals can enter into the sheds easily. The gutters can always be dry as it receives more sunshine in a day. The disadvantages are
difficulty in supervision of milkers and more possibility of transmission of diseases to one another.

Fig. 12.2 Head to head system
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 13. MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS OF DAIRY CATTLE

Module 8. Reproductive systems of dairy animals
Lesson 13
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS OF DAIRY CATTLE
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Male Reproductive System
13.2.1 Hormonal regulation of the male reproductive tract
13.3 Anatomy and Physiology of Female Reproductive System
13.3.1 Hormonal regulation of female reproduction
13.4 Estrous Cycle
13.5 Ovulation and Fertilization
13.6 Pregnancy
13.6.1 Detecting pregnancy
13.6.2 Methods of pregnancy diagnosis
13.7 Gestation Period
13.8 Parturition
13.1 Introduction
One of the major functions of all living things is reproduction. Regular and efficient reproduction is an important factor affecting profits
from a livestock enterprise. The instinct for proliferation of the species will maintain an efficient reproductive activity under natural
conditions. But, under the restricted conditions of domestication, efficiency in reproduction mainly depends on the understanding of the
basic facts about reproduction and the application or sound principles and techniques by the manager.
Efficient reproduction implies that the female is producing normal numbers of healthy eggs, and each of the eggs is capable of being
fertilized by a normal sperm. It also implies that the female genital tract is healthy and normal, capable of nurturing the zygote during its
development to produce normal healthy offsprings. As far as the male is concerned, it should be producing sufficient numbers of healthy
sperms capable of fertilization on mating or insemination and in good physical condition to mate or give semen at frequent intervals.
13.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Male Reproductive System
The primary organs of reproduction in male are two testes which produce sperms. These organs are located in a bag-like out pocketing
of the abdominal wall known as scrotum. Other parts of the male reproductive system consist of epididymis, vasdeferens, seminal
vesicles, prostate gland, bulbo-urethral or Cowper’s glands, urethra and penis.
Testes perform the dual role of producing sperms and secreting the male sex hormone testosterone. Sperms are produced in the
seminiferous tubules which are long coiled tubes, the inner walls of which are lined with germinal epithelium. Between the seminiferous
tubules, there are blood vessels, connective tissue, nerves and the interstitial or leydig cells. These interstitial cells secrete the male sex
hormone testosterone which is responsible for typical male attitude and action. It helps in the development and maintenance of the entire
male reproduc t ive system. Increased levels of the male hormone, starting from puberty, produces libido and secondary sexual
characteristics.
Epididymis is a highly coiled tubule connected to the seminiferous tubules. The sperms undergo development and become mature in the
epididymis where they are stored. The vas deferens connects the epididymis to the urethra. It also possesses glands which contribute to
the fluid portion of semen. The seminal vesicles are located in the pelvic cavity at the ends of the vasa deferentia as an outgrowth. They
produce the largest part of the seminal plasma of the stallion, bull and ram.
The postage gland is a compound gland consisting of a large number of lobules surrounding the urethra at the neck of bladder. The
secretion from this gland contributes to the seminal fluid. The composition of the prostatic fluid varies to a great extent between species.
The cowper’s glands are found on either side of the urethra. They are often called the bulbo-urethral glands and are small, firm and oval
in shape. Little is known about the function of the secretion from these glands. The main function of the secretion from Cowper's
glands appears to be to cleanse the urethra in the first fraction of ejaculate of semen. The urethra is a duct connecting the bladder to the
external orifice at the distal end of the penis which passes through the penis. It has two important functions:
a. Carrying urine for excretion from the bladder to the external orifice.
b. Transporting semen to the reproductive tract of the female.
The penis is the copulatory organ of the male. The urethra runs through this and, therefore, the functions of elimination of urine and
transporting semen to the female genital tract can be attributed to the penis. It is made up ·of muscular and erectile tissues that become
engorged with blood when the animal is sexually stimulated resulting in erection.
13.2.1 Hormonal regulation of the male reproductive tract
The primary regulation of reproduction lies with the brain which elaborates the releasing hormones. The releasing hormones in their turn
stimulate the anterior pituitary to produce and release the gonadotropic hormones. Thus, the FSH-releasing factor of brain stimulates the
production of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and the LH-releasing factor, Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The brain seems to be
controlled by the servo or feed-back mechanism in elaborating releasing factors. If these gonadotropic hormones are not produced in
sufficient quantities in the young animal, that animal will not attain sexual maturity. Failure of production of gonadotropins in the adult
will result in impaired spermatogenesis, as well as impaired testosterone production. FSH brings about mainly the development of
seminiferous tubules and is concerned with sperm production. LH on the other hand stimulates the development of interstitial cells and
hormone production.
The role of testosterone is inducing puberty, in developing secondary sexual characters, in stimulating libido and controlling development
and maintenance of the entire male reproductive tract may be stated that, there are a number of naturally occurring and synthesized
compounds having the male sex hormone activity which are collectively called androgens or androgenic hormones. The specific
androgenic hormone produced by the testes is called testosterone.
13.3 Anatomy and Physiology of Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive tract consists of two ovaries and a duct system which opens into the exterior. The duct system consists of
infundibulum, fallopian tubes (oviducts), uterus, the cervix, vagina and vulva. The ovaries are analogous to the testes in the male having
a similar dual function that is, production of (i) gametes (eggs, ova), and (ii) female hormones. They are almond shaped or bean shaped
in the cow, ewe and mare and relatively smooth. They are two in number and located on either side of the vertebral column in the area
of the hip bones. From the time of birth, ovary consists of hundreds of primordial egg cells and ovary is almost completely covered with
a single layer of germinal epithelium. The ova develop in structural units known as follicles which when enlarge and bulge out of the
ovarian wall like pimples are known as Graafian follicles. One or more Graafian follicles develop in each reproductive cycle depending
on the species. In addition to the developing ovum, the Graafian follicle produces the female hormone estrogen. The follicle eventually
bursts and the ovum is released.
The fallopian tubes are oviducts which provide the connecting link between infundibulum and uterus. They are convoluted tubes with a
ciliated surface inside. Ova that fall into infundibulum are slowly transported to uterus through these tubes. Fertilization normally takes
place in upper part of the fallopian tube with the sperm moving through uterus and duct to meet the descending egg.
The uterus is a tubular muscular organ consisting of a body and two horns. The horns are well developed in cattle, sheep and swine. The
uterus is lined with a thick layer of mucosa or endometrium which contains many glands. These glands produce the secretion which is
seen at estrus and also provide nutrition to developing embryo (blastocyst) prior to implantation. The inner surface of the uterus of cow,
ewe and other ruminants contains about 100 button-like projections known as caruncles. During pregnancy, the foetal membranes are
attached to the caruncles of maternal endometrium by interlocking with corresponding area known as cotyledons. Nourishments for the
foetus from the mother's blood passes mainly at the region of caruncles in ruminants.
The cervix is the thick-walled, muscular neck of the womb which lies between the uterus and the vagina. It consists of a strong muscular
sphincter which keeps the opening closed during pregnancy and anestrous periods. This sphincter relaxes during estrus (heat) and during
parturition. The musculature of cervix is thick. The mucous membrane has longitudinal folds and transverse constrictions forming a
spiral canal inside. During pregnancy, thick mucous plug seals the cervix.
The vagina is the posterior part of the female reproductive tract and serves as the copulatory organ. It is a tubular canal extending from
the cervix to the vulva. In farm animals it lies horizontally just below the rectum. It is a highly elastic structure. It receives the penis, and
in most cases semen also, during copulation. Besides, it also acts as a birth canal during parturition. The epithelial lining of the vagina
changes according to the stages of estrous cycle. During estrus, the vaigna has a highly stratified epithelial layer. During anestrous it is
less active and consists of only a few layers of epithelial cells.
Vulva or labia, majora is the posterior opening of the female genital tract into the exterior. The clitoris is a rudimentary organ located at
the ventral junction of the vulva. It is sensory and erectile to a limited extent. With the onset of heat the vulva and clitoris become turgid
due to an increased flow of blood, particularly so in the sow and less so in cow, ewe and mare. Clitoris is the major erotic centre in
female.
13.3.1 Hormonal regulation of female reproduction
The regulatory mechanism acts in a three tier system consisting they are
i. Anterior pituitary hormone releasing factors from the mid-brain,
ii. The pituitary gonadotropins
iii. The gonadal and placental hormones.
The entire adenohypophyseal (anterior pituitary) hormones are regulated by releasing factors from hypothalamus. The two coordinating
and regulating systems, i.e., nervous system and humoral system are interconnected through the releasing factors. The releasing factors
are hormones produced in the hypothalamus which pass via the hyperphysical portal system to influence the release of all hormones
from anterior pituitary including pituitary gonadotropins.
The anterior pituitary releases two separate gonadotropins. One specifically stimulates follicular growth in the ovary and is termed the
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). The release of this hormone is regulated by FSH-releasing factor from hypothalamus.
The second substance does not produce any effect if FSH has not acted on ovary first. This factor is termed the luteinizing hormone
(LH) and is regulated by LH-releasing factor of hypothalamus. The Graafian follicles in ovary develop under the stimulation of FSH, but
LH is essential for their maturation. Estrogen is synthesized in follicle under the influence of both FSH and LH. Ovulation and initial
development of corpus luteum (in some species) are also controlled by LH.
Ovary (and placenta during pregnancy) produces three important hormones under the influence of pituitary gonadotropins. The deve-
loping Graafian follicles and later the placenta produce estrogen. It is a steroid hormone responsible for the development, maintenance
and cyclic changes of the female tubular genital tract. It is also concerned with the development of secondary sex characteristics, sexual
behavior and development and functioning of accessory sex organs. This hormone also controls glandular and duct development in the
mammary glands and uterus. As the Graafian follicle breaks to release the ovum, the remaining parts of that follicle are converted into an
endocrine organ known as corpus luteum which elaborates the hormone called progesterone. The placenta also produces this hormone at
the time of pregnancy. Progesterone in the presence of estrogen develops uterus for implantation of the zygote and maintains pregnancy.
Progesterone is responsible for the development of glandular tissue in the mammae and uterus.
13.4 Estrous Cycle
The combination of physiological events which take place starting with estrus (heat) and ending with the next heat is termed estrous
cycle. The estrous cycle of cow range from 19 to 21 days. The whole estrous cycle may be divided into 4 phases viz., estrus, metestrus,
diestrus and proestrus. Estrus or heat is the period in which female shows desire to be mated by male. During this period, ovulation and
formation of corpus luteum occur in most species. Metestrus is the period just after ovulation during which the level of estrogen and LH
fall and corpus luteum beings to function. The next phase is diestrus which is predominated by the influence of progesterone from
corpus luteum on all accessory sex structures. If fertilization takes place, pregnancy with the accompanying high level of progesterone
will stop the formation and development of new Graafian follicles in the ovaries, resulting in a condition known as anestrous. Regular
rhythmic estrous cycle can start only after the termination of pregnancy.
13.5 Ovulation and Fertilization
Ovulation is the shedding of ova from the Graafian follicle. The process of ovulation is a gradual one. LH is the ovulatory hormone of
mammals. In most animals, ovulation occurs at end or a little after the end of estrus. In most of the farm animals ovulation takes place at
scheduled time irrespective of the fact whether coitus has taken place or not. They are known as spontaneous ovulators. Even in these
animals, stimulation of the genital tract has been found to hasten ovulation. The second group (cat and rabbit) known as the induced
ovulators require stimulus of coitus for ovulation to take place.
The discharged ovum enters the fimbriated end of oviduct (infundibulum) and begins to descend towards uterus. If copulation had taken
place and sperms are available in required numbers, fertilization will take place in upper portion of the oviduct. The essential step in
fertilization is the entry of a single sperm into ovum facilitating the union of nuclei of two gametes to form zygote.
Mating stimulates the estrogen-stimulated uterus to undergo strong contractions under the influence of oxytocin released by reflex action.
This facilitates quick deployment of newly arrived spermatozoa in the anterior fallopian tube where it could meet the ovum. The uterine
contractions are far more important than the motility of spermatozoa in transporting sperms from cervix to the anterior fallopian tube.
Even though, only one sperm cell fertilizes the ovum, it has been found that minimum concentrations of spermatozoa are required to
bring about fertilization. It is hypothesized that a minimum number of spermatozoa are required to bring about certain biochemical
changes in or around the ovum without which the penetration of ovum by a sperm cannot take place. Similarly, once a sperm penetrates
into an ovum, certain changes take place in zona pellucida and vitelIine membrane of the egg, precluding further entry of sperms.
The spermatozoa of some mammalian species should remain in the female genital tract for a period of several hours to undergo
capacitation to attain the capacity to fertilize the ovum.
After ovulation, the ovum is capable for undergoing fertilization for a period of five to ten hours. On the other hand, the sperms may
survive in female genital tract for a day or two. Therefore, the time of mating in relation to ovulation is important for effective
fertilization.
13.6 Pregnancy
Viviparity is one of the sophistications of evolution in mammals. Providing a protected environment to the young ones in the early stages
of their development inside the body of the mother and supplying nutrients and removing waste products involves lot of coordination
which is brought about by endocrine system. The fertilized egg descends down the oviduct and reaches the uterus by the fourth day. The
prenatal life in the uterus has been subdivided into three:
1. The period of the ovum: Free living zygote which sheds the zona pellucida and becomes the blastocyst which in turn makes a
loose attachment to the uterine mucous membrane. The zygote is nourished by uterine milk or secretions of the uterine glands.
2. The period of the embryo: Blastocyst undergoes further development with the formation of organs.
3. The period of the foetus: It consists of the period when developed embryo and placenta undergo rapid growth. This period is
terminated by parturition.
The placental membranes consisting of amnion (forms a protective cushion against external shocks), allantois and chorion (foetal
circulation ) have a complex role to play.
13.6.1 Detecting pregnancy
It is of great importance to know whether or not a female animal has become pregnant after a service. Pregnancy diagnosis assists in
herd management by identifying non-pregnant animals, which can be served again or culled with minimum necessary delay. Such a pro-
cedure will improve the breeding efficiency and greatly contribute towards the economy.. Pregnancy-diagnosis is also very useful in
selling and buying animals and also in slaughter houses where slaughter of a pregnant animal can be prevented.
Methods for detecting pregnancy are classified as follows:
1) Detection of the physical presence of the foetus and foetal membranes by rectal or abdominal palpation.
2) Identifying the presence of the foetus in the uterus by X-ray technique (radiography) or by studying the echo of ultrasonic
waves.
3) Detection of physical and behavioral changes in the mother that occur with pregnancy.
4) Detection of hormonal changes associated with pregnancy.
5) Detection of maternal changes, which are the result of endocrinological changes.
13.6.2 Methods of pregnancy diagnosis
In cattle, the most widely used method is rectal palpation. A gloved hand is inserted through the rectum of the cow and the genital organs
and foetus are palpated through the rectal wall. During the first 35 days there is no visible change in the size of the uterus. However, an
experienced technician can tentatively diagnose pregnancy during this period by palpating the corpus luteum (CL) of pregnancy.
From the six weeks onwards, there will be enlargement of the uterus which can be easily studied in primeparous heifers. But, in cows
which have calved already, there will be some enlargement of one horn even without conception. At eight weeks, the pregnant horn is
approximately six times larger than the non-gravid horn. From eighth week to twelfth week, the gravid horn enlarges by 50 per cent
more. The uterus becomes extra pelvic and starts descending in the abdominal cavity. This is the most ideal period for rectal palpation to
diagnose pregnancy. From twelve weeks onward the uterus enlarges very rapidly and descends into the abdomen. But it can be easily
felt up to sixteen weeks. Thereafter palpation of the uterus becomes progressively difficult as it sinks deeper and deeper into the
abdomen. However, cotyledons, a double uterine membrane and an enlarged middle uterine artery with fremitus can be felt; As the time
approaches, the foetus grows and extends back into the pelvic cavity and so becomes easier to palpate head and limbs.
13.7 Gestation Period
Gestation periods vary considerably between species of farm animals. Within a species variation in the length of pregnancy period can be
observed between breeds and between individuals within the breeds. The gestation period of some farm animals are listed in the table
below:
Table 13.1 Gestation period in farm animals
Animals Average gestation period
Indian Dairy Cattle (Bos indicus)
Sahiwal 286
Gir 286
Red Sindhi 283
Tharparkar 287
Hariana 290
European Dairy Cattle 289
(Bos Taurus)
Ayrshire 278
Guernsey 284
Jersey 279
Brownswiss 290
Holstein-Friesien 279
Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
Murrah buffalo 309
Egyptian buffalo 318
Using the information on gestation period, the probable date of parturition can be predicted if the date of service is known. A ready
reckoner to find out the probable date of parturition is given in the following table 13.1.
13.8 Parturition
In the cow, ewe and sow the corpus luteum regresses towards the end of pregnancy with an accompanying reduction in progesterone
secretion. At this stage relaxin, hormone secreted by ovary and in some species by the uterus, acts with rising levels of estrogen of late
pregnancy to bring about relaxation of the pelvic structure and the cervix. In recent years, prostaglandins have been identified to play a
major role in parturition. But, their activity is limited to the immediate surroundings as they are quickly metabolized in the system and are
often referred to as 'local hormones'. Some of these are known to have potent electrolytic (regressing corpus luteum) and oxytocic
(effect similar to oxytocin) effects. Meanwhile, it has also been observed that the foetus increases the production of adrenal cortico-
steroid hormones towards the end of gestation which exert their influence on the myometrium (uterine musculature), most likely through
the mediation of prostaglandin F2 α (PGF2 α).
Towards the end of gestation period, the foetal brain is stimulated to produce releasing factor which will stimulate the foetal pituitary to
produce adrenocortico-tropic hormone (ACTH). This in turn will stimulate the foetal adrenal cortex to produce cortical hormones which
exert their action on the foetal and maternal placenta. This will cause a lowered production of progesterone and increase in estrogen and
influence maternal hypothalamus to release oxytocin which will act on the myometrium to produce labour contractions. The maternal
placenta on being acted upon by foetal cortisol, produces Prostaglandin F2 which acts on corpus luteum resulting in its regression and
lowering of progesterone level in the system. Prostaglandin F2 also stimulates potent uterine contractions. This aided by voluntary effort
on the part of the animal with abdominal muscles, finally results in delivering the foetus.
Knowledge of signs of approaching parturition is beneficial to the farmer to plan his operations and put the animal in the parturition pen.
Maternal behaviour like nesting will manifest itself by the late stages of pregnancy. They will also leave the herd and seek isolation.
There will be anorexia, distress and withdrawal from the environment. There will be relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and muscles with
rising of tail head and dropping of the quarters. The mammary glands develop fully and there will be some secretion. Milk appears to a
considerable degree engorging the udder and teats one or two days before parturition. In dairy cows, there may be dripping of milk and
in the mare, formation of waxy seal by dried mammary secretion. The labour pains will give distress and the animal will be restless and
pace about often trying to kick or scratch the flank region.
Fig. 13.1 Hormonal control of parturition
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 14. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND ROLE OF NUTRIENTS IN DAIRY CATTLE

Module 9. Feeding of dairy animals
Lesson 14
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND ROLE OF NUTRIENTS IN DAIRY CATTLE
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Digestion of the Ruminants
14.2.1 Digestive system of ruminants
14.3 Role of Nutrients in Dairy Cattle
14.3.1 Water
14.3.2 Carbohydrates
14.3.3 Fats
14.3.4 Proteins
14.3.5 Minerals
14.3.5.1 Major elements
14.3.5.2 Trace elements
14.3.6 Vitamins
14.3.6.1 Water soluble vitamins
14.3.6.2 Fat soluble vitamins
14.1 Introduction
Feeding is the important factor influencing productive function of the dairy animal and milk production in particular. The feed that the
animal consumes, after undergoing digestion, releases the nutrients for the synthesis of milk. For maximum production, sufficient
nutrients are to be provided in the ration of the animal so that the animal utilizes them and high milk production can be achieved. Hence
a balanced ration should be provided to the dairy animal in order to achieve maximum out put of milk. In this chapter digestive system of
cattle, role of various nutrients and their requirements, various feed resources and their nutritive values are discussed.
14.2 Digestion of the Ruminants
Fig. 14.1 Digestive system of Cattle
14.2.1 Digestive system of ruminants
The digestive organs of ruminants consists of mouth, oesophagus, rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum, small intestine, and large
intestine.
The cow takes food into the mouth. The food taken in by the animal after mixing with saliva enters into the rumen through oesophagus.
Cattle stomach has four compartments such as:
Rumen: In the rumen the feed is subjected to microbial fermentation. Esophagus leads the food into the rumen which is a large
receptacle divided into four areas by muscular bands or pillars. The four areas are dorsal, ventral and two posterior sacs. The feed inside
the rumen is agitated in a rotary fashion by the contraction of the muscular bands .This helps in mixing feed well with the rumen fluid.
Unlike non ruminant’s stomach, the rumen is the major area for a absorption of nutrients. The finger like papillae lining the rumen
greatly increases the surface area for absorption.
The herbivores generally have an expanded part of digestive system so as to hold the bulky fibrous feeds and delay their passage to
undergo microbial fermentation. In ruminants this enlarged part is represented by the rumen which is the biggest compartment in their
four-chambered stomach.
The microorganisms are benefited as follows:
Ingestion of feed by the animal ensures a sure and steady supply of nutrients to the micro-organisms.
The temperature of rumen is 38- 40°C. This is ideal for the growth of micro-organisms and they flourish as if grown in an
incubator.
The important differences in carbohydrate digestion in ruminants from that of non-ruminants is that: (i) cellulose is utilized, (ii) the diges-
tion is mainly microbial and, (iii) the end-products are volatile fatty acids such as acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and not glucose.
Proteins are attacked by bacteria and the end-products are usually ammonia and short chain fatty acids. A considerable proportion of the
protein needs of the animals are met through such microbial protein. These micro-organisms ultimately pass from the rumen to the lower
stomach and intestines, where digestion of the microbial protein takes place in the same way as protein is digested in non-ruminants.
Vitamins belonging to the B-complex, group is dietary essentials for non-ruminants. But in the ruminants they are synthesized by the
rumen micro flora in sufficient quantities to meet all the dietary needs. In other herbivores a' similar synthesis to a lesser degree takes
place in the large intestine.
Reticulum: It is a smaller sac partially separated from rumen. This organ has a thick wall resembling honeycomb. The contents of
rumen and reticulum mix freely. Reticulum is connected to omasum, the third compartment of stomach through an opening on the right
side of reticulum.
Omasum: This organ has many layers of muscular leaves giving it the resemblance to a book. After fermentation the ingesta passes
through the reticulo-omasal orifice into the omasum. With the help of the muscular leaves having horny papillae the ingesta is squeezed
out. Water and fatty acids so squeezed out are absorbed.
Abomasum: it is the true stomach in the ruminant. From this organ onwards the digestion taking place in ruminants is similar to that of
non-ruminants.
Small Intestine: Duodenum is the first loop of small intestine. It is an important area because pancreatic duct and bile duct join.
Large Intestine: Absorption of water takes place from large intestine.
14.3 Role of Nutrients in Dairy Cattle
A nutrient is defined by Morrison as “any food constituent or group of food constituents of the same general chemical composition that
aids in the support of life.” Nutrients are essential for the preservation of life.
E.g.: water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins are the well recognized feed nutrients.
14.3.1 Water
Functions of water: Animals require water for the formation of their bodies. Water acts as a medium and universal solvent in almost all
vital processes like digestion absorption, intermediary metabolism, excretion and even in reproduction. Water can absorb large quantity of
heat with limited temperature change, besides animals get rid of a major portion of excess body heat evolved in metabolic processes
through evaporating body water. It also helps in maintaining the pH of body fluids with in normal range. Water content of the body varies
considerably between species of animals. Factors like age, sex, degree of fatness and physiological status of animals and environmental
factors like climate also influence the concentration of water in the animal body. Adult cattle require 3.5-5.5 liters of water for every / kg
DM intake. Calves require 6.5 L/kg DM intake.
14.3.2 Carbohydrates
In plants 50-80% of dry matter is usually carbohydrates. Thus animals which consume plant materials, consume large quantities of
carbohydrates. The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy. These are important as these are chief source of energy for the
animal for its maintenance, growth, production and work.
Carbohydrates include sugars, starch, cellulose, hemi cellulose, peptones, gums and mucilage. These carbohydrates are classified into
monosaccharide, (glucose, galactose, fructose etc,) disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose) and polysaccharides (starch, cellulose and
glycogen) depending on number of sugar molecular present in them.
Plants store excess food nutrients as starch (cereal grains, fruits, tubers etc). Starch is not soluble in water but easily digested into sugar.
Therefore the food value is high. Cellulose is a more complex and less soluble and digestible carbohydrate. No known enzyme of animals
can digest cellulose. The fermentation of cellulose in the rumen results in formation of volatile fatty acids like acetic, propionic, butyric
and Valeric acids. These constitute major source of energy for ruminants. For ruminants cellulose has same energy value as starch.
Any carbohydrate absorbed in excess of the body’s need for energy is first converted into glycogen and stored in the liver. Any
carbohydrate in excess of this is converted into fat and stored in different parts in the body.
14.3.3 Fats
Natural fats are complex mixtures of mixed triglycerides, a molecule of fat consisting of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.
An unsaturated fatty acid has one or more double bonds depending on the degree of un-saturation. Fatty acids having two or more
double bands are called Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA’s). Fats in the food serve as a source of energy. The oxygen content of fats
is much less and therefore on oxidation, they liberate roughly 1.25 times more energy than carbohydrates. Apart from being a
concentrated source of energy, fats aid in the absorption of vitamin ‘A’, carotene and calcium.
14.3.4 Proteins
Proteins are another group of nutrients that provide energy to the animals. The energy value of proteins is approximately similar to that
of carbohydrates. But, they form structural com p onents of cell walls and membranes. Some proteins function as hormones and
enzymes. They play important role in acid-base balance, oxygen and other nutrient transport, muscle contraction, osmotic pressure,
immunity (anti-bodies), blood coagulation.
Proteins molecule is composed of a considerable number of amino acids. A protein molecule contains one or more polypeptides. Each
polypeptide chain consists of many amino acids varying in number from around 20 to several hundreds. The large-animal tissues cannot
form certain amino acids from any other source. These are called essential amino acids, such as arginine valine histidine isoleucine,
leucine, lysine, metheonine, phenylalanine, tryptophan and threonine. These amino acids are, therefore, necessary for life and must be
supplied through feed in required quantities.
The micro-organisms in the rumen are able to synthesize all amino acids from other amino acids and even from non-protein nitrogenous
compounds. The pattern of protein metabolism is modified in the ruminant by the synthesis of microbial protein in the rumen. Ruminants
digest these microbial proteins of high biological value in the intestines and absorb amino acids.
14.3.5 Minerals
Animal body contains 3 to 5 percent mineral matter depending on factors like age, condition, species and physiological status of animals.
Out of these, 21 elements have been recognized as essential. Minerals are usually classified into major and trace elements based on the
vast difference in the amounts required in the diets and/or present in the animal body. Minerals play many a vital role in the animal
system. As constitutes of the skeletal tissue minerals impart rigidity and strength to it. Minerals also form part of the soft tissues and
body fluids in the body. Nucleoproteins, which form the continuity from generation to generation, have phosphorus as a constituent.
Phospholipids are an essential part of cell protoplasm. They also exert either stimulative or depressive effect on response and tonicity of
muscles and irritability of nerves. Blood contains minerals mostly responsible for maintaining proper osmotic pressure and acid base
balance in the system. Hemoglobin contains iron useful in transport of oxygen.
14.3.5.1 Major elements
The dietary requirement of the essential major elements is more than 0.010% (100 ppm). The average tissue concentrations of these
elements also exceed 100 ppm.
Skeletal development in various species of farm animals is dependent on adequate calcium and phosphorus supply in the presence
of vitamin D. Calcium deficiency in young animals is characterized by poor skeletal development and rickets. In adult animals
chronic Ca deficiency leads to osteomalacia and osteoporosis. Dairy cows shortly after calving may develop milk fever, a condition
characterized by low plasma Ca with symptoms of muscular spasms and paralysis.
Phosphorus is the important element in the energy transformations of living cells involving formation and breaking of high energy P
bonds. Pica or deprived appetite with tendency to chew objects like bones, wood .or leather is seen. Reproductive problems like
anoestrus and low conception, rates are often seen in females having P deficiency.
Sodium, Chlorine and Potassium are mainly concerned with maintenance of acid-base balance and osmotic pressure in the animal
body. Magnesium plays a vital role in many body processes especially as an activator in many enzymatic reactions.
14.3.5.2 Trace elements
The dietary needs and body concentrations of essential trace elements are always below 100 ppm. On the basis of present day
knowledge, 14 trace elements appear to be essential.
Iron is an essential part of the respiratory pigment hemoglobin.
Presence of copper is necessary for the utilization of iron. Copper is also a constituent of some of the enzymes like cytochrome
oxidize, catalase, tyrosine and ascorbic acid oxidize.
Cobalt is a constituent of vitamin B12.
Zinc plays an important role in keratinisation and calcification and, as a constituent of many important enzymes, it has an essential
role.
Iodine forms about 65 per cent of the hormone thyroxin of thyroid gland which regulates the development of the animal and the
metabolic rate.
Body contains comparatively larger quantities of sulphur, mostly in the organic form. The body can utilize mostly the organic
sulphur which is part of the amino acids, methionine and cystine.
Selenium in trace quantities is an essential nutrient in spite of its well-known toxic effect in larger doses which cause 'alkali disease'
or blind staggers.
Excess fluorine increases the incidence of dental caries and bone abonormalities
14.3.6 Vitamins
Vitamins are vital constituents required by the body. They are classified as water soluble and fat soluble. Members of the B-complex and
vitamin C belong to the category of water soluble vitamins whereas vitamins A, D, E and K form the fat soluble group.
14.3.6.1 Water soluble vitamins
Vitamins B-complex group includes thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2) and vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine, pyridoxamine and pyridoxaI), niacin,
pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid, Choline and cyanocobalamine (B12),
Thiamin as a constituent of the coenzyme carboxylase and otherwise plays an important role in intermediary metabolism.
Riboflavin required to form many lipoprotein enzymes and coenzymes, which act at important stages in the metabolic release of
food energy in the body.
Niacin (Nicotinamide) is essential metabolically for all species of animals as it forms part of two important co-enzymes co enzyme I
(NAD) and co-enzyme II (NADP).
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxamine and pyridoxal) helps in efficient metabolism of tryptophan.
Feeding of raw egg-white has been found to produce biotin deficiency in many species due to presence of avidin in raw egg-white
which makes dietary biotin unavailable.
Folic acid plays an important role in intermediary metabolism.
Choline is essential for the formation of cell structure.
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamine) prevents and cures pernicious anemia in human beings.
Vitamin C is essential in the diet of all species
14.3.6.2 Fat soluble vitamins
Fat soluble vitamins include Vitamin A, D, E and K
Vitamin A has four distinct biological functions; namely, bone formation and growth, vision, reproduction and maintenance of
healthy epithelial tissue. Vitamin A deficiency symptoms are watering from the eyes, night blindness, loss of appetite, exophthalmia
and infected eyes. This is followed by retardation of growth and malformation of epithelial and skeletal structures. Excess of
vitamin A can cause toxicity. However animals have some built-in mechanism to guard against hypervitaminosis.
Vitamin D has a major role in calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Its main role is to increase the absorption of calcium from the
alimentary tract. Deficiency of the vitamin causes rickets in all species.
Vitamin E (Tocopherols) is important for the health of reproductive system and act as antioxidants. Vitamin E has inter-
relationships with selenium, sulphur containing amino acids, poly unsaturated fatty acids and antioxidants.
Vitamin K is involved in the coagulation of blood. Cattle may develop deficiency of vitamin K when they consume large quantities
of mouldy sweet clover hay.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 15. FEED RESOURCES AND FEEDING REQUIREMENTS OF DAIRY CATTLE

Module 9. Feeding of dairy animals
Lesson 15
FEED RESOURCES AND FEEDING REQUIREMENTS OF DAIRY CATTLE
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Classification of Feed Stuffs
15.2.1 Pastures
15.2.2 Harvested feeds
15.2.2.1 Roughages
15.2.2.2 Concentrates
15.2.2.3 Non-conventional feeds and fodders
15.3 Feeding Standards
15.3.1 Requirement for maintenance (Modified Morrison’s standard)
15.3.2 Requirement for growth
15.3.3 Requirement for lactation
15.4 Feeding Cattle and Buffaloes by Thumb Rule Method
15.4.1 Maintenance ration
15.4.2 Gestation ration
15.4.3 Production ration
15.1 Introduction
Livestock improvement demands the efficient use of available feed resources. The provision of feeding stuffs of adequate nutritional
quality is likely to be the most limiting factor in increasing livestock production in the developing countries. Factors like climate,
agronomic practices, feed processing technologies and genetic variations ultimately affect the nutritive value of feed for livestock.
Feeding resources and feeding systems of farm animals vary from one place to another. Feeding practices are governed by the farmer's
land holdings, socio-economic status and marketing of livestock and their products.
Feed resources available in the country can be divided into two main categories as Conventional Feed Resources and Non-conventional
Feed Resources. Conventional resources are grouped further into three categories: viz; (i) green roughages, (ii) dry roughages and (iii)
concentrates
Dairy cattle have enormous potential to produce animal carbohydrate, protein and fat which requires high nutrient requirements through
feeds. The use of adequate, well-balanced diets can maximize profits in a feeding program. An animal's diet must contain the essential
nutrients in appropriate amounts and ratios. To maintain adequate performance at a minimal cost, least-cost diet formulations are
required.
15.2 Classification of Feed Stuffs
Livestock feeds are primarily classified into three major categories as depicted in Fig. 15.1 viz., Pastures, harvested feeds and
supplements & additives.
Fig. 15.1 Classification of feed stuffs
15.2.1 Pastures
Pastures form the 'oldest' form of livestock feed. The word 'pasture' refers to land on which different types of edible grasses and other
plants grow or are grazing livestock. Permanent pastures are those covered with perennial or self seeding annual species of plants.
Temporary pastures are those planted with quick growing crops like Sudan grass and millet to provide supplemental grazing during lean
seasons.
The main objective in grassland management is to provide maximum feed nutrients to the livestock from the pasture without any
detriment to the health and productivity of the pasture. Association with proper grazing management can improve pastures considerably.
Many systems of grazing have been evolved to ensure optimum productivity of pastures. They include:
a) Controlled continuous grazing,
b) Deferred grazing,
c) Rotational grazing,
d) Hohenheim system, and
e) Deferred rotational grazing
15.2.2 Harvested feeds
Harvested feeds are classified as roughages, concentrates and unconventional feeds and ofdders
15.2.2.1 Roughages
Feeds with a higher proportion of crude fibre or non digestible materials are grouped together under the general term, roughages. They
are bulky and usually contain more than 18% crude fibre. Roughages may be further classified into succulent and dry depending on the
moisture content. Succulent roughages are further classified into green fodder and silage. Green fodder includes leguminous fodder and
non leguminous fodder.
Leguminous Roughages: Leguminous fodder consists of the stem and leaves of a group of plants belonging to the family
Leguminaceae. Important leguminous fodder crops include true clovers (Trifolium species), Medics (Medicago species), Crotalaria
species and certain other miscellaneous legumes. Eg: Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium) among medics, Lucerne (Medicago sativa)
is the most popular fodder crop. Crotalaria group includes a large number of species useful for foraging like Sun hemp (Crotalaria
junia), Cow pea (Vigna sinensis) and Kudzu vine (Pueraris thunbergiana) Certain other legumes like soybeans (Glycene Soya) are
also important in livestock feeding.
Non-leguminous Roughages: Non-leguminous fodder generally contains lower percentage of nitrogen. Therefore, when livestock
get non-leguminous fodder, special care has to be taken to add sufficient protein-rich concentrates to balance the ration. They
include many cereal fodder crops, perennial cultivated grasses, some indigenous grasses and introduced grasses. Important
members of cereal Crops used as fodder are Maize (Zea mays), Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), Bajra (Pennisetum typhoides), Oats
(Avena sativa) and Teosinte (Euchlaena mexicana). Among the perennial cultivated fodder grasses Para grass (Brachiaria mutica),
Guinea grass (Pancium maximum), Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), Hybrid Napier (an interspecies cross between Napier
and Bajra), Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) Blue panic grass(Panicum antidotable) and Sudan grass (Sorghum vulgare var.
sudanese) are the important members. Some of the important indigenous grasses are Anjan grass (Kolukattain grass,
Cenchruscialiaris), Dhub grass (Hariali, Cynodon dactylon), Giant star grass (Cynodon plectostachyus), Marval grass (Dichanthium
annulatum), Sewan grass (Elyonurus hirsatus) and Masel grass (Iseilema laxum).
Many other grasses like Deenabandhu grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum), Orchard grass (Dactylus glomerata), Signal grass
(Brachiaria brizantha) introduced to India from Africa, USA, Australia, UK and other countries.
15.2.2.2 Concentrates
Concentrates are high in energy and/or protein, low in fiber, and highly digestible. They are the expensive part of the animal feed and are
used mostly in small quantities as supplements. These feeds include cereals, oil seeds and meals, cereals brans and polishings, molasses
and sugar beet pulp. Two local types of concentrates are common.
Energy-rich (carbonaceous) or basal concentrates including cereal grains (wheat, maize, barley, oats, sorghum, rice), wheat bran,
rice polishing, molasses (sugar cane and sugar beet molasses), sugar beet pulp.
Protein-rich (proteinaceous) sources from plant origin include oilseed cakes (cottonseed, mustard seed, maize oil, sunflower, toria,
sesame, oil seed meals (cottonseed, soybean, guar, maize gluten), maize gluten feed, maize gluten meal and from animal origin are
blood meal, fish meal, meat meal and feather meal.
Basal concentrates are rich in carbohydrates and usually have a low protein percentage. Thus, they can be used in the ration of livestock
mainly as a source of the energy. This does not mean that they do not supply any protein. Often, the protein present in grains is highly
digestible. But the proportion of protein present is low. Use of wheat as a livestock feed has been limited only.
Protein-rich concentrates have a greater proportion of protein as a constituent. They may be of plant or animal origin. Protein-rich
concentrates of plant origin are products or by-products derived from plants. Pulses and grams like cow-pea, black gram, horse gram and
Bengal gram form an important group of protein-rich concentrates of plant origin. The important animal proteins in livestock feeding are
by-products like tankage, fish meal, meat meal, dried skim milk and dried butter milk.
15.2.2.3 Non-conventional feeds and fodders
Non-conventional feed refers to those feeds which are not traditionally used in animal feeding but have the potential to be used as feed.
There are many agro-industrial by-products and wastes available in the province, which have not yet found their way in animal feeding,
such as by-products of the sugar industry, and cereal industry (straw and pods of soybean, chickpea, peanut, mustard and sunflower
heads).. In addition to the above, other crop by-products not currently used by farmers as feed have the potential for incorporation in the
diet of ruminants. However, for effective utilization these fibrous feeds need various physical or chemical or biological treatments. Some
such feeds are discussed below.
Tree leaves as fodder considering the widespread shortages of nutritious conventional feeds. In general, the tree leaves were found to be
a rich source of protein. Eg:papal
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) can be fed as hay along with ground nut cake and paddy straw without any sign of diuresis or
diarrhea. Silage also is prepared of water hyacinth with paddy straw in 4: 1 proportion using 2 % common salt.
Agricultural by-products can be fed as unconventional roughage resources. The left overs, after the removal of oil seeds and pulses, are
generally considered a waste. Attempts have been made to utilize these left over by feeding to ruminants.
15.3 Feeding Standards
Feeding standards are tables stating the amount of various nutrients that should be present in the daily ration of different classes of
livestock for optimum results in growth, work and production.
15.3.1 Requirement for maintenance (Modified Morrison’s standard)
Basal metabolism forms the major component of maintenance requirement. It is usually determined by calorimetric methods. The 'basal'
conditions necessary for such estimations include
having received prior good nutrition.
having been adapted to a zone of thermo neutrality.
post absorptive state;
Minimum emotional stress and minimum muscular activity.
Table 15.1 Nutrients required for maintenance requirement of dairy animals
Body Energy Vit-A

DCP (kg) Ca (g) P (g)
weight(kg) TDN (kg) ME (K.cal) (IU)
250 0.168 2.02 7.27 6 6 27
300 0.197 2.36 8.50 7 7 32
350 0.217 2.70 9.72 8 8 37
400 0.255 3.03 10.91 9 9 42

450 0.282 3.37 12.13 10 10 47
500 0.296 3.64 13.28 11 11 52
550 0.336 4.00 14.40 12 12 57
15.3.2 Requirement for growth
Similar to maintenance requirements the growth requirements for animals can be estimated by factorial calculations or by actual feeding
trials. Usually, the requirements for growth and fattening are added to that of maintenance so that when animals are fed as per standards
for growth, there is no need of adding' maintenance requirements to that.
Table 15.2 Nutrients required for a calf growing at the rate of 0.5kg per day during first two years and reaching adult body
weight at the age of approximately 3 years.
Energy
Body Ca (g) P (g)
DCP(kg) Vit-A (IU)
weight(kg) TDN (kg) ME (K.cal)
45 0.17 0.9 3290 7 6 2000
70 0.22 1.3 4680 12 10 3000
100 0.28 1.9 6900 13 10 4000
150 0.35 2.6 9360 13 12 6500

200 0.40 3.0 11500 13 12 8500
300 0.47 4.0 12600 13 12 12500
450 0.48 5.0 13600 12 12 17000
15.3.3 Requirement for lactation
Lactation involves synthesis of milk constituents, mobilization from body tissues and transport of nutrients absorbed from the gut to the
mammary gland. In the case of dairy cows, buffaloes and dairy goats, nutrient requirements for lactation are given separately on a per kg
milk yield basis. The requirements of an animal depend on the, daily milk yield, proportion of nutrients in the milk and the efficiency
with which these nutrients are utilized for milk production.
Energy, protein and ash content of milk have relationships to the fat-percentage. Therefore the energy, protein, calcium and phosphorus
requirements have been related to the fat content of milk. The TDN requirement per kg milk varies from 0.26 kg TDN/kg of 2.5% fat
milk to 0.41 kg TDN/kg of 6% fat milk. On the basis of energy balance studies, the NE ranges from 0.59 Mcal/kg 2.5% fat milk to 0.93
Mcal per kg of 6% fat milk.
The total protein requirement for lactation has been calculated factorially which ranges from 72 g/kg of 2.5% fat milk to 108 g/kg of 6%
fat milk. The Ca and P requirements for lactation have also been estimated factorially. Assuming an availability of 45%, 2.7 g of Ca kg
milk has been fixed. Requirements of other minerals like P, Na, K, Mg, S etc., were also fixed in a similar manner.
Table 15.3 Nutrients Required For Production per Kg of Milk to Be Added to the Maintenance Allowance (SEN and RAY, 1964;
ICAR Bulletin, No.25)
Fat per cent Energy
DCP (kg) Ca (g) P (g)
in Milk
TDN (kg) ME(m.cal)
3.0 0.040 0.269 0.97 2 1.4
4.0 0.045 0.316 1.15 2 1.4
5.0 0.051 0.363 1.28 2 1.4
6.0 0.057 0.411 1.41 2 1.4
7.0 0.063 0.458 1.54 2 1.4
8.0 0.069 0.506 1.8 2 1.4
9.0 0.075 0.553 2.06 2 1.4
1.4
10.0 0.081 0.602 2.16 2
11.0 0.085 0.650 2.34 2 1.4

Table 15.4 Nutrients Required For maintenance and Pregnancy for dairy animals from 5th month of gestation
Energy Vit-A
Body weight(kg) DCP (kg) Ca (g) P (g)
TDN (kg) ME(K.cal) (1000IU)
250 0.270 3.0 10.8 14 12 21
300 0.290 3.4 12.4 16 14 25
350 0.320 3.7 13.2 21 16 27
400 0.350 4.0 14.1 23 18 30
450 0.400 4.4 15.9 26 20 34
500 0.430 4.8 17.3 29 22 38
550 0.465 5.2 18.8 31 24 42
600 0.500 5.6 20.2 34 26 46
650 0.530 6.0 21.6 36 28 50
700 0.550 6.3 22.7 39 30 53
750 0.600 6.7 24.2 42 32 57
800 0.630 7.1 25.6 44 34 61
Table 15.5 Nutrient requirements for breeding bulls in service:
Energy
Body weight(kg) DCP (kg) Ca (g) P (g) Vit-A (IU)
TDN (kg) ME(M.cal)
500 0.43 4.5 16.2 12 12 21200
600 0.48 5.1 18.2 14 14 25400
700 0.54 5.7 20.5 15 15 29600
800 0.60 6.3 22.5 18 18 33800
Table15.6 Nutrient requirements for work bullocks:
Normal work Heavy work
Body
weight(kg) DCP(kg) TDN (kg) ME(M.cal) (DCP(kg) TDN (kg) ME(M.cal)
300 0.33 3.1 11.2 0.42 4.0 14.4
400 0.45 4.0 14.4 0.52 4.8 17.2
500 0.56 4.9 17.6 0.71 6.4 23.1
15.4 Feeding Cattle and Buffaloes by Thumb Rule Method
The following thumb rules may guide the farmers to feed their animals satisfactorily with particular reference to cases where individual
attention and computation on body weight basis seem to be rather impractical.
15.4.1 Maintenance ration
This is the minimum amount of feed required to maintain the essential body processes at their optimum rate without gain or loss in body
weight or change in body composition. The amount of concentrate and paddy straw that will provide optimum maintenance requirement
for an adult dairy cattle without any computation whatsoever are as follows:
Table 15.7 Maintenance ration for Dairy cattle
For cross bred/ pure breed
S.No Item For zebu cattle
Indian cows/ buffaloes
1 Straw 4kg 4-6kg

Concentrate mixture(with
2 straw only or with little 1-1.25kg 2.00kg
greens)
The composition of Concentrate mixture is:
Oil cakes: 25-35 parts.
Millets/ cereals: 25-35 parts.
Cereal by-products:10-25 parts.
Pulse chuni: 5-20 parts.
To be fortified with mineral mixture:1 part and salt:1-2 parts and 20-30 gm vit-AD3/100kg.,containing 50,000I.U vit-A and 5,000IU vit-
D3 per gram. This concentrate mixture will provide 14-16 % DCP and 68%TDN.
15.4.2 Gestation ration
Gestation ration in the case of pregnancy further allowance of DCP and TDN should be made from 5th month of gestation onwards for
proper growth of the foetus and to keep the mother fit for optimum milk production on calving. For this in addition to maintenance
ration.a further amount of 1.25kg and 1.75kg of concentrate mixture is recommended for zebu and cross bred cow / buffaloes
respectively. For high yielders liberal feeding of pregnant dams particularly cross bred cows / buffaloes from 8th month of pregnancy or
6 weeks before parturition with the object of securing full development of mammary glands for optimum milk production. For this 2.0kg
to 3.0kg of concentrate for zebu and between 4.0-5.0 kg for crossbred/ pure bred Indian cattle/ buffaloes over and above maintenance
requirements are recommended.
15.4.3 Production ration
Production ration is the additional allowance of ration for milk production over and above the maintenance requirement. For zebu 1kg
additional amount of concentrate is required for every 2.5kg of milk over and above the maintenance requirement while the same
amount of concentrate is required for every 2.0kg of milk for crossbred / Indian milch breed/buffaloes.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 16. COMMON DISEASES IN DAIRY ANIMALS, PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Module 10. Diseases of dairy animals
Lesson 16
COMMON DISEASES IN DAIRY ANIMALS, PREVENTION AND CONTROL
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Common Diseases of Cattle and Buffaloes
16.2.1 Bacterial diseases
16.2.1.1 Anthrax (Splenic fever)
16.2.1.2 Haemorrhagic septicemia (Pasteurellosis , shipping fever, HS)
16.2.1.3 Black-quarter
16.2.1.4 Brucellosis (Contagious bovine abortions, Bang’s disease)
16.2.1.5 Tuberculosis
16.2.1.6 Johne’s disease (Para tuberculosis)
16.2.1.7 Mastitis
16.2.1.8 Calf scours
16.2.2 Viral Diseases
16.2.2.1 Rinderpest (Cattle plague)
16.2.2.2 Foot and mouth disease
16.2.3 Deficiency and Non-Specific Diseases
16.2.3.1 Deficiency diseases of animals
16.2.3.2 Non specific disorders
16.3 Deworming Schedule
16.3.1 Diseases Caused By Protozoa and Helminthes
16.3.2 Deworming schedule
16.1 Introduction
Disease has been broadly defined as any condition in which there is a deviation from health or normal functioning of any or all the
tissues and organs of the animal body. Most of the diseases are caused by pathogenic bacteria, viruses and parasites. A pathogenic
organism is one which will always produce disease in the animal body under natural or experimental conditions.
16.2 Common Diseases of Cattle and Buffaloes
1) Diseases caused by bacteria- Anthrax, black quarter, brucellosis, mastitis, Haemorrhagic septicemia, calf scours, pneumonia.
2) Diseases caused by viruses- Foot and Mouth, Rinderpest.
3) Diseases caused by protozoan organisms- Coccidiosis, Babesiosis, Anaplasmosis, Theileriosis, Trypanosomiasis,
Trichomonads.
4) Diseases caused by parasites - Round worms (Nematodes), Tapeworms (Cestodes), Liver flukes (Trematodes).
5) Metabolic and non-specific diseases
a) Deficiency diseases- Deficiency of protein, energy, Vit-A, B-complex, calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, iodine, cobalt,
Vit-D
b) Non-specific disorders- bloat, ketosis, milk fever.
16.2.1 Bacterial diseases
16.2.1.1 Anthrax (Splenic fever)
The causative agent is Bacillus anthracis. The mode of infection is by ingestion and infection from infected pasture, water, feed and
fodder, and biting of insect vectors. Incubation period is 1 to 5 days. The symptoms vary according to the severity of the attack and to
the species affected. The disease may occur in per-acute, acute, sub-acute or chronic form. The disease is characterized by sudden onset
of symptoms and death. Foamy blood from nose and mouth is expelled and sudden death results. In acute form there is sudden rise in
temperature (105°F to 108°F) , abortion in cows, bloody discharge from the mouth and nostril, blood stained diarrhoea, straining during
defecation and in sub-acute form the animals die in 3 to 5 days or longer or effect complete recovery. In Chronic form the local lesions
confined to the throat, swelling occur occasionally in cattle. Diagnosis is by clinical signs and confirmed by laboratory examination. No
post- mortem should be done because opening or skinning the carcass result in spreading the infection.
Treatment and control
Penicillin should be given to treat the infection
(a) A Strict quarantine of the infected premises.
(b) Prompt disposal of dead animals by complete incineration or deep burial under a layer of quick lime.
(c) Disinfection of contaminated byres and stables, control of insect, vectors and other carnivores, rodents and crows that feed on
the carcasses should be done.
Prevention and Vaccination: Anthrax spore vaccine Dose: Cattle, a suspension containing 10 million spores, S/c.
16.2.1.2 Haemorrhagic septicemia (Pasteurellosis , shipping fever, HS)
It is a bacterial disease of dairy cattle and buffaloes caused by Pasteurella multocida. Mode of infection is by ingestion of contaminated
water or feed contaminated with infected material from soil and utensil and by contact of diseased animals with healthy animals. The
Incubation Period is 1 - 3 days. The Symptoms are high fever (body temperature rises up to 104 to 106°F), Swollen head, throat,
dewlap and neck. The swelling is hard, hot, tense and painful. Tongue is swollen and protruded outside, salivation and difficulty in
swallowing. Breathing becomes difficult on account of oedema of the pharynx. The Diagnosis is by symptoms, examination of blood
smears or edema fluid for by polar organisms. Treatment and control is by sulpha drugs. Vaccination is by HS oil adjuvant vaccine
(Bain's vaccine). Dose of vaccine in cattle is 2 to 3 cc i/ m.
16.2.1.3 Black-quarter
It is caused by Clostridium chauvoei. The mode of infection is by ingestion of the contaminated food and water. The Incubation period is
15 days. The Symptoms are acute lameness with a hot, tense and painful swelling varying size situated usually in the hindquarter or fore
limb, accompanied by high temperature. When the swelling is incised a dark frothy fluid escapes and the fluid has a very sour smell like
that of rancid butter, crepitating sound on pressing the affected part of the muscle. Calves below 6 months of age and up to 3 years of
age, are not usually affected by this disease. Diagnosis is based on symptoms, animal inoculation of dried piece of affected part and
culturing of organisms in the laboratory.
Treatment and Control: Penicillin 10,000 IU per kg body weight followed by long acting Benzathin penicillin should be given. Local
administration of antibiotics will be helpful to ease the recovery. All affected animals should be isolated. Dead animals should be
promptly buried with lime. Annual vaccination is helpful in control of the disease. Prevention is by Black quarter vaccine which produces
immunity for 18 months. The dose is 5 cc. S/c.
16.2.1.4 Brucellosis (Contagious bovine abortions, Bang’s disease)
The disease is caused by Brucella abortus. The mode of infection is by ingestion and through breeding with infected bull. The Incubation
period is about 21 days. The affected animal shows symptoms like abortion during the last stage of pregnancy. The placenta is usually
characteristically altered and it is streaked with a yellowish slime and the cotyledons become flaccid and covered with creamy yellow
coating. In bull, orchitis is noticed. The diagnosis is by clinical symptoms like abortion of number of cows at a time. Serological test is by
blood serum agglutination test.
Treatment and control: Treatment is by broad spectrum antibiotics viz: Streptomycin and Aureomycin. Control is by removal of infected
animals from the herd. Placenta and foetus should be burnt and the disinfection of infected byres, should be carried. Prevention is by
vaccination with Brucella abortus strain 19 in calves. Dose: 5cc s/c
16.2.1.5 Tuberculosis
It is caused by Mycobacterium bovis. The Mode of infection is by inhalation of infected droplets and by ingestion of infected discharges
from faeces, milk or urine and from open lesions in lymph nodes. The disease is seen in two forms (1) pulmonary tuberculosis which is
usually a chronic disease. In the beginning slight cold with a short dry cough are present. Feeding or exercise may bring on the cough.
After a time the cough becomes more frequent, harsh and moist. Temperature is not usually present in early stages, later on fluctuates.
In the later stages the animal loses condition, become emaciated, hide bound with a harsh dry coat. The respiration becomes more
difficult. (2) Intestinal tuberculosis in which the intestines, the mesenteric lymph gland, liver, peritoneum and pancreas become affected.
Diagnosis: (1) Clinical diagnosis of tuberculosis from the symptoms is possible only after the disease has reached a very advanced stage,
(2) Microscopic examination of sputum, milk, faeces, urine, etc. reveals the organisms. (3) Tuberculin test: 0.1cc concentrated tuberculin
injected intradermally into the skin on the side of neck in two successive doses. In non-reacting animals there is practically an
insignificant increase in skin thickness. There is no heat or tenderness and no oedema around the firm nodule left by the injection.
Treatment is by anti tuberculin drugs. Control is by test and slaughter method in which all the animals above 2 months should be tested.
This is reliable method of control. Prevention is by BCG vaccine. The dose is cattle 5 to 50 mg moist weight of bacilli in an appropriate
volume I/M and repeated annually.
16.2.1.6 Johne’s disease (Para tuberculosis)
The disease is caused by Mycobacterium Paratuberculosis which spreads by ingestion of contaminated food and water infected with
faeces. The incubation period is 6 months to 2 years. The symptoms are the animal gradually looses condition, becomes emaciated and
hidebound. The appetite and temperature are usually normal. Usually the disease is more common under 3 to 6 years of age. Diagnosis
is by clinical symptoms and by Johnnie test.
Treatment and Control: Streptomycin may be acting against the organisms.
16.2.1.7 Mastitis
This is a condition rather than a disease of high economic importance. An acute or chronic inflammation of the mammary gland caused
by physical, chemical and biological agents chiefly of bovines usually affecting the secretary cells and frequently causing total
suppression of milk. A large number of microorganisms have been implicated in mastitis. They are divided into two groups: Infective
group includes Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus and pathogenic group which includes Streptococcus dysgalactiae,
Streptococcus uberis, Corynebacterium pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Actinomycis bovis. Infection occurs by
microorganism gaining access into the udder through the teat canal. The predisposing factors may be in the individual cow or the herd as
a whole. They include age of the animals, stage of lactation, milk yield, hereditary factors, trauma or injury of the udder or teats. The
symptoms are:
Sub-clinical mastitis: This can only be identified by laboratory examination of milk drawn from the udder. There are no visible signs.
This is also called latent mastitis.
Chronic mastitis: It is characterized by repeated mild attacks of mammary swelling, with the production of clotted milk.
Acute or severe clinical mastitis: It is usually sporadic and is characterized by rapid onset of a diffuse swelling in a quarter that has been
normal previously. There is a pain on palpation. The milk is not normal in appearance. High fever and anorexia is noticed. In per acute
cases fever, depression and anorexia are also seen
The diagnosis is based on the symptoms which are seen in acute, per acute and chronic cases and sub clinical mastitis is diagnosed by
laboratory tests. Examination of milk samples for cells, bacteria and chemical changes helps in identification of causative agent.
Treatment and control
Antibiotic sensitivity test helps in identification of antibiotic effective against the organism. In per acute and acute cases give antibiotics
both parentrally as well as locally after complete evacuation of affected quarter.
(a) Procaine penicillin Dose: 2000 units/pound body weight daily.
(b) Intra mammary infusions of antibiotic cream Viz: Masticillin M; Strypen fort; Neothion.
Mastalon may be infused in infected udder through teat cannulae.
(c) Hot fomentation may be given.
(d) Tetracycline: 1-3 g every 24 hours or 10-11 mg of streptomycin per 1 Kg body weight every 24 hour will destroy
microorganism in the udder.
Control is by elimination of predisposing factors, protecting the teats from injury and isolating the infected animal. Wipe the teat with dry
cloth after milking. Udder, teats and milker's hands should be washed with antiseptic solution. A cream containing 0.5% Zinc oxide may
be applied on teats abrasions. Maintaining hygienic conditions of surroundings, keeping the animals clean and healthy and early detection
and treatment
of all cows during drying off will be helpful
16.2.1.8 Calf scours
It is an acute highly infectious disease of calves "characterized by marked prostration and profuse diarrhoea caused by Escherichia coli.
Failure to receive colostrum appears to be the most important factor while Vitamin -A deficiency in the cow, over feeding of milk with
high fat percentage are the other factors. In acute cases there is septicaemia and death. In milder cases they produce enteritis or
combination of enteritis and pneumonia.
Treatment and Control: Use of antibiotics and avoiding over feeding of calves. Feeding of colostrum in required quantities is important
16.2.2 Viral Diseases
16.2.2.1 Rinderpest (Cattle plague)
It is caused by virus .Infection occurs from infected to non-infected animals by close contact, by ingestion of contaminated water and
feed and by inhalation. Incubation period is 2 - 9 days.
Symptoms in different stages include:
(A) First Stage: Rise in temperature 105° to 107°F.
(B) Second stage: On the mucous membrane of lip, gum and tongue reddened areas with pinhead vesicle are developed. There is
increased flow of saliva from the mouth along with foetid odour from the mouth. (C)
(C)Third Stage: Shooting diarrhea (D) Last stage: The diarrhoea stops, the temperature falls below normal and the animal dies.
The Diagnosis is symptomatic such as bran like deposit and ulcer on the lips, gums and tongues and Post-mortem examination
Treatment and Control: Symptomatic treatment should be undertaken. All the affected and in contact animals are destroyed and the
carcasses buried six feet deep in quick lime or cremated.
Thorough disinfection of the premises, materials and everything that would have come in contact with the affected animals is essential.
Prevention is by immunization with Avianised virus vaccine with the dose of 1 cc of 1 % Suspended live virus in normal saline. A cell
culture vaccine for 6-8 months old calves to be given for the first time then repeated within 12 months. Adult cattle are vaccinated once
in every 3 years. In India rinderpest was eradicated now by undertaking operation zero rinderpest projects by the Govt. of India.
16.2.2.2 Foot and mouth disease
The causative organism is virus. The disease is transmitted through ingestion of infected feed and water, etc. The period of incubation is
2 to 10 days Symptoms of Foot and Mouth disease include: The first symptom is rise in temperature up to 104°F or more.
The temperature lasts only for a couple of days that is up to the appearance of the vesicles. Vesicles are commonly formed in the mouth
and feet, on the udder and teats. Copious saliva secretion and rounded blisters like vesicles appear on the inner side of the lips, gums,
dental pad, palate and tongue. Foot lesions develop at the region of the coronet.
Diagnosis is made by the presence of vesicles and ulcers in the mouth and feet, on the udder and teats.
Treatment: Treatment include Febrifuges: Sodium salicylate may be given; Mouth antiseptic: Wash the mouth with KMnO4 lotion 1:200;
acriflavin lotion 1:5000 or copper sulphate 1 per cent solution and Foot
lotion: Should be treated with 1% copper sulphate solution or phenyl lotion and foot bath.
Control: Controls includes isolation of sick animals, Quarantine of premises, disinfection of premises and Slaughter and disposal by
burial or burning of all infected materials.
16.2.3 Deficiency and Non-Specific Diseases
Balanced rations containing all the required nutrients in proper amounts and proportion will keep the livestock healthy and vigorous. In
intensive large scale farms where computed mixed feed is used with limited or no access to natural forage, deficiency diseases
particularly due to lack of energy, protein, minerals and vitamins are not uncommon. Proper care should be taken to correct such
conditions to prevent heavy economic losses resulting from them.
16.2.3.1 Deficiency diseases of animals
1) Protein: Principal Symptoms of protein deficiency are poor growth, depressed appetite, emaciation, debility, scanty milk

secretion, delayed maturity, and failure of oestrus in adult animals. The deficiency can be corrected by feeding adequately
balanced rations.
2) Energy: The Symptoms are very similar to protein deficiency. This can be corrected by feeding adequately balanced rations.
3) Vitamin A: Principal Symptoms include rough hair coat, depression of food consumption, excessive lacrimation, corneal opacity
and ulceration, night blindness, xeropthalmia, (common in cattle and buffaloes), total blindness, growth retardation in young
animals, convulsions and in coordination in gait, anoestrum, urolithiasis in extreme cases persistent diarrhea, pneumonia due to
secondary infection.
Calves and lambs must get colostrum for at least three days. Colostrum is rich in vitamin A. Animals should get at least
1/2 to 1 kg of green fodder daily, which is sufficient to meet the carotene (precursor of vitamin A) requirements of
animals.
In the absence of green fodder as during prolonged drought synthetic preparation of vitamin A like prepalin forte
injections should be given.
4) Calcium: Prolonged calcium deficiency in young animals may result in rickets and in adults very rarely causes osteoporosis, as
in cows yielding large quantity of milk making them prone to fractures. General symptoms include stunted growth, delayed
maturity, reduced fertility, lowered milk yield, unthriftness, and fragile bones. This also results in milk fever in newly calved
cows.
Treatment is by intravenous calcium infusions. Feeding of good quality roughages, including mineral mixtures in rations of
young and producing stock and or use of salt brick will be effective in controlling the condition.
5) Phosphorus: The condition pica results from deficiency of phosphorus. Symptoms of phosphorus deficiency are craving for
bones, licking and gnawing of old objects (known as “pica”), stiffness of gait. Fractures of bones are common. The treatment
and control is by injections of tonophosphon and other phosphorous preparations and inclusion of mineral mixture in
concentrate mixture.
6) Magnesium: Hypomagnesaemia is more due to a dysfunction of magnesium metabolism and the symptoms are mostly nervous
i.e change in carriage of head and ear, abnormal gait, hyper-irritability, sensitiveness, tremors and convulsions.
7) Iodine: Symptoms of iodine deficiency are the enlargement of a thyroid gland and neck appears to be highly swollen. Daily
feeding of iodine salt (25 g of powdered potassium iodide added to 100 kg of salt) will prevent the condition
8) Iron and Copper: Symptoms of copper deficiency are suppression of oestrus, nervous symptoms and sudden death. Control is
by the inclusion of proper mineral
mixtures in rations and feeding adequate quantities of legume fodders and hays
16.2.3.2 Non specific disorders
1) Bloat: (Tympanitis): All the ruminant species are affected and is generally caused due to accumulation of gas and foam in rumen.
Mode of infection is due to feeding of excess leguminous fodders. Symptoms first observed are distention of the left side in front of
the hip bone. This is followed by distension of the right side, protrusion of the anus, respiratory distress, cyanosis of the tongue,
struggling and death if not cured. Treatment is through drenching cattle with 500 to 1000 ml mineral oil and 25 to 50 ml of
poloxalene.
2) Ketosis : This is a metabolic disorder due to disturbance in carbohydrate metabolism. The cow derives energy not from

carbohydrate source but from protein and fat depots of the body. This increased gluconeogenesis enhances the activity of
glulconeogenic enzymes. Level of oxalo acetic acid becomes deficient resulting in slowing of TCA cycle resulting in accumulation of
ketone bodies. The affected cow will show loss of appetite, reduced rumen activity, dullness, and decrease in milk production with
high fat content. Animals will have unhealthy appearance with drooping nature, discharges from eyes and nostrils, dry muzzle,
sudden loss of body weight. Blood glucose level is reduced to 20-40 mg per cent. Blood ketone level goes up to 100mg per cent.
Urine level of ketone bodies is 80-1600mg per cent indicates ketosis.
Treatment: Administration of 500ml of 50 per cent dextrose by intravenous injection for 3 days forms the first line of treatment.
Other control measures include feeding according to the production, proportionate amount of roughage in the ration, not starving or
fattening. Just before parturition cutting down the ration should be avoided.
3) Milk Fever: This is also known as hypocalcaemia and is a metabolic disorder due to acute fall in blood calcium and magnesium
levels possibly due to draining of the same at the onset of lactation. The condition occurs generally during the early stages of
lactation especially in high yielders. Symptoms are loss of appetite, constipation and restlessness during the first stage. There will be
muscular weakness and unsteadiness in movement and animal becomes recumbent with its head usually inclined laterally. The
diagnosis can be made from symptoms and history of the case. Treatment is by the injection of a calcium salt in the form of calcium
chloride. Calcium borogluconate injections intravenously.
The condition can be prevented by
Feeding balanced rations, and free access to a suitable phosphorus and calcium supplement;
Increased calcium and phosphorus content of feed through fertilizing the soils;
Vitamin D therapy may be of some assistance.
Maintaining calcium phosphorous ration 2.5:2 in the diet
16.3 Deworming Schedule
16.3.1 Diseases Caused By Protozoa and Helminthes
The diseases caused by protozoa and helminthes in cattle are given table 16.1
Table 16.1 Diseases caused by protozoa and helminthes
Causative agent Causative organism Synonym
Protozoa
Coccidiosis Eimeria zurni and E.bovis Red Dysentery
Babesiosis Babesia bigemina and Babesia bovis Cattle tick fever,
Anaplasmosis, Anaplasma marginale and A.centrale
Theileriosis Theileria parva,T.mutans, East Coast Fever
Trypanosomiasis Trypanosoma evansi Surra
Trichomoniasis Trichomonas foetus
Helminthes
Ascariasis Neoaascaris vitulorum
Tape worm Taenia solium,Taenia saginata
Liver flukes Fasciola gygantica and F.hepatica Fascialiasis.
16.3.2 Deworming schedule
The deworming schedule is more important for buffalo calves in which species worm problem is a major cause of calf mortality. In
places where heavy endoparasite infestations are found it is advisable to deworm heifers twice a year up to two years of age. Even adult
stock can be drenched twice a year once before monsoon season (May –June) and once during monsoon (August –September) with
piperzines and phenovis. The recommended deworming schedule is given in table 16.2
Table 16.2 Deworming schedule for calf
Age of the calf Deworming as per doses recommended by
Manufacturers of the drug
Calf–on 3rd,4th, a n d 5th Sulmet full l dose on 3rd day and ½ dose on 4th and
days 5th days
7days piperazine
30days Sulmet
1 ½ Months piperazine
2 ½ Months piperazine
3 ½ Months Phenovis
4 Months Sulmet
5 Months piperazine
6 Months Phenovis
7 Months piperazine
9 Months Phenovis
12Months Phenovis
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 17. TYPES OF SANITIZERS AND DISINFECTANTS, SANITATION OF MILKING PARLOUR
EQUIPMENT, SHEDS

Module 11. Maintenance of hygiene and sanitation at dairy farm premises
Lesson 17
TYPES OF SANITIZERS AND DISINFECTANTS, SANITATION OF MILKING PARLOUR EQUIPMENT, SHEDS
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Maintenance of Hygiene and Sanitation at Dairy Farm Premises
17.2.1 Sanitizers
17.2.1.1. Heat
17.2.1.2 Chemicals
17.2.1.3 Special applications
17.2.2 Disinfectants
17.1 Introduction
Sanitation at the dairy farm is very critical for obtaining the milk with low microbial load and improving the keeping quality of milk. The
sanitation measures include reduction or limiting the contact between healthy and infected/contagious animals; prompt removal of dung,
infective excreta like nasal discharges, saliva, urine etc; isolation of sick animals and immediate disposal of dead animals from the
immediate environment of healthy animals. The methods of sanitation include physical, chemical and mechanical disinfection.
17.2 Maintenance of Hygiene and Sanitation at Dairy Farm Premises
Types of Sanitizers and Disinfections:
All dairy farm equipment and premises should be properly cleaned and sanitized to prevent contamination of milk, as milk provides an
excellent medium for growth of microorganisms. At the same time detergents and sanitizers should be carefully selected not to affect
equipment material.
17.2.1 Sanitizers
Sanitizers are the substances capable of bringing about the destruction of all non- pathogenic microorganisms and reducing the number of
pathogenic bacterial contamination to a safe level. A good sanitizer should be quick acting, non corrosive, nontoxic, inexpensive, easily
and quickly applied to equipment. Different sanitizers can be used at the dairy farm and they are classified as shown in Fig 17.1
Fig. 17.1 Sanitizer
17.2.1.1. Heat
Elevated temperature is the best method for sanitization and/or sterilization, as it penetrates into surfaces, is non-corrosive, is non-
selective to microbes, is easily measured and leaves no residues. The type of heating that is mostly used is moist heat, for example,
Hot and/or boiling water – Hot water circulation (85°C/15–20 min) is widely used and recommended for sanitizing processing
plants. It is an effective, non-selective method for surfaces; however, bacterial spores and bacteriophages may survive. Boiling
water (100°C) has limited applications but could be used for disinfection purposes; spores survive, but bacteriophages are
inactivated. Free-flowing steam (100°C) is not more effective than boiling water and has limited applications. Steam under pressure
may, however, be used to sterilize UHT plants.
Steam (free flowing) – The use of hot water or steam is uneconomic, hazardous, corrosive to certain materials, difficult to control
and therefore ineffective. The efficiency of sterilization or sanitization, using hot water or steam, is primarily dependent on three
factors: the time–temperature combination (i.e. the temperature reached and the time for which the temperature is maintained),
humidity and pressure.
17.2.1.2 Chemicals
The efficacy of chemical preparations used for sanitation purposes is controlled by the following factors:
Amount of residual soiling matter on equipment surfaces;
Temperature and pH of the chemical disinfectant;
Concentration of the chemical compounds in the sterilizing solution;
Contact time between the chemical disinfectant and the equipment surface;
Type(s) of microorganisms being inactivated;
Hardness of the water; and
Chlorine compounds: The most common chlorine compounds used are hypochlorites. These compounds may be obtained in liquid
or powder form, and their bactericidal effect is due to the release of chlorine, which is normally in the range 50–250 μg ml−1,
depending on the application. At the dairy farm the concentration to be used is 200ppm of chlorine. The advantages are that the
chlorine compounds are inexpensive, active against all microorganisms and unaffected by hard water salts. More over the
concentration can be easily determined by field tests. Disadvantages are short residual life of compounds, corrosive on certain
metals like aluminum.
Iodophores : Iodophores are also a commonly used chemical disinfectants. The bactericidal compound is iodine, which has been
combined with a suitable non-ionic surfactant to provide a usable product. These are stable compounds having long resudual life
with good penetrating qualities and are non-irritating to skin. Generally a concentration of 25 ppm iodine is preferred.
Disadvantages of iodophores are that they are expensive, non- effective against spores and bacteriophages, stains plastic surfaces
Quaternary Ammonium compounds: QACs are amphipolar, cationic detergents that are surface-active bactericidal agents. They
have long residual life and non irrititating to skin. They are stable to temperature changes and presence of organic matter. They are
at a concentration of 200 ppm. However they are expensive, slow in destruction of coliforms and non-effective in destruction of
spores, viruses.
Acid anionic surfactant: These are formulations that consist mainly of inorganic Acids (e.g. phosphoric acid) and an anionic
surfactant. These are active against wide spectrum of microorganisms and bacteriophoges. These are noncorrosive, non-straining
and their bactericidal action is increased at high temperatures. They are effective in presence of organic matter or even in hard
water. The concentration to be used is 100 ppm. The major disadvantage is that they are corrosive to metals other than stainless
steel.
17.2.1.3 Special applications
U. V. Radiation: Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (c. 250–260 nm), in particular, has been used with success to sterilize air entering a
processing area or sterilizing packaging materials before filling.
H2O2 treatment: It is a strong oxidizing agent mostly used in pure pack, packaging of UHT products. A 15% solution of H2O2 is
recommended.
17.2.2 Disinfectants: Disinfectants are the agents that are capable of bringing about the complete destruction of all infective and other
microbial life.
The disinfection of animal houses can take place by two ways.
1. Natural disinfection.
a) Sunlight b) Heat
2. Artificial disinfection.
a) Phenol b) Acids c) Heavy metal salts d) Hypochlorites
Natural disinfection: Sunlight is the most efficient due to its ultraviolet wavelength. It can act as potential disinfectant if surface is
exposed directly for longer duration. Heat is the form of steam at 15 lbs pressure is useful for disinfection of dairy utensils.
Chemical disinfection: Chemical disinfectants are used generally for disinfection of farms. The germicidal action of the chemical
disinfectants on microorganisms is as follows.
1. Hydrolytic and burning action on cell with acids and alkalies.
2. Oxidative action on protoplasm of cell as in case of KMNO4, H2O2.
3. Protein coagulation in protoplasm of cell with alcohol and formaldehyde.
4. Disruption of cell wall and cell membrane as in case of phenol, cresol.
Phenol is a bactericidal, fungicidal but not sporicidal. It has greater effect when used with mixture of ferric chloride and ferrous chloride.
Propylene glycol is active in aerosol form and has wider applications for animal premise disinfection. 1.0 % mineral acids of caustic alkali
are sporicidal. Ethyl alcohol in 70% concentration is effective against bacterial flora of skin. Formaldehyde is bactericidal and fungicidal
and is effective as general disinfectant in acqueous solution (5g formaldehyde in 100ml solution formalin). Ammonia is effective
disinfectant in 10% acqueous solution for destruction of coccidial oocytes. Quicklime (Calcium oxide) is used for disposal of carcass by
burial method. Slaked lime (Calcium hydroxide) is used as white wash of animal houses. Its usefulness increases with addition of 1%
phenol disinfectant.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 18. CLONING, TRANSGENIC ANIMALS, EMBRYO SEXING ETC

Module 12. Biotechnology in dairy animals production
Lesson 18
CLONING, TRANSGENIC ANIMALS, EMBRYO SEXING ETC
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Cloning
18.2.1 Applications of cloning
18.2.2 Limitations
18.3 Trans Genesis
18.3.1 Somatic cell nuclear cloning
18.3.2 Embryonic stem cell mediated gene transfer
18.3.3 Embryo micromanipulation and sexing
18.3.4 Applications of transgenic animals
18.4 Embryo Sexing
18.4.1 Steps in embryo sexing
18.4.2 Isolation of embryonic DNA
18.4.3 Amplification of DNA
18.4.4 Identification of sex
18.1 Introduction
Biotechnology is a process applied for exploitation and control of biological system achieved with the help of microorganisms and cells
taken from plants and animals through integration of several disciplines including microbiology, biochemistry, genetics and biomedical
engineering. Biotechnology gives us the unprecedented opportunities to improve reproductive efficiency of dairy animals and
reproduction technology in enhancing genetic gain through artificial insemination, multiple ovulation, Marker assisted selection, embryo
sexing, animal cloning, pregnancy diagnosis and transgenic animals and sexing of semen.
18.2 Cloning
Cloning is a tool in the animal biotechnology toolbox, which includes artificial insemination, embryo sexing and in-vitro fertilization. A
clone is a genetically identical animal that can be produced either by embryo splitting (as occurs in nature) or transfer of embryonic
blastomeres or somatic cells as donor nuclei. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer(SCNT) is a powerful technique and potentially used for the
multiplication of desired animals, genetically modified farm animals to make modification of micro growth, disease resistance etc,
superior gene type could be multiplied by cloning and if required the technique can be combined with transgenic (for fertility and other
desired traits) to produce desired bulls. Recently the SCNT has emerged as a tool for production of stem cells for therapeutic purpose
popularly known as therapeutic cloning.
The success rate in terms of pregnancy establishment varies from 25-52% up to 19% pregnancies reach up to the term and 2-16% of
embryos develop to healthy calves at weaving.
18.2.1 Applications of cloning
1. Bio-medical applications, such as the production of pharmaceuticals in the blood or milk of transgenic cattle.
2. Cloning may also be useful in the production of research models. These models may or may not include genetic modifications.
3. Uses in agriculture include many applications of the technology which include:
a) Making genetic copies of elite seed stock and prize winning show cattle.
b) Other purposes may range from "insurance" to making copies of cattle that have sentimental value, similar to cloning of
pets.
c) Increased selection opportunities available with cloning may provide for improvement in genetic gain.
d) The ultimate goal of cloning has often been envisioned as a system for producing quantity and uniformity of the perfect
dairy cow. However, only if heritability were 100%, would clone mates have complete uniformity. Changes in the
environment may have significant impact on the productivity and longevity of the resulting clones. Changes in consumer
preferences and economic input costs may all change the definition of the perfect cow. The cost of producing such animals
via cloning must be economically feasible to meet the intended applications.
18.2.2 Limitations
1 Present inefficiencies limit cloning opportunities to highly valued animals. Improvements are necessary to move the applications
toward commercial application.
2 Cloning has additional obstacles to conquer. Social and regulatory acceptance of cloning is paramount to its utilization in
production agriculture. Regulatory acceptance will need to address the animal, its products, and its offspring.
3 Loss of pregnancies due to developmental abnormalities. These abnormalities appear to be due to faulty epigenetic
reprogramming ad gene expression in the genes of different cells.
18.3 Trans Genesis
Incorporation of foreign gene into the genome of an animal led to the development of the transgenic technology and the animal, thus
produced is called as transgenic animal
18.3.1 Somatic cell nuclear cloning
Cloning is a route for the production of transgenic livestock which allows for the homologous insertion of DNA sequences resulting in the
opportunity to target the alteration or removal of endogenous genes. The cost of production of transgenic livestock had been high and
thus limited involvement of laboratories worldwide in research in this area.
18.3.2 Embryonic stem cell mediated gene transfer
This involves prior insertion of the desired DNA sequence by homologous recombination into an invitro culture of embryonic stem cells.
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the potential to differentiate into any type of cell and therefore to give rise to a complete
organism. These cells are then incorporated into an embryo at the blastocysts stage of development. Embryonic stem cell mediated
transfer is the method of choice for gene inactivation, the so called knockout method.
18.3.3 Embryo micromanipulation and sexing
Most basic studies in maintaining embryos have been done in mice but application of these new techniques to large domestic animals will
make them a powerful tool in animal breeding.
The ability to determine the sex of embryos prior to transfer to recipients has commercial application to the embryo transfer industry
especially in relation to the production of females for dairy development programme. Male animals are also not less important or the
superior male animals can be maintained for semen collection and or providing the natural service to the animals in village conditions
especially in developing countries like India where MOET is not expected to be used in field conditions in coming years. Since, sex of an
individual is set at fertilization and depends on whether the ‘X’ bearing ovum is fertilized by a ‘Y’ or ‘X’ bearing spermatozoa. Therefore
sex predetermination can be achieved by separation or differential activation of ‘Y’ and ‘X’ spermatozoa using differences between
spermatozoa such as mass, motility or sex has not been perfected so far.
18.3.4 Applications of transgenic animals
A wide gamut of applications is possible which includes:
Gene Pharming: Refers to the production of recombinant biologically active human proteins in the mammary glands of transgenic
animals.
Antibody production: Numerous monoclonal antibodies are being produced in the mammary gland of transgenic goats that can be
employed both for diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
Xenotransplantation: Producing transgenic animals to meet the demand for organs and tissues that need to be transplanted.
Blood replacement: Here the whole idea is to produce functional human hemoglobin in transgenic animals.
Disease model: The traditional lab experimental animal mouse differs in physiology, anatomy and life span from those of humans,
therefore making it an inappropriate model for many human diseases. One the other hand, farm animals, such as pigs, sheep or
even cattle, may be more appropriate models to study potential therapies for human diseases which require longer observation
periods.
Carcass composition: Transgenic animals are being produced, having significant improvements in economically important traits
such as growth rate, feed conversion and body fat/muscle ratio.
Lactation: Emphasis on transgenic animals with improved physicochemical properties of the milk. Hypoallergenic milk, milk with
modified composition of casein are few examples.
Eco-friendly: Environment friendly transgenic animals like creation of transgenic animals can convert certain pollutant materials
into nonpolluting products.
Wool production: To increase the amount and quality of fleece produced by animals.
Disease resistance: To create transgenic animals that can resist diseases better.
Application of cloning, production of desirable animals by using transgenic technology and determination of sex of the embryo will
increase the products with of the animals but the costs involved in their implementation were high and it takes some more time to reach
to the field level.
18.4 Embryo Sexing
Fig. 18.3(a) Embryo sexing procedure
Fig. 18.4(b) Embryo sexing Procedure
18.4.1 Steps in embryo sexing
1 Collection of embryos produced in vitro or in vivo.
2 Selection of grade one or grade two embryos.
3 Embryo washed with PBS & placed in a drop containing 200 mM sucrose under micromanipulator.
4 Zona pellucida cut open with fine micro blade.
5 Few blastomere sucked with fine aspiration pipette.
6 Washed in KCl & transferred to Eppendorf tube.
18.4.2 Isolation of embryonic DNA
1 Biopsy in 0.5 ml Eppendorf tube + Proteinase-K + 9 μL of lysis buffer.
2 Overlaid with 25 μL of mineral oil
3 Incubated at 37°C for 10- 60 min
4 Inactivation of proteinase-K at 98°C for 10 min.
5 Cooled at 4°C
18.4.3 Amplification of DNA
1 15 μL of PCR reaction mixture(PCR reaction buffer, primers, 1.5 μL of Taq DNA polymerase & 125 μg of Ethidium bromide) is
added to the tube
2 Subjected to PCR cycling
3 3 min. denaturation at 94°C è 10 cycles of denaturation at 92°C è Annealing at 50°C (80 seconds) è Extension at 72°C for 20
seconds èFurther 40 cycles at 60°C of annealing temperature èFinal extension achieved by 5 min. incubation at 72°C
18.4.4 Identification of sex
It can be done by two approaches
1 Electrophoretic method-- In PCR second pair of primer added to increase accuracy After electrophoresis Y-specific bands are
observed Autosomal primer commonly used is C1C2
2 Direct observation under UV light: tubes having male DNA show bright pink fluorescence.
References
1 V.D. Mudgal, KK. Singhal, D.D. Sharma Dairy animal production First edition 1995 International Book Distributing company,
Lucknow
2 Sanjeev Sharma*, Aarti Bhardwaj$, Shalini Jain# and Hariom Yadav# *Animal Genetics and Breeding Division, #Animal
Biochemistry Division, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001, Haryana, India $College of Applied Education and
Health Sciences, Meerut, U.P. Source: Internet PowerPoint presentation
3 Venkatesh M.N. Research Journal Of BioTechnology Vol. 3 (1) Feb. (2008)
Res. J. Biotech.
4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15268796
Further readings
1. Singh BD (2007), Biotechnology Third edition, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi
2. Kumar HD (2003), Modern concepts of Biotechnology, Vikas publishing house pvt ltd.
Module 13. Population and production statistics
Lesson 19
CATTLE AND BUFFALO POPULATION AND ITS DISTRIBUTION
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Population and Production Statistics

19.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the data of cattle and buffalo population. It discusses the live stock population from 1951 to 2007. It gives data about all major livestock apart
from cattle and buffaloes.
19.2 Population and Production Statistics
19.1 Population : The data shown in table 19.1 indicate that in 2007, there were 304.42 million cattle and buffaloes. The population of cattle is higher (199.08 million)
compared to buffaloes (105.34 millions)
The annual growth rate of all major livestock during the years from 1991 till 2007 is shown in table 19.2 and there is a positive growth rate except for few years.

Table 19.3 gives details of cattle and buffalo population at various age groups and indicates annual growth rate of each category from 2003 to 2007. The cross-bred
cattle population is increasing at an annual growth rate of 7.58% against the growth rate of only 1,83 % in case of indigenous cattle. The same trend of indigenous cattle
is observed in case of buffalo population with annual growth rate of 1.84%
Table 19.3 Details about cattle and buffaloes
Category Number in thousands Annual Growth
Rate (%)
Cattle 2003 2007 2003-2007
A. Cattle(cross-
bred)
Total cross bred 4945 6844 8.46
male cattle
Total cross bred 19741 26216 7.35
female cattle
Total Cross-bred 24686 33060 7.58
Cattle
B. Cattle (Indigenous)
Total male 77534 76779 -0.24
indigenous
Total females 82961 89236 1.84
indigenous
Total Indigenous 160495 166015 0.85
Cattle
Total Cattle 185181 199075 1.83
Buffaloes
Total male Buffaloes 17888 19597 2.31
Total female 80034 85745 1.74

Buffaloes
Total Buffaloes 97922 105343 1.84

Livestock Population across the different state and union territories in India is shown in table 19.4
Table 19.4 Total livestock population in 2007 in India in thousands
Sr.
States/UTs Cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goats
No
1 AP 11223 13272 25539 9626
2 ARP 503 3 20 292
3 ASM 10041 500 354 4320
4 BHR 12559 6690 218 10167
5 CHH 9491 1604 140 2768
6 GOA 71 37 0.12 11
7 GUJ 7976 8774 2002 4640
8 HAR 1552 5953 601 538
9 HP 2269 762 901 1241
10 J & K 3443 1050 4127 2068
11 JHK 8781 1506 483 6592
12 KTK 10503 4327 9558 6153
13 KRL 1740 58 1 1729
14 MP 21915 9129 390 9014
15 MAH 16184 6073 2909 10391
16 MAN 342 62 9 51
17 MEG 887 23 21 365
18 MIZ 35 6 1 16
19 NAG 470 35 4 178
20 ORS 12310 1190 1818 7127
21 PUN 1777 5062 208 290
22 RAJ 12120 11192 11190 21503
23 SIK 135 0 3 92
24 TN 11189 2009 7991 9275
25 TRP 954 14 4 633
26 UP 18883 23812 1188 14793
27 UKD 2235 1220 290 1335
28 WB 19188 764 1577 15069
29 AND 49 10 - 67
30 CHN 7 20 0.05 1
31 DNH 57 4 0.20 25
32 DAM 3 1 - 3
33 DLI 92 278 6 21
34 LAK 7 - - 76
35 PUD 84 3 4 69
All India 199075 105343 71558 140537

Total number of cross bred cattle, indigenous cattle, buffaloes and milch animal population along with annual growth rates among various states and union territories in
India is shown in tables 19.5 to 19.8 below.
Table 19.5 Total number of crossbred Cattle-2003 and 2007 in thousands
Annual growth rate
Crossbred Total Crossbred
Male Female Total Female
State
/ UTs
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003-07 2003-07
AP 272 408 836 1490 1107 1898 15.54 14.42
ARP 5 12 9 17 13 29 16.75 22.40
ASM 122 122 318 288 440 410 -2.41 -1.72
BHR 217 344 1057 1632 1274 1976 11.47 11.60
CHH 127 73 126 113 253 186 -2.60 -7.41
GOA 2 2 11 15 12 16 7.21 7.99
GUJ 118 211 521 931 639 1142 15.61 15.63
HAR 114 100 459 466 573 566 0.39 -0.30
HP 139 141 538 652 677 793 4.92 4.03
J & K 359 473 961 1204 1320 1677 5.80 6.17
JHK 29 66 116 125 145 191 1.79 7.12
KTK 139 193 1463 2000 1602 2193 8.13 8.17
KRL 135 142 1600 1479 1735 1621 -1.95 -1.68
MP 83 98 234 377 317 475 12.67 10.62
MAH 538 542 2238 2580 2776 3122 3.62 2.98
MAN 25 18 44 48 69 66 2.25 -1.22
MEG 2 2 21 24 23 27 3.83 3.94
MIZ 2 3 7 8 9 11 3.58 4.48
NAG 71 82 172 172 243 254 0.02 1.11
ORS 328 877 735 826 1063 1703 2.96 12.51
PUN 274 202 1257 1077 1531 1278 -3.80 -4.41
RAJ 69 123 394 693 464 816 15.15 15.15
SIK 24 27 56 46 80 73 -4.93 -2.27
TN 993 1400 4147 5983 5140 7383 9.59 9.47
TRP 11 15 47 65 57 79 8.29 8.61
UP 459 524 1175 1421 1634 1945 4.87 4.46
UKD 50 66 178 273 228 339 11.30 10.46
WB 222 559 897 2084 1119 2642 23.45 23.96
AND 3 4 10 10 13 14 0.08 1.55
CHN 0 1 5 5 5 5 -1.49 1.31
DNH 1 0 1 1 1 1 -1.46 8.46
DAM 0 0 0 0 0 0 -5.43 7.79
DLI 6 5 51 40 58 44 -5.98 -6.42
LAK 0 1 2 3 2 4 10.31 16.07
PUD 9 9 54 69 63 78 6.45 5.49
All
4945 6844 19741 26216 24686 33060 7.35 7.58
India

Table 19.6 Total number of Indigenous cattle in thousands

Annual growth rate (%)
Male Female Total Indigenous Indigenous
States /
UTs Female Total
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003-07 2003-07
AP 4707 5166 3486 4160 8193 9325 4.52 3.29
ARP 201 211 244 263 445 474 1.85 1.59
ASM 3878 4735 4122 4895 7999 9631 4.39 4.75
BHR 4184 4456 5271 6127 9455 10583 3.83 2.86
CHH 4343 4709 4286 4596 8629 9305 1.76 1.90
GOA 32 26 31 29 63 55 -1.73 -3.52
GUJ 3286 3316 3498 3518 6785 6834 0.14 0.18
HAR 410 395 557 591 967 986 1.50 0.49
HP 800 742 759 734 1559 1476 -0.84 -1.36
J & K 714 699 1050 1066 1764 1766 0.39 0.02
JHK 4181 4697 3332 3893 7513 8590 3.97 3.41
KTK 3677 3763 4260 4546 7936 8309 1.64 1.16
KRL 47 21 341 98 387 119 -26.87 -25.55
MP 9077 10193 9519 11248 18595 21441 4.26 3.62
MAH 7610 7631 5917 5430 13527 13061 -2.12 -0.87
MAN 189 123 160 153 349 276 -1.07 -5.68
MEG 347 374 397 486 744 860 5.19 3.70
MIZ 12 8 14 16 27 24 3.42 -2.70
NAG 93 82 115 133 208 216 3.79 0.93
ORS 6838 5579 6002 5027 12840 10607 -4.33 -4.66
PUN 289 226 219 272 508 498 5.57 -0.47
RAJ 3547 3513 6843 7791 10390 11304 3.30 2.13
SIK 33 29 46 33 79 62 -7.81 -5.92
TN 1599 1348 2402 2458 4001 3806 0.57 -1.24
TRP 314 359 388 516 702 875 7.38 5.66
UP 8239 7046 8678 9892 16917 16938 3.33 0.03
UKD 879 831 1082 1064 1961 1896 -0.41 -0.84
WB 7945 6432 9849 10114 17794 16546 0.67 -1.80
AND 23 18 28 17 51 36 -11.59 -8.63
CHN 0 0 1 1 1 1 -1.04 5.46
DNH 32 36 17 19 49 55 2.56 3.07
DAM 3 2 2 1 4 3 -9.97 -5.49
DLI 4 5 30 42 34 47 9.00 8.70
LAK 1 1 2 2 2 3 1.90 9.50
PUD 3 3 12 3 16 6 -28.02 -21.57
All
77534 76779 82961 89235 160495 166015 1.84 0.85
India

Table 19.7 Total Number of buffaloes — 2003 &2007 in thousands
Buffaloes Buffaloes Annual Growth Rate
Total
States/UTs Male Female (%)
Female Total
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003-07 2003-07
AP 1638 2108 8991 11164 10630 13272 5.56 5.71
ARP 4 1 8 2 11 3 -26.67 -26.51
ASM 307 220 370 280 678 500 -6.76 -7.33
BHR 1032 1289 4711 5401 5743 6690 3.48 3.89
CHH 1078 1010 520 594 1598 1604 3.38 0.10
GOA 11 9 27 28 37 37 1.05 0.13
GUJ 667 1016 6473 7757 7140 8774 4.63 5.29
HAR 870 916 5164 5037 6035 5953 -0.62 -0.34
HP 47 58 727 703 774 762 -0.82 -0.40
J & K 131 140 909 910 1039 1050 0.03 0.27
JHK 710 763 634 742 1343 1506 4.02 2.90
KTK 464 498 3527 3829 3991 4327 2.07 2.04
KRL 24 25 40 33 65 58 4.60 -2.75
MP 1195 1592 6381 7537 7575 9129 4.25 4.78
MAH 870 871 5274 5202 6145 6073 -0.34 -0.30
MAN 34 28 43 34 77 62 -5.66 -5.21
MEG 10 14 8 9 18 23 1.95 5.89
MIZ 3 2 3 3 6 6 3.59 -0.71
NAG 19 16 15 19 34 35 5.77 0.74
ORS 753 601 641 589 1394 1190 -2.11 -3.88
PUN 597 517 5398 4545 5995 5062 -4.21 -4.14
RAJ 1126 1326 9288 9766 10414 11092 1.26 1.59
SIK 1 0 1 0 2 0 -37.56 -40.96

TN 268 495 1390 1514 1658 2009 2.16 4.92
TRP 6 5 8 9 14 14 3.25 0.46
UP 5163 5385 17751 18427 22914 23812 0.94 0.97
UKD 134 156 1094 1063 1228 1220 -0.71 -0.17
WB 693 497 393 267 1086 764 -9.25 -8.42
AND 7 5 9 5 16 10 -14.25 -10.88
CHN 1 1 21 18 23 20 -3.65 -3.96
DNH 1 2 3 3 4 4 -2.66 2.50
DAM 0 0 1 1 1 1 -8.99 0.94
DLI 24 26 207 252 231 278 5.04 4.77
LAK - 0 - 0 - 0 - -
PUD 1 0 3 3 4 3 -0.93 -4.87
ll India 17888 19597 80034 85745 97922 105343 1.74 1.84

Table 19. 8 Total numbers of milch animals in thousands
Crossbred Milk Cows Indigenous Milk Cows Milch Buffaloes
States/UTs AGP AGP
2003 2007 AGP(%) 2003 2007 2003 2007
(%) (%)
AP 475 828 14.91 1934 2233 3.66 5227 6224 4.46
ARP 5 6 2.63 11 1 90 -5.03 4 1 -40.51
ASM 1 61 153 -1.30 2034 2533 5.64 199 148 -7.08
BHR 569 836 10.11 2839 2990 1.30 2679 2846 1.52
CHH 67 59 -3.21 2313 2360 0.50 281 316 2.97
GOA 6 8 8.45 17 16 -1.36 16 16 0.70
GUJ 318 525 13.35 2119 2004 -1.39 3937 4390 2.76
HAR 263 268 0.45 309 340 2.40 2725 2704 -0.19
HP 334 409 5.21 478 460 -0.96 466 448 -1.00
J & K 543 678 5.69 598 592 -0.26 543 551 0.37
JHK 69 67 -0.64 1829 2147 4.08 390 412 1.37
KTK 903 1259 8.66 2500 2656 1.52 2215 2374 1.75
KRL 791 745 -1.48 152 48 -25.13 18 13 -7.10
MP 136 205 10.78 5704 5995 1.25 4055 3979 -0.47
MAH 1389 1623 3.96 3532 3284 -1.80 3476 3325 -1.10
MAN 23 24 1.23 78 74 -1.39 22 16 -8.29
MEG 15 17 3.03 215 276 6.47 5 4 -4.77
MIZ 4 4 2.22 7 8 4.60 2 2 -2.64
NAG 87 79 -2.38 50 60 4.61 6 8 9.06
ORS 386 332 -3.68 3235 2377 -7.41 358 281 -5.84
PUN 741 683 -2.01 124 166 7.64 3106 2779 -2.74
RAJ 235 397 14.03 4248 4630 2.18 5222 5400 0.84
SIK 33 23 -8.22 27 19 -8.57 1 0 -48.56
TN 2352 3071 6.90 1341 1240 -1.93 793 806 0.41
TRP 25 30 4.82 215 246 3.46 5 4 -3.18
UP 642 791 5.36 4901 5537 3.10 10379 10565 0.44
UKD 99 157 12.19 595 605 0.41 682 665 -0.64
WB 489 1055 21.19 5293 5004 -1.39 247 174 -8.36
AND 5 5 2.03 15 10 -9.94 5 3 -13.55
CHN 3 3 -0.94 1 1 -7.95 15 12 -5.09
DNH 1 1 -13.92 10 11 1.84 1 1 10.22
DAM 0.03 0 -11.99 1 1 -4.75 0 -19.40
DLI 34 25 -7.07 20 28 8.38 139 171 5.28
LAK 1 1 -1.33 0 1 5.43 - 0 -
PUD 28 39 8.31 6 2 -25.80 2 2 0.24
All India 11232 14407 6.42 46856 48042 0.63 47224 48641 0.74

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 20. MILK PRODUCTION STATISTICS

Module 13. Population and production statics
Lesson 20
MILK PRODUCTION STATISTICS
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Milk Production Availability
20.1 Introduction
This chapter gives details regarding milk production, per capita availability, achievements of key components of dairy sector etc during
different time periods in India.
20.2 Milk Production Availability
Table 20.1 All India estimates of production and per capita availability of milk 1950-51 to 2009-2010
Year Milk Production Human Population Per Capita

(million tonnes) (million numbers) Availability
(gram/day)
1950-51 17.0 359 130
1960-61 20.0 434 126
1980-81 31.6 679 128
1990-91 53.9 839 176
2000-01 80.6 1019 217
2005-06 97.1 1106 241
2006-07 100.9 1122 246
2007-08 104.8 1138 252
2008-09 108.6 1154 258
2009-10 112.5 1170 263
2010-11* 116.2
*Anticipated achievement
Table 20.2 Estimates of Milk Production 2004-05 to 2009-10 (000tonnes)
States/UTs 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10
Andhra Pradesh 7257 7624 7939 8925 9570 10429
Arunachal 48 48 49 32 24 26
Pradesh
Assam 739 747 751 752 753 756
Bihar 4743 5060 5450 5783 5934 6124
Chhattisgarh 831 839 849 866 908 956
Goa 57 56 57 58 59 59
Gujarat 6745 6960 7533 7911 8386 8844
Haryana 5222 5299 5367 5442 5745 6006

Himachal Pradesh 870 869 872 874 884 836
Jammu & 1422 1400 1400 1519 1565 1604

Kashmir
Jharkhand 1330 1335 1401 1442 1466 1463
Karnataka 3917 4022 4124 4244 4538 4822
Kerala 2025 2063 2119 2253 2441 2537
Madhya Pradesh 5506 6283 6375 6572 6855 7167
Maharashtra 6567 6769 6978 7210 7455 7679
Manipur 75 77 77 78 78 78
Meghalaya 71 73 75 77 77 78
Mizoram 16 15 16 17 17 11
Nagaland 69 74 67 45 53 78
Orissa 1283 1342 1431 1625 1598 1651
Punjab 8554 8909 9168 9282 9387 9389
Rajasthan 8310 8713 9375 9536 9491 9548
Sikkim 46 48 49 49 49 46
Tamil Nadu 4784 5474 5560 5586 5673 5778
Tripura 86 87 89 91 96 100
Uttar Pradesh 16512 17356 18095 18861 19537 20203
Uttarakhand 1195 1206 1213 1221 1230 1377
West Bengal 3790 3891 3982 4087 4176 4300
A&N Islands 24 20 23 24 26 24
Chandigarh 43 46 46 47 47 46
D.&N.Haveli 4 5 5 5 10 10
Daman & Diu 1 1 1 1 1 1
Delhi 303 310 289 282 408 466
Lakshadweep 1 2 2 2 2 2
Puducherry 41 43 45 46 46 46
All India 92484 97066 100869 104844 108587 112540
Table 20.3 Milk Production distribution among Cows, Buffaloes & Goats in 2009-10 (000 tonnes)
States/UTs Cow Milk Buffalo Goat Totals

Milk Milk (tones)
CB ND Total
Andhra Pradesh 1799 1029 2828 7601 0.1 10429
Arunachal Pradesh 7 20 26 26
Assam 185 451 636 98 22 756
Bihar 1074 2023 3097 2807 219 6124
Chhattisgarh 77 514 592 319 46 956

Goa 27 9 36 23 59
Gujarat 1415 1912 3327 5285 231 8844
Haryana 549 376 925 5020 61 6006
Jammu & Kashmir * 1604
Jharkhand 121 645 766 621 76 1463
Karnataka 2040 1223 3263 1506 53 4822
Kerala 2234 132 2367 44 126 2537
Madhya Pradesh 44,4 2548 2992 3758 417 7167
Maharashtra 2887 1155 4042 3355 282 7679
Manipur 40 24 64 14 78
Meghalaya 47 29 76 2 78
Mizoram 7 3 10 1 11
Nagaland 63 10 73 4 1 78
Orissa 718 707 1425 223 3 1651
Punjab 2749 273 3022 6323 44 9389
Rajasthan 381 2320 2701 5840 1007 9548
Sikkim# 37 9 46 0.1 46
Tamil Nadu 4228 789 5017 761 5778
Tripura 33 63 96 2 3 100
Uttar Pradesh 1567 3575 5142 13902 1159 20203
Uttarakhand 309 300 609 768 1377
West Bengal 1834 2117 3951 215 135 4300
A&N Islands 6 11 17 5 2 24
Chandigarh 13 1 14 32 46
D.&N.Haveli# 1 7 9 2 10
Daman & Diu # 0.1 1 1 1 1
Delhi # 59 41 99 366 466
Lakshadweep 1 1 1 1 2
Puducherry 42 2 44 2 46
All India 25358 22467 47825 59201 3910 112540
Table 20.4 Per Capita Availability of Milk From 2004-05 To 2009-10 (gram/day)
States/UTs 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 2008- 2009-

05 06 07 08 09 10
Andhra Pradesh 250 260 269 298 316 342
Arunachal 114 113 114 74 55 59

Pradesh
Assam 72 72 70 70 70 69
Bihar 147 154 163 170 172 175
Chhattisgarh 103 103 101 103 106 110
Goa 110 105 100 101 99 96
Gujarat 344 349 374 385 402 418
Haryana 631 628 633 621 644 662
Jammu & 364 353 325 372 378 382

Kashmir
Jharkhand 127 126 131 132 132 130
Karnataka 194 197 200 203 215 226
Kerala 169. 171 172 183 197 203
Madhya Pradesh 233 262 259 264 271 278
Maharashtra 176 178 182 184 188 190
Manipur 90 92 82 91 90 88
Meghalaya 81 82 82 84 83 83
Mizoram 46 43 45 48 47 29
Nagaland 90 96 86 57 67 96
Orissa 92 95 100 113 110 112
Punjab 917 943 961 956 955 944
Rajasthan 376 387 408 408 399 395
Sikkim 221 232 230 229 226 210
Tamil Nadu 204 231 232 232 234 237
Tripura 70 70 71 72 74 77
Uttar Pradesh 254 262 267 274 278 283
Utarakhand 364 361 358 354 351 387
West Bengal 124 126 126 129 131 133
A&N Islands 165 135 155 149 154 137
Chandigarh 115 116 124 108 101 95
Dadra & N. 45 53 54 47 91 86
Haveli
Daman &'Diu 10 11 13 12 15 15
Delhi 54 54 48 4r 65 72
Lakshadweep 45 64 76 74 84 84
Puducherry 108 108 117 107 101 96
All India 233 241 246 252 258 263

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 21. FIVE YEAR PLANS AND DAIRY DEVELOPMENT

Module 14. Dairy development in India Phases and schemes
Lesson 21
FIVE YEAR PLANS AND DAIRY DEVELOPMENT
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Five Year Plans
21.2.1 First five year plan
21.2.2 Second five year plan
21.2.3 Third year plan
21.2.4 Fourth five year plan
21.2.5 Fifth five year plan
21.2.6 Sixth five year plan
21.2.7 Seventh five year plan (1992-97)
21.2.7.1 Approaches and strategies
21.2.8 Eighth five year plan (1992-97)
21.2.9 Ninth five year plan (1997-98 to 2001-02)
21.2.9.1 Objective of ninth five year plan
21.2.10 Tenth five year plan (2002-2007)
21.2.11 Eleventh plan (2007-2012)
21.2.11.1 Goals and strategy of eleventh plan
21.2.11.2 Proposed Developmental Programme in 11th Plan
21.3 Important Developments in Different Five Year Plans
21.1 Introduction
After independence our country adopted the policy of mixed economy wherein both private and public sector was to play their respective
roles in development of the country. For rapid economic development accompanied by continuous progress towards equality and social
justice, India adopted the policy of five year plans.
21.2 Five Year Plans
The table 21.1 reveals that allocation for dairying (D) and animal husbandry (AH) progressively increased the each five year plan. It was
Rs. 158 millions in first five year plan (1951-56) and increased Rs. 8510 million in sixth five year plan (1980-85). As compared to
agriculture, the allocation is lower. The allocation for the Dairying and Animal Husbandry is on an average 0.8 percent of the total outlay.
On analysis of these costs, it has been found that expenditure on dairying has been mainly on collection, transport, processing and
distribution of milk. The production aspect of milk and particularly production of quality / hygienic milk has been not given due
importance during various plan periods.
21.2.1 First five year plan
In the First five year plan (1951-56) the dairy development programme started in a small way. The main activities of the dairy
development programme were to supply the good quality milk under hygienic conditions to big cities. This was supported by the scheme
of procurement of milk from rural areas. In this plan period dairy development activities were started in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. 146 key village blocks having the facility of artificial insemination was established. 650
veterinary hospitals and 25 gosadans were also established. The milk supply scheme was started in two metro cities i.e. Bombay and
Calcutta. In this plan period, total production of milk in the country was 18 million tonnes. During this plan period, in 1955, the Indian
Dairy Research Institute was transformed into the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI). Its headquarter was shifted to Karnal from
Bangalore.
21.2.2 Second five year plan
In the second five year plan (1956-61) certain specific objectives relating to production, marketing and consumption was laid down. In
this plan period major thrust was given on quality control and paying remunerative price to both milk producer as well as consumer. It
favored the establishment of milk producer co-operative societies at village level to ensure supply of milk to city dairies, creameries and
milk drying plants. In this plan period, it was envisaged to establish dairy factory at Anand, the Delhi milk supply scheme, 36 milk plants,
expansion of existing 114 key village blocks and 670 Artificial Insemination center, 34 new gosadans, 248 goshalas, 1900 veterinary
hospitals. The plan promoted the three private entrepreneurs: Glaxo, Levers and Nestle to establish milk product plants. In the first five
year plan NDRI, Southern region station at Bangalore was established. In this plan expansion of the same was carried out. During the
second plan period, seven liquid milk plants were completed and eight pilot schemes, three milk creameries and two milk product
factories were taken up. In addition, civil works on 31 milk supply schemes were on the verge of completion.
By 1959, there were 2257 co-operative milk supply societies and 77 milk supply unions. About 2, 11, 131 farmers / milk producer were
affiliated to this milk supply societies. This 77 milk supply unions owned in aggregate funds to the tune of Rs. 1.83 crores and marketed
milk and milk products of Rs. 11.32 crores.
21.2.3 Third year plan
The major objective of third five year plan (1961-66) was to develop dairy projects emphasizing milk production in rural areas linked
with plants for marketing surplus milk to urban centers. This plan emphasized the need to collect milk by a network of village milk
producer's co-operative societies and to organize manufacture and marketing of milk and milk products on co-operative lines. The efforts
and money invested on dairying in earlier two plan periods have yielded appropriate results but still the major problem confronting the
dairy industry was the absence of public participation.
Hence, the plan felt the need of cooperatives and the establishment of separate dairy development departments in each state.
In this plan period aim was kept to establish 55 milk supply schemes, and rural creameries, 6 milk products factories, 2 cheese factories,
4 cattle feed compounding factories. Apart from this, it was also aimed to complete the leftover schemes of the second plan period.
Madras milk supply scheme was also started during this period only. One of the most important highlight of this plan period was the
establishment of National Dairy Development Board, at Anand in 1965.
21.2.4 Fourth five year plan
In the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) target was kept to set up 49 milk supply schemes, 11 milk product factories and 43 rural dairy
centers. Of these 6 milk supply schemes, 2 milk product factories and 32 rural dairy centers were commissioned. The cross breeding in
cattle with exotic dairy breeds was taken up on a large scale during the plan by establishing frozen semen stations. The project operation
flood was conceived and formulated by National Dairy Development Board in this plan Period.
21.2.5 Fifth five year plan
By 1974, 100 Dairy Plants and 62 pilot dairy schemes were set up. Of these 100 dairy plants, 94 were managed by government either
through state dairy development corporations or by government department. By 1975, expansion work to increase the capacities of dairy
plants in the four metros was completed and two large new plants were commissioned in Bombay and Delhi. A new large plant for
Madras was also established and construction of a similar plant for Calcutta was in progress. Apart from these, establishment of 13 new
plants and expansion of the capacity of 7 existing rural dairy plants acting as feeder balancing units was also planned. Probably for the
first time more and appropriate attention was paid to the function of research and development in the field of dairying during fifth five
year plan (1974-79). During this plan period for the benefit of farmers particularly of weaker sections of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh and Orissa, a Project on Cattle breeding, farm forestry and food for work programme was taken up.
21.2.6 Sixth five year plan
Sixth Five year Plan (1980-85) laid special emphasis on projects for increasing the productivity of various indigenous species of livestock
through genetic improvement and better healthcare. In this plan period necessary steps were taken to make available reliable and timely
statistics of livestock. During this plan, a new development project was started in Sikkim, 3 integrated cattle - cum - dairy development
projects were started in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.
21.2.7 Seventh five year plan (1992-97)
21.2.7.1 Approaches and strategies
1. To provide necessary infrastructure to achieve the accelerated growth in livestock production.
2. To enable large section of rural population, including small and marginal farmers, labourers, tribal and weaker section to improve
their nutritional and economic status by providing employment through livestock rearing.
3. To make available good breeding material for increasing productivity.
4. To strengthen animal health facilities, bringing them to the doorstep of farmers
5. To make available quality fodder seeds more widely.
6. To increase the coverage of area and farm facilities under co-operative dairy programs and improve milk handling, processing
and marketing infrastructure.
7. Launching of technology mission for
i) Dairy cattle improvement (through embryo transfer tech.).
ii) Dairy development
Plan outlay was Rs. 1134.62 crores on AH and Dairying (Rs. 493.45 crores to be used for dairying only). Since 1950, total expenditure
on AH and Dairying, during all the five year plans Rs.1584.17 crores.
21.2.8. Eighth five year plan (1992-97)
The emphasis was laid on enhancement of the productivity of milch cattle through upgradation by cross breeding. Frozen semen
technology based upon progeny bulls is a major part of the programme. Drought intensity during the seventh five year plan has pointed
to the need for integrating animal husbandry programme with the development of fodder. Programme for improving availability of fodder
and seeds, development of pasture lands, feed analytical laboratories for analysis of various nutrients and toxins were taken up. The
technology mission on dairy development was established to dovetail the activities of the central and state government.
21.2.9 Ninth five year plan (1997-98 to 2001-02)
The realities of post- GATT world reflected in the report of working group on animal husbandry and dairying for the formulation of 9th
five year plan.
21.2.9.1 Objective of ninth five year plan
1. Effective health coverage
2. To reduce economic loses due to diseases.
3. To enlarge export of livestock products.
4. Enforcement of international animal health code.
5. Harmonisation of vaccines and biological product in India.
*The figure in the parentheses give the percent
21.2.10 Tenth five year plan (2002-2007)
In the tenth five year plan, it was envisaged that Animal husbandry and dairying will receive high priority in the efforts for generating
wealth and employment, increasing the availability of animal protein in the food basket and for generating exportable surpluses. The
overall focus was on four broad pillars viz. (i) removing policy distortions that is hindering the natural growth of livestock production; (ii)
building participatory institutions of collective action for small-scale farmers that allow them to get vertically integrated with livestock
processors and input suppliers; (iii) creating an environment in which farmers will increase investment in ways that will improve
productivity in the livestock sector; and (iv) promoting effective regulatory institutions to deal with the threat of environmental and health
crises stemming from livestock. The Tenth Plan target for milk production was set at 108.4 million tonnes envisaging an annual growth
rate of 6.0 per cent. The allocation for animal husbandry, dairying and fishery was Rs. 2500 crore during the Tenth plan. It was
emphasized that use of technological and marketing interventions in the production, processing and distribution of livestock products will
be the central theme of any future programme for livestock development. The generation and dissemination of appropriate technologies
in the field of animal production as also health care to enhance production and productivity levels will also be given greater attention.
21.2.11 Eleventh plan (2007-2012)
Livestock plays an important role in Indian economy and is an important sub-sector of Indian agriculture. The contribution of livestock
to the GDP is about 4.5% and the sector employs about 5.5% of the workforce. Livestock provides stability to family income especially
in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country and is an insurance against the vagaries of nature due to drought, famine, and other
natural calamities. Major part of the livestock population is concentrated in the marginal and small size of holdings. Growth during the
Tenth Plan has been at the rate of 3.6%. 1.79 The goals for the Eleventh Five Year Plan for the livestock sector would be (i) to achieve
an overall growth between 6% and 7% per annum for the sector as a whole with milk group achieving a growth of 5.0% per annum and
meat and poultry group achieving a growth of 10% per annum; (ii) the benefit of growth should be equitable, benefiting mainly the small
and marginal farmers and landless labourers and should benefit poorly endowed areas like draught prone, arid, and semi-arid areas; (iii)
to provide adequate animal health services for effective disease control; (iv) the sector should generate additional employment
opportunity to people in the rural areas especially to the female population; (v) livestock should provide major source of income in the
selected areas having potential for mixed crop-livestock farming system; and (vi) the growth in the sector should result in the
improvement of environment, specially in the rural areas. Market opportunities have opened up for the livestock sector following the
economic liberalization. But the sector’s ability to capitalize on new market opportunity is constrained by the availability and quality of
support services which, at present, are mainly provided by the government. Moreover, these services are not available at the doorsteps
of the producers. There is a need to restructure service delivery mechanism to become conducive to the requirement of the rural
livestock producers. Lack of credit for livestock production has been a major problem. Public sector lending is very low. The strategy
should be to correct these distortions and ensure timely availability of inputs and services including credit to livestock farmers.
21.2.11.1 Goals and strategy of eleventh plan
1. The goals for the eleventh five year plan for the livestock sector would be i) to achieve an overall growth between 6% to 7% per
annum for the sector as a whole with milk group achieving a growth of 5.0% per annum and meat and poultry group achieving a
growth of 10% per annum, ii) the benefit of growth should be equitable, benefiting mainly the small and marginal farmers and
landless labourers and should benefit poorly endowed areas like draught prone, arid and semi-arid areas iii) the sector should
generate additional employment opportunity to people in the rural areas especially to the female population, iv) livestock should
provide major source of income in the selected areas having potential for mixed crop-livestock farming system, and v) the growth
in the sector should result in the improvement of environment specially in the rural areas.
2. Accelerating the growth in livestock sector between 6 to 7 per cent during the 11th plan would not be an easy task, since growth
during the first four years of 10th plan has been less then 4% per annum. The strategy would require action on both supply and
demand side besides the institutional restructuring. In past, the development programmes have been primarily based on public
initiatives. With the increase in coverage, these programme have over grown in size. Their institutional structure has not changed to
suit the changing requirement and remain in line with the fast changes in the technology. A sustainable and financially viable
livestock farming, which will generate wealth and self-employment through entrepreneurship, is the need of the day. This would
require creating an enabling environment in which farmers will increase investment to improve productivity of livestock and
building participatory institutions that allow livestock farmers to get vertically integrated with processors of livestock products and
input suppliers/service providers.
3. Market opportunities have opened up for the livestock sector following the economic liberalization. There are expectations of
faster growth in demand for livestock products due to expected increase in income combined with the high income elasticity of
demand for livestock products. But the sector’s ability to capitalize on new market opportunity is constrained by the availability and
quality of support services. At present, Government is the main provider of these services. The quality of the services is however
not satisfactory and these services are not available at the doorsteps of the producers. The present structure of livestock
improvement is based on fixed model of a Veterinary Hospital/Dispensary being the key nodal structure at the ground level from
where services and goods are currently distributed. There is a need to restructure service delivery mechanism to become conducive
to the requirement of the rural livestock producers. Lack of credit for livestock production has been a major problem. Public sector
lending is abysmally very low. The commercial banks are not favourably disposed to providing credit to livestock farmers and the
cooperative credit system is very weak resulting in excessive dependent of livestock farmers on informal sources usually at
exorbitant interest rates. The strategy should be to correct these distortions and ensure timely availability of inputs and services
including credit to livestock farmers.
4. The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying is managing large infrastructure of livestock farms and fodder production
stations. Many of the infrastructures are out dated and have not kept pace with the development of science and technology. An
exercise on restructuring the existing infrastructure needs to be taken up on priority basis. An institution like Delhi Milk Scheme,
which is suffering huge losses, has lost relevance and should be closed and sold out. An authority to supervise quality control on
production and marketing of breeding material, vaccine and other biological should be set up. To advise the Department of Animal
Husbandry and Dairying on policy matters, establishment of a National Institute for Livestock Information and Policy Studies is
recommended. Similarly the large number of livestock farms managed by the State Governments should be reorganized and the
production of vaccine and other biological materials should be privatized.
5. Establishment of a separate Indian Council for Veterinary and Animal Science Education and Research by carving out animal
science institutes from ICAR and placing them with Department of A.H &D would provide better coordination between the
research and developmental efforts in livestock sector.
21.2.11.2 Proposed Developmental Programme in 11th Plan
1. Adequate availability of quality fodder is essential for enhancing livestock productivity. For this, there is need to target at least ten
percent of the cultivable land for growing fodder crops. Since major limitation to increasing fodder production is insufficient
availability of fodder seeds, a programme on fodder seed production through registered growers would be launched in collaboration
with State Agricultural Universities and State Seed Corporations. Assistance would be provided for better use of crop residues
through industrial manufacture of feed blocks using crops residues, briquettes, and utilization of agro- industrial byproducts. The
projects on development of Common Property Resource (CPR) and fodder banks would be implemented as public private
partnership initiative (PPP).
2. The National Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Project (NCBBP) would continue to the major initiative in cattle and buffalo
development. Emphasis would be on using only quality bulls. Ordinarily, only progeny tested bulls should be used in such a
breeding programme, however in the absence of availability of such bulls, attempts would be made to identify the best males from
the available sources. The Embryo Transfer Technology (ETT) would be made use of in the production of bulls in the absence of
progeny testing. Import of frozen semen and embryo from high producing herds would be required for breeding the bull mothers
maintained in the country. Out of existing 54 functional semen stations, 10 bigger semen freezing stations would be strengthened
with the state of art facility to produce annually 40 to 50 million doses. The AI services would be privatized and delivered at the
doorsteps of the livestock farmers. An information network for breeding services would be established.
3. Major policy reforms are required to provide support to small ruminant developmental programme. The grazing policy for
livestock in forest including joint forest management with particular reference to high altitude forest needs to be developed and
jointly implemented by Animal Husbandry and Forest Departments. Regeneration and development of common property resources
and wasteland with involvement of Panchayats and NGOs need to be given greater attention. It is proposed to launch this
programme in 40 backward districts in 6 states having high population of sheep and goats.
4. Under Dairy Development, milk producers cooperatives will continue to play major role despite liberalization of the sector.
However, the dairy cooperatives will have to reform themselves and become competitive. NDDB is setting up a consortorium with
NABARD and NCDC to fund the dairy cooperatives. The venture capital fund for dairy and poultry development set up in the
10th plan would be expanded. Primary attention would be given on creating infrastructure for production of clean milk and to
improve the processing, marketing and transport facility. The processing capacity shall have to be expanded both in the cooperative
and private sector. R & D efforts in developing process and packing technology for Indian milk products as also other innovative
milk products would be supported.
21.3 Important Developments in Different Five Year Plans
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 22. KEY VILLAGE SCHEME AND INTENSIVE CATTLE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Module 14. Dairy development in India phases and schemes
Lesson 22
KEY VILLAGE SCHEME AND INTENSIVE CATTLE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Key Village Scheme (KVS)
22.3 Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP)
22.1 Introduction
This chapter describes key village scheme and intensive cattle development progrmme schemes implemented by Government for the
development of dairy sectors of India. It gives important features and limitations of both the schemes.
22.2 Key Village Scheme (KVS)
After Independence the first organized attempt to develop village cattle on an effective scale was initiated with the launch of key village
scheme (KVS) in 1950 during first five year plan. KVS is a general comprehensive scheme drawn up by Government of India for
development of cattle population in India by employing scientific methods for improvement of cattle viz., Artificial insemination, Grading
& selective breeding, Formulation of co-operative societies for marketing the pure breed cattle and development of feed & fodder. A key
village is defined as an area or part of village or whole village or group of villages. Initially the aim was to cover 5000 breedable cows and
buffaloes & later on increase up to 10,000.
The important features of cattle development under key village scheme are as under.
1. Initially natural service was practiced but later on artificial insemination was introduced at most of the KVS.
2. Establishment of gosadans and goshalas was encouraged.
3. Developing dual purpose breed was emphasized so as to provide good bullocks and simultaneously increase the milk production.
4. Propagation of cross breeding Programme.
5. Protecting the animals against prevalent contagious diseases was carried out.
The key village scheme thus employed all aspects of cattle improvement for e.g controlled breeding, improved feeding, disease and
health control, better management and marketing and adoption of improved animal husbandry practice through proper extension
methods. KVS thus has helped greatly in developing good quality cattle in different parts of the country. KVS was sound approach for
implementing programmes of cattle development in an integrated manner, but due to the vastness of the country (vast magnitude of
Problem), the KVS were not able to make necessary impact for immediately increasing the milk production. Each KVS was only a tiny
area of well organized activity surrounded by vast area where indiscriminate breeding was adopted. This obliterated the good work of
KVS. In 1968, 479 village blocks were functioning in various states and they covered 5 million cows and she buffaloes which was about
6.5% of the total breedable female cattle of the country.
22.3 Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP)
On review of functioning of key village scheme, it was revealed that it did not produce results according to the expectations. Many dairy
plants which were set up during the second and third five year plan were not able to procure sufficient quantity of milk. This led to the
development of yet another programme of dairy development project, This ICDPs were to be started in breeding tracks of indigenous
breeds of cattle & buffaloes and in the milk sheds of large dairy projects so that established dairy plants can procure sufficient quantity
of milk for processing. (Upto their installed capacities). It was emphasized to associate each ICDP with either liquid milk plant or any
milk product factory. Each ICDP was to cover 1 lack breedable cow & she buffalo population. This target was kept to make a significant
impact and increase the milk production in the area. For success of the scheme, it is necessary that it is implemented at the best location.
Thus area having good potential for milk production & where appropriate response to cattle development can be there, were chosen. In
the chosen area, the target of covering 70 percent of cattle population for breeding purpose and increasing milk production by 30 percent
in a period of 5 years was kept. The government of Indian extended 100 percent central assistance for the project during the 3rd five
year plan. After implementation and on completion of 2 years, these protects were transferred to plan scheme of the state government.
This change led to reduced financial assistance from central government. In some of the states due to less allocation of funds, adequate
provision of inputs & services could not be made.
"Major steps for the successful implementation of ICDP"
1. Controlled breeding: By the use of Artificial Insemination, cross breeding work was taken upon a massive scale. Under these
programme, Indian or exotic germplasm was used for raising capacious livestock generation responsible for increased milk production.
2. Balanced feeding: Considering the wide gap of quantitative & qualitative inadequacy in the availability & requirement of feed &
fodder, a huge fodder development programme was taken up in each ICDP with a view to maximize the use of high quality green fodder,
there by replacing the use of concentrated feeding & thus reducing cost of milk production.
3. Veterinary healthcare: In order to protect the animals from various fatal diseases / epidemics, prophylactic vaccination programme
was taken up for reducing the occurrence of rinderpest, hemorrhagic septicemia, black quarter, anthrax, foot & mouth disease etc.
4. Milk farming inputs: Provision of medium & short term credit for the purchase of milch cattle, fodder concentrated feeds, fodder
seeds, chemical fertilizers, medicines etc to the milk producers through milk primary societies was one of the important part of the ICDP.
5. Assured milk marketing: Through milk primary societies, the members of the societies were assured of remunerative price of their
milk throughout the year.
Conclusion: ICDP really made a good impact for increasing milk production & improving the health of dairy animals. A large number of
exotic animals were imported. During 1961 to 1978, around 7500 heads of cattle of some breeds were imported viz., Jersey, Brown
Swiss, Red Dane, Yorkshire, Gurneys, Holstein Frisian. Some of these exotic breeds were supplied to state governments. At the same
time government of India also developed farms for multiplying the exotic breeds. At Andeshangar (Uttar Pradesh) and Hessarghatta
(Karnataka) farm for Holstein Frisian were developed. At Sunabeda (Orissa), Jersey farm was established. Number of ICDP developed
in each five year plan is as under.
Table 22.1 Number of ICDP developed
Plan ICDP
3 19
4 63
5 119
6 134
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 23. PIONEERING ROLE OF NATIONAL DAIRY DEVELOPMENT BOARD (NDDB) AND
MILITARY DAIRY FARMS

Lesson 23
PIONEERING ROLE OF NATIONAL DAIRY DEVELOPMENT BOARD (NDDB) AND MILITARY DAIRY FARMS
23.1 Introduction
23.2 National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
23.2.1 Objectives
23.2.2 Key roles played by NDDB
23.3 Military Dairy Farms (MDF)
23.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the activities of NDDB and Military Dairy Farms. It gives detailed description about the objectives and activities
of NDDB as a pioneering institute engaged in developing the dairy sector of India.
23.2 National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
NDDB is an autonomous body established by government of India in 1965. It got registered under the societies registration act and
public trusts act. The Main purpose of establishing NDDB was to replicate the 'Anand Pattern' model in rest of the country. Anand
Pattern is the term used for the model of cooperative dairy organizations developed in Anand of Gujarat. To carry out this function
NDDB selects the milk shed area for developing cooperative societies and producers’ technical help to ensure its growth.
Inspired by the growth of dairy industry in Gujarat on cooperative lines, our Late Prime Minister Shri Lal Bahadur Shastriji wished that
similar type of growth should also be there in the other states of India. Due to his vision & wish, NDDB was established with its head
quarter at Anand & under the chairman ship of Dr. V. Kurien.
23.2.1 Objectives
The major objectives of the NDDB are
1. To promote projects of general public utility relating to dairying, animal husbandry, food and agriculture, fisheries and cold
storages.
2. To make available, on request, the information, skills and technical services needed to increase production of milk and dairy,
technical inputs to speed up procurement, processing and distribution of milk.
3. To prepare initial feasibility studies and to design plan and start-up of operations.
4. To provide manpower services for dairy and allied projects by organizing technical programmes for training personnel.
5. To help in the selection of equipment and undertake bulk procurement services.
6. To offer consultancy services on dairy and allied operations in the field of planning and control including quality control,
organization and marketing backed up, wherever necessary, by research within the NDDB and outside organizations.
7. To serve as international liaison to other National Dairy Boards and International agencies and to facilitate the exchange of
information and personnel as also to assist other countries dairy development.
8. To conduct research in the field of dairying and animal husbandry.
23.2.2 Key roles played by NDDB
In the late 1960s, the NDDB built up its professional staff cadres to enable it to provide dairy projects design and implementation
services. These services covered milk production processing and marketing, farmers' organization, dairy plant design and construction,
manpower development and management consultancy services. The NDDB formulated an integrated Dairy Development programme in
1969, popularly known as Operation Flood.
The NDDB offers consultancy services and recommends suitable strategies to improve the performance of Dairy and allied operations.
These include the preparation of master plans for different areas, feasibility studies, market research studies and in plant studies of dairy
and cattle feed plants. The NDDB has conducted rural and urban household surveys to assess the impact of technical inputs made
available under Operation Flood Scheme.
The NDDB has also been helping the IDC in monitoring the progress of Operation Flood Scheme. It has also worked on the
development of systems related to milk production procurement, technical inputs; low cost cattle feed formulation, etc. The package
service which the NDDB offers includes the creation of viable cooperative farmers' organizations with facilities for procuring, processing
and marketing of milk and milk products. These cooperative organizations are also made responsible for marketing of technical inputs for
enhancing milk production.
In order to carry out research and development in the field of animal husbandry and agriculture, the NDDB has identified some major
areas, like, maintenance and enhancement of productivity of cattle and agriculture farm, production of high yielding cattle and crop seeds
for farmers, adoption of modern techniques of agriculture and animal husbandry, and dissemination of knowledge gained in these fields,
etc.
The NDDB's research and development activities also include product and process development. For undertaking such work, a
laboratory has been established at Anand to carry out analytical work on milk and milk products.
The NDDB has developed facilities for imparting training to personnel at various levels. These training programmes are organized at four
campuses of NDDB's Headquarters at Anand, Mansinh Institute of Training at Mehsana, Sabarmati Gaushala Project at Ahmedabad and
Bidaj. For Practical training, microcenters are established in the nearby cooperative societies. For job training, the facilities of district
milk producer's cooperative unions in the Gujarat State are utilized.
In order to train executive in Cooperative management and Integrated Rural Development, an Institute of Rural Management was set up
at Anand by the NDDB with the help of the Government of India, the Government of Gujarat and the Indian Dairy Corporation. This
Institute also provides consultancy services to cooperatives and other agencies engaged in economic and social development of rural
communities.
23.3 Military Dairy Farms (MDF)
Government Dairy was established at Allahabad to supply milk and milk products to British army and military hospital. To meet the
demand of milk for this dairy so as to produce milk and milk products for British force & their families, military dairy farms were
established by the government. The first MDF was established in 1886 at Allahabad. These farms were operating on semi commercial
lines to balance their profit and loss. MDF can be considered as first official move for organized dairy as they had a great influence on
development of organized dairy in India. The MDF produced milk and various kinds of milk products viz. butter, cream, ghee etc for
military personnel they also catered to the needs of some of the civil establishments such as civil hospitals, jails, etc. In total about 35
MDFS were established. The total Cattle population in this farm was about 20,000. The MDFs were under the administrative control of
the director of military farms attached to the army headquarters. In most of the farms milking was done by hand. MDF provided
practical training to the newly recruited staff on various aspects of dairying. They also provided technical guidance to other private
outside agencies in the field of dairying. These farms carried out following functions: supplied dairy products to the armed forces,
contributed to the improvement of cattle wealth in the country, supplied improved bulls to the community development projects, supplied
one mouth old calves to the private breeders free of cost, Pioneered crossbreeding of cattle in India. All the surplus calves of 4 to 6
month of age were given away to the ministry of Agriculture.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 24. FIVE YEAR PLANS AND DAIRY DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 24
FIVE YEAR PLANS AND DAIRY DEVELOPMENT
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Operation Flood - I
24.2.1 Objectives
24.2.2 Mechanism of the OF – I Project
24.2.3 Achievements
24.2.4 Bottle necks
24.3 Operation Flood – II
24.3.1 Objectives of OF-II programme
24.4 Operation Flood – III (1985 – 96)
24.4.1 Resources and Fund Outlay of OF– III (1987-96)
24.4.2 Component Wise fund outlay
24.4.3 Operation Flood – III : Physical Targets and Achievements (1995-96)
24.4.4 Investments in infrastructure under OF (1970 – 1995)
24.5 Reasons for the Success of Operation Flood
24.1 Introduction
This chapter describes Operation Flood programme. It gives detailed description about objectives, achievement and impact of all the three operation flood
Programmers.
24.2 Operation Flood - I
The five year operation Flood – I project, a brain child of Dr. V. Kurien, commissioned on July 1, 1970 by Government of India, with technical help of NDDB
and financial help of IDC; further extended for 6 yrs (upto March 1981), is the largest project of its kind in the Third World.
24.2.1 Objectives
To capture a commanding share of milk markets in four metropolitan cities
To develop 18 hinterland milk sheds (in 10 states) by organizing dairy cooperative on the Anand pattern and encourage farmers to supply as much milk as
they could.
To organize an efficient transportation system, to collect milk from villages and sending to dairies for processing and supplying to cities.
To set up feeder balancing dairies and storage systems to convert excess milk into powder and butter oil, storing it during flush season and reconstitute them
into milk during lean season.
To increase the yield of milch animals.
To train personnel to plan and operate the services efficiently.
Thus, OF – I Scheme aimed at establishing a broad base for accelerating development of the national dairy industry.
24.2.2 Mechanism of the OF – I Project
Agreement signed between European economic community( EEC) through world food programme (WFP) (for the United nations (UN) / Food and Agricultural
organization (FAO) and Government of India (GOI); as per this, WFP supplied free of cost 1,7,500 MT of Skim milk powder (SMP) and 39,700 MT of Butter
oil (BO), worth Rs. 41.90 crores at international price to India. Generated fund from sale of this food aid ( Rs. 954 millions) was to be used by existing urban
dairies for recombining SMP and BO into milk to be used to supplement production and procurement of milk in rural areas to cater to liquid milk demand of four
metro cities, having 25% of country’s urban demand. Funds also to be used for increasing organized milk production and procurement in rural areas mainly
concerned with milk supply to 4 metros extended over 10 adjoining states (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, U.P., Bihar, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Union Territory of Delhi)
The objectives are to be achieved through Provision of technical inputs like Production of ready mix concentrates and green fodder, AI, Veterinary Services and
medicines, calf rearing assistance, Development of improved milk animals. Project was also to provide for resettlement of city – kept cattle and buffaloes in the
suburbs.
24.2.3 Achievements
Benefit to 14.6 million rural families
Creation of extra action centers in 18 rural milk sheds (districts) in 10 states, covering 9 more milk sheds (total = 18+9 =27), where infrastructure for rural
milk procurement and its processing to marketing in 4 metro markets had been developed.
Anand type cooperative created in the 10 states. They own and operate feeder Balancing Dairies (3 million Liters / day), cattle feed compounding plants
(1300 MT / Day), animal health care facilities (219 mobile and 127 emergency veterinary units), AI (4,868 AI sub – centres in Villages), extension of
services linked to a modern transfer system.
Milk procurement increased to 21 LLPD (1982 – 83) from 7 LLPD before OF – I in 1970.
Milk market captured = 68% in Bombay, 50% in Madras, 53% in Delhi, 32% in Culcutta.
24.2.4 Bottle necks
Inadequate progress in long term objective of increased milk production and supply.
Organized production only 80 lakh litres and only 30 lakh liters was its procurement.
However, milk production in country went upto 30 million MT (1979-80) from 21 million MT in 1970; per capita milk consumption increased from 110gm
to 122 gm.
Rs. 112.7 crores generated through sale of donated commodities (by October,1980) and total expenditure under project was Rs. 112.7 crores. Government
could not keep pace with schedule of OF – I. There was delay in arrival of equipment to expand existing dairy plants which led to procedural delays in
execution of programmes by state and central governments. Non receipt of SMP and BO on time, hence under – utilization of expanded capacity in 4 metro
dairy plants ( 20 LLPD, but actual 21, LLPD). On June, 1975 (original termination date of OF-I), only 38.5% SMP and BO received.
24.3 Operation Flood – II
Operation flood-II was inaugurated on October 2, 1978 (before the end of OF-I) with a Budget allocation Rs. 485 Crores. It was to be financed by sale of 1.86
lakh tonnes of SMP and 0.76 lakh tonnes of BO ( equivalent to Rs. 235 Crores) donated by EEC, World Bank loan of Rs. 173 crores, and Rs 77 Crores by IDC
with main aim of continuation of OF-I with wider perspective (i.e. development beyond four metro cities).
24.3.1 Objectives of OF-II programme
Bridging gap between demand and supply of milk and milk productions through increased milk production from 68.7 million lits / day to 103.2 mill lits / day
by 1985
To help milk producers to rear a National Milch Herd of 5 million cross bred cows and upgraded buffaloes by mid – 1985.
To erect required infrastructure to support a viable dairy industry system through:
a. Indigenous development of dairy processing and conservative methods with enlarged facilities.
b. Provision of man power development programmes, additional interim programs to supply BO as a low priced cooking medium of extended foods as
the basis for infant supplementary feeding programms;
c. Erection of a MIS.
To develop national milk grid linking rural milk sheds with major urban demand centers (153 towns with more than 1 lakh population) to cover a total
population of 150 millions in 19 states.
To encourage 10 million farm families in 155 districts (as identified by Nation Commission on Agri. 1976), to establish 33,390 village cooperative societies,
in turn to form district cooperative unions (with 200 – 800 VCs) and 25 cluster state level cooperative federations, so that, a viable and self – sustaining dairy
industry can be built up by 1985.
To increase per capita daily consumption of milk from 114 gms (1979) to 144 gms (1985) and to 185 gms (1988-89)
Table 24.1 Projected impacts of OF-II
Table 24.2 Employment generation during OF – II (In Thousands)
Does not include employment to be generated by urban milk marketing network, National Milk Grid and other activities.
Indian Dairying is highly labour intensive, use of family labour (women, children) in animal care, picking and collecting natural herbage and other free feeds – are
important factors of milk production. Thus, it provides, productive use of available labour (otherwise it will go as waste) and increased overall participation of
rural / labour force.
Impact of OF – II on employment of milk producers in rural areas is substantial ; It helped 16 % male and 48% female labour force in rural areas to be engaged in
productive activity. Man days of work generated due to more number of improved animals would increase from 4.74 million to 932.8 million between 1981-82 to
1987-88; equivalent to employment of 3.73 million full time workers ( 8hrs. / day, for 250 days) by 1987-88. OF – II implementation will need 1.7 lakhs man
power to run VCMPs by 1987-88, and 0.11 lakh persons for establishment and management of cluster federations.
24.4 Operation Flood – III (1985 – 96)
Operation flood-III was started from June 1987 with total outlay was Rs. 68.29 crore which was extended by World Bank up to April, 30 1996 with increased
total outlay of Rs. 1303.1 crore. The major emphasis was as follows:
Consolidation of achievements gained during OF – I to II by improving productivity and efficiency of cooperative dairy sector and its institutional base for its
long term sustainability.
Investment in OF III focused on strengthening the institutional management aspects of dairy cooperatives at its various levels to establish financially strong
farmer owned and managed organizations.
Productivity enhancement inputs and institutional strengthening in the form of training, research, market promotion, monitoring and evaluation.
Institutional and policy reforms.
Expanding infrastructure in major markets, linking them to milk sheds through national milk grid (NMG) to ensure year round milk supply.
24.4.1 Resources and Fund Outlay of OF– III (1987-96)
Resources: Rs. Crore
NDDB’s own resources: 207.7
External Assistance:
World Bank: 872.8
EEC: 222.6
24.4.2 Component Wise fund outlay
Processing facilities: 634.6
Technical input for milk production: 89.4
Milk Marketing Systems: 359.7
Support to Village Cooperative: 101.2
Planning, information system, market promotion, training and research: 52.5
National milk grid and stabilization: 34.8
Disease control and progeny testing etc. 30.9
24.4.3 Operation Flood – III : Physical Targets and Achievements (1995-96)
Item T A
Anand Pattern DCS: (‘000)
Organized: 70.00 - 72.74
Functional: 55.04
DCS membership (lakh): 93.14
Av. Milk Procurement (lkpd): 110.0 - 109.42
Build up of dairy processing capacity (lkpd): 195.0 - 193.0
Urban milk marketing (lkpd): 100.0 - 99.38
24.4.4 Investments in infrastructure under OF (1970 – 1995)
Infrastructure Investment (Rs. Million)
Rural processing facilities: 8,742
Urban marketing facilities: 3,727
Milk Production enhancement: 2,050
Training in Research: 1,765
Cooperative education: 776
24.5 Reasons for the Success of Operation Flood
OF was based on sound, successful model of Anand cooperatives. Main emphasis on organization, milk producers’ participation and expansion of market
with gifted commodities and gradual replacement with locally produced milk.
No financial problems as the gifted commodity were available to generate necessary funds.
Gifted commodity was handled efficiently for reconstitution purpose, after ascertaining gap between demand and supply. Moreover, gifted commodity was
priced keeping in mind local milk price to avoid misuse of commodity to replace locally produced milk.
Project was implemented by professionals of NDDB, free from bureaucratic control. IDC helped in handling the commodity and funds. Both organizations
had a common board of Directors and chairman, hence proper coordination.
NDDB’s head quarters at Anand is the center of AMUL dairy. It provides a live model to impart training to the farmers and professionals, for replication of
Anand model Cooperatives in their respective areas.
NDDB prepared detail sub-project plans to implement each project. NDDB also sent their professionals for initial starting of the project and continued to
provide consultancy until it reached a take off stage. The progress of the project was monitored closely against set targets.
Table 24.3 Operation flood at a glance
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 25. CO-OPERATIVE DAIRY ORGANIZATIONS: ANAND PATTERN AND PERSPECTIVES

Lesson 25
CO-OPERATIVE DAIRY ORGANIZATIONS: ANAND PATTERN AND PERSPECTIVES
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Milk Marketing System Before the Establishment of "Anand Pattern"
25.3 Evolution of "Anand Pattern"
25.3.1 Anand Pattern
25.3.2 Village Societies
25.3.3 District Milk Producers' Union
25.4 Contributions made by "Anand Pattern"
25.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the concept of Anand pattern.
"Anand Pattern" or "Amul Pattern" denotes the cooperative dairy development followed in Kaira district of Gujarat state, where this
pioneering pattern developed. The common name used for this pattern originates from the town Anand.
25.2 Milk Marketing System Before the Establishment of "Anand Pattern"
The milk produced in the area was being purchased by middlemen, contractors or private agencies at low cost and the same was being
sold to the consumers or Government organizations with high margin of profit. The profit from milk sale so gained was being distributed
only among few persons, who never bothered to invest these profits for the producers' benefit or dairy development activities.
Additionally during flush season because of ample supply of milk the middlemen used to offer still lower prices for milk to the producers
forcing either to convert milk into uneconomical products or alternately heeding to the middlemen's demand resulting in very low return
for milk, which was always below the cost of production. The surplus milk converted into products and no market value for the
byproducts obtained was leading to unnecessary wastage. This was the system which was replaced by the 'Anand Pattern".
25.3 Evolution of "Anand Pattern"
The success story for this pattern to develop was the cooperation and farmers' desire to have reasonable and uniform price throughout
the season for their produce ‘MILK’. It all started way back in 1946 when Government agencies concerned did not heed to the demand
by the milk producers to market their produce through the formation of their own cooperative instead of middlemen, contractors and/ or
private organization. This resulted in 'Milk Strike' organized on the advice of Late Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel under the leadership of Shri
Morarjibhai Desai. This lasted for fifteen days, during which period (because of the cooperation between all producers) not a single drop
of milk reached the market, resulting in acute shortage of milk supply to ‘Bombay Milk Scheme’. Its impact was seen in Governments
approval of the producers' demand of forming a union to handle milk processing and sale. This formed the basis for the formation of
"Kaira District Milk Producers Union" and also the "Anand Pattern" of cooperative Dairy Development.
This pattern has become the best example of what cooperatives can achieve when receptive and loyal milk producers join hands with
dedicated workers with required technical and managerial skills. This has become one of the guiding centers for rural development in
India and other developing nations. It disproves the wrong notion that promoting cooperatives in developing countries is a bad bargain.
The Union which started in 1946 had only two villages and two societies, where only a handful farmers and few staff were handling 250
liters of milk per day. Today the same Union handles more than 20 lakh liters of milk per day. The growth achieved and the popularity
of the products from 'AMUL' in the national market, because of their genuineness, quality and reasonable cost, speaks volumes about
the pattern.
25.3.1 Anand Pattern
It is the cooperative way of dairy development, which is primarily controlled by the producers themselves. It is a three tier system
composed of village level societies, district level union and state level milk marketing federation. The milk marketing federation performs
marketing functions to avoid unhealthy competition between unions to capture the market. All these components aim at bringing better
benefits to the producers and ensuring supply of quality products to consumers at reasonable rates. The profit gained in the bargain goes
in giving social and monetary benefits to the producers, which ultimately results in dairy development of the region.
25.3.2 Village Societies
In "Anand Pattern" this is the foundation around which all other activities are developed. New village cooperative societies are formed
under the guidance of a supervisor or a milk supply officer of the Union. A milk producer irrespective of his economic status, political
affiliation and caste becomes a member by paying minimal entry fee and buying a share. One criterion which decides his membership is
his undertaking to sell the milk only to the society. The members of the society elect “Society Management Committee' consisting of 9,
11 or 13 members (depending on the by -laws applicable). The committee members who are honorary workers then elect a chairman.
The committee employs 3 to 6 paid staff depending on the duties essential for running their day to day affairs. The staff selected is
assigned duties of secretary, milk collector, fat tester, clerk, accountant, inseminator, helpers, etc.
Each society consists of a milk collection centre where any one of the family members from the producers' house takes the milk
produced in the morning and evening at specified time. At the centre milk is promptly measured and a portion of the sample for testing
purpose is taken, to test fat for the purpose of payment. The staff appointed by society and trained by the union, works out the amount
to be paid on the basis of milk quantity received and the quality. This everyday checking on quality discourages adulteration. The
payment for the milk supplied is done to the producer when he comes for the next delivery. The entry is made in the pass-book of the
producer and also in society records to minimize the cheating.
The price offered for milk on the basis of quantity and quality is same throughout the union, irrespective of the society's distance from
the union's dairy plant.
The ready cash available to poor rural producers help them greatly in buying their daily necessities and also in purchasing feed for the
animal. The profit gained by the Society by the sale of milk to the union and also the bonus received by societies from the Union's
profits are utilized for the benefit of the producers in several ways.
Nearly 60 to 70 percent of the profit gained by the Society goes in giving bonus and dividends to the producer members and also in the
village developmental work (Like road, dispensaries, schools, libraries, etc.) and 25 percent is kept in reserve fund and 5 percent goes
towards depreciation on building of milk collection centre.
25.3.3 District Milk Producers' Union
It represents all societies in the district. It consists of 19 members Board of Directors. Twelve members among them are elected from
representative Societies and one representative from financing institutions, a nominee member from district cooperative department, one
dairy expert and one from milk marketing federation and remaining three from individual members. The Board elects a Chairman, a
Vice-Chairman. The board forms policies and the Managing Director appointed by the board implements the policies.
The union's main functions are (i) to buy all the milk from Societies and process it, (ii) sustain the growth of milk cooperatives and (iii)
to provide technical assistance in the form of better feeds, veterinary care, artificial insemination facilities, etc.
The milk collection for the Union is done by yearly contract. This has helped in speedy transport of milk from collection centers to dairy.
The cost of the procurements is borne by the union. The collection is done at specified timings by use of trucks/tankers from different
locations.
The empty milk cans used in the collection centers are supplied after cleaning and sanitization from the union's Dairy Plant to reduce the
microbial load and to minimize spoilage.
The processing plant managed by the Union receives the milk, where it is graded. From each society the milk is pooled and weighed and
sample tasted for fat and S.N.F. A minimum of 6 percent fat and 9 percent S.N.F. is fixed, since the milk received is mainly from
buffaloes. The society receives its payment for milk once in ten days on the basis of fat and also on the quality of milk.
The union decides about the processing of milk into its products. The milk may be sold as liquid milk after heat processing and / or it
may be converted into products like butter, milk powder, baby food, weaning food, ghee, cheese, etc. The sale of these products is
managed at Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation at state level.
The union has qualified veterinary doctors and fleet of mobile veterinary dispensaries for animal health care. The union is able to attend
to emergency calls for 24 hours by charging a nominal fee from members and higher amount from non members per visit. The Union
trains society staff in artificial insemination and also in veterinary first aid. These have become a boon to producers. The first aid
facilities are also subsidized. The staff of the society doing the artificial insemination job is paid an honorarium for his work by the
society.
The union also looks after the nutritional aspects of the animal by providing balanced feed concentrates to its members at subsidized
rates. This has become possible because of its own plant of cattle feed and specialists supervising this job. The union also assists the
farmers in the cultivation of green fodder like lucerne and hybrid Napier. It is also trying to improve fodder conditions by transforming
neglected grazing areas into irrigated fodder farms.
The union educates the farmers and producers by circulating free copies of printed literature written by specialists, in local language, at
regular intervals on varied topics of animal husbandry, quality control of milk and cooperative movement. Its extension staff educates the
rural producers and also women folk by organizing get together in societies regularly. The producers and their family members are taken
on organized tours for showing them different developmental activities of the union. This is providing to them education in non - school
format.
The strong supervisory service of the union is helping in guiding, rectifying and control of the society, so that it remains efficient, strong
and viable unit providing benefit to the producers. The union has seven year development plan where practical rural oriented projects are
taken. The union evaluates the progress regularly and fixes targets. The artificial insemination service provided by the union has helped
in reducing dry periods and increasing calving rate. For this purpose the frozen semen is sent daily by trucks to the subcentres situated in
societies, where the service is provided by the union trained society staff.
25.4 Contributions made by "Anand Pattern"
"Anand Pattern" has produced its impact by way of contributing to the development of Rural India particularly dairy development
aspects in following manner It has shown to the educated and illiterate masses alike that cooperatives can become efficient systems of
rural development when they are well organized and managed by loyal and efficient workers.
It has taught a lesson that it is necessary to have all round approach for upgrading of existing dairy herd by looking to the existing
rural economy.
It is helping the consumers in the supply of genuine quality dairy products at reasonable cost.
For rural poor and landless producers it has become a steady and regular source of income.
More employment opportunities in rural areas are generated, which may ultimately have the way in limiting the exodus of rural
poor in search of jobs to urban areas.
Untapped potentials of rural women folk are better utilized by involving them in the dairy herd management.
It has some impact on restricting the transfer of high yielding dairy animals to big cities and finally to slaughter houses, by its role
on the producer's economy.
Small scale and cottage industries have developed around these areas which are of immense help to the dairy industries, which
have further increased the employment opportunities in this region.
It is educating the rural masses in and around these regions on the use of modern technologies for better returns.
Democratic set up is strengthened and the caste barriers are weakened.
The profits from sale of milk are being invested for village improvement.
The bulk handling of milk has reduced wastage of milk nutrients to considerable extent since byproducts are also utilized and sold.
Milk from surplus area is available at reasonable price to consumers in areas where there is shortage.
Overall, it is strengthening the nation by building up its rural infrastructure.
"Anand Pattern" which is now well recognized has made progress with all these odds. It has become the ray of hope for rural poor and
for the dairy development in India. The testimony of its success and inherent qualities can be seen by the rapid progress several unions in
Gujarat have made by adopting this pattern.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 26. IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATIONS AND DAIRY
DEVELOPMENT CORPORATIONS

Module 14. Dairy development in India Phases and schemes
Lesson 26
INVESTMENT OF DAIRY COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATIONS AND DAIRY DEVELOPMENT CORPORATIONS
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Overview of Dairy Co-operatives
26.3 The New Concept of Producer Companies
26.4 Management
26.4.1 Members' benefits
26.4.2 Reserves
26.4.3 Audit
26.4.4 Internal audit
26.4.5 Resolution of disputes
26.4.6 Inter-State cooperative societies
26.5 The Companies (Amendment) Act, 2002 (Act No. 1 of 2003)
26.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the concept of Producer companies as a new development for functioning of dairy co-operatives in this liberalized
era. Producer companies Act is now being used by many dairy co-operatives in this competitive era. This act overcomes many problems
faced by cooperative organizations while functioning under cooperative act.
26.2 Overview of Dairy Co-operatives
India is the largest milk producing country in the world. But considering the milch animal population of India, production per animal is
lower compared to other nations. Moreover in free trade regime era, there are possibility of cheap imports to India, thus to be
competitive, it is necessary to have technology oriented, smoother and updated delivery system in terms of production and marketing.
co-operative will have to constantly endeavour towards modernization and diversification to ensure quality of international standards.
They will have to constantly update technologies to make milk production viable & also improve quality to compete both in the internal
& external market.
Animal Husbandry and dairying is an important component of Indian agricultural system. But now in the liberalized competitive era,
dairying is professional enterprise which requires expertise. It is necessary to make all aspects of Co-operative dairy sector management
oriented so as to make it at par with other countries which have shown tremendous progress in the sector.
It is estimated that organized dairy sector handles about 25 percent of milk production of the country. The share of co-operatives is
about seventy percent from this organized sector & co-operatives should try to increase their share. The growth of co-operative sector is
uneven across different states of India. Co-operative federations of each state have to strive for further increasing their coverage.
26.3 The New Concept of Producer Companies
Till recently, the Companies Act, 1956, recognised only three types of companies, namely, companies limited by shares (sub-divided into
public limited and private limited companies), companies limited by guarantees and unlimited companies.
The new concept of producer companies is based on the recommendations of an expert committee led by noted economist, Y. K. Alagh.
The committee was asked (a) to frame a legislation that would enable incorporation of cooperatives as companies and conversion of
existing cooperatives into companies and (b) to ensure that the proposed legislation accommodated the unique elements of cooperative
business with a regulatory framework similar to that of companies.
The new type is termed as `Producer Company', to indicate that only certain categories of persons can participate in the ownership of
such companies. The members have necessarily to be `primary producers,' that is, persons engaged in an activity connected with, or
related to, primary produce.
Primary produce: In terms of the Act. it is a produce of farmers arising from agriculture including animal husbandry, horticulture,
floriculture, pisciculture, viticulture, forestry, forest products, re-vegetation, bee raising and farming plantation products: produce of
persons engaged in handloom, handicraft and other cottage industries: by - products of such products; and products arising out of
ancillary industries.
The 46 new sections respectively deal with incorporation of producer companies: their management; general meetings; share capital and
members rights; finance, accounts and audit; loan to members and investments; penalties; amalgamation, merger or division; resolution
of disputes; and reconversion of producer company to inter-State cooperative society. A few salient features are now briefly described.
Formation: Any ten or more individuals, each of them being a producer, that is, any person engaged in any activity connected with
primary produce, any two or more producer institutions, that is, producer companies or any other institution having only producers or
producer companies as its members or a combination of ten or more individuals and producer institutions, can get a producer company
incorporated under the Act.
The companies shall be termed as limited and the liability of the members will be limited to the amount, if any, unpaid on the shares. On
registration, the producer company shall become as if it is a private limited company with the significant difference that a minimum of
two persons cannot get them registered, the provision relating to a minimum paid-up capital of Rs. 1 lakh will not apply and the
maximum number of members can also exceed 50.
Members' equity cannot be publicly traded but be only transferred. As such, "producer companies would not be vulnerable to takeover
by other companies or by MNCs.''
Objects: The objects of producer companies shall include one or more of the eleven items specified in the Act, the more important
being:
(i) Production, harvesting, procurement, grading, pooling, handling, marketing, selling, export of primary produce of members or
import of goods or services for their benefit;
(ii) Processing including preserving, drying, distilling, brewing, venting, canning and packaging of produce of its members; and
(iii) Manufacture, sale or supply of machinery, equipment or consumables mainly to its members.
The other objects include rendering technical or consultancy services, insurance, generation, transmission and distribution of power and
revitalization of land and water resources; promoting techniques of mutuality and mutual assistance; welfare measures and providing
education on mutual assistance principles. It is to be noted that private limited or public limited companies are not hamstrung by such
restrictions as to their objectives, provided they are legal.
26.4 Management
(a) Every producer company is to have at least five and not more than 15 directors. Minimum prescribed for private limited is two
and for public limited three, while the maximum will depend on the number mentioned in the respective Articles. Usually the
maximum is pegged at twelve.
(b) A full time chief executive, by whatever name called, is to be appointed by the board. He shall be an ex-officio director and will
not be liable to retire by rotation. He shall be entrusted with substantial powers of management as the board may determine. This
provision differs from that applicable to limited companies — a private limited need not have any chief executive while public
limited companies, only with paid-up capital exceeding Rs. 5 crores, have to have a managing director.
(c) Producer companies having an average annual turnover exceeding Rs. 5 crores in each of three consecutive years need have a
whole-time secretary. It is not mentioned what would happen to the incumbent, if the turnover falls below this minimum. This is in
contrast to the mandate that private and public limited companies having a paid-up capital of Rs. 2 crores or more should have a
whole-time secretary.
26.4.1 Members' benefits
Members will initially receive only such value for the produce or products pooled and supplied as the directors may determine. The
withheld amount may be disbursed later either in cash or in kind or by allotment of equity shares. Members will be eligible to receive
bonus shares.
An interesting provision is for the distribution of patronage bonus (akin to dividend) after the annual accounts is approved — patronage
bonus means payment out of surplus income to members in proportion to their respective patronage (not shareholding). Patronage, in
turn, is defined as the use of services offered by producer companies to their members by participation in their business activities.
26.4.2 Reserves
Every producer company has to maintain a general reserve in every financial year and in case there is a not sufficient fund in any year
for such transfer, the shortfall has to be made up by members' contribution in proportion to their patronage in the business.
26.4.3 Audit
"without prejudice to the concerned sections in the Act,'' the auditors of producer companies have to specially report on some additional
items such as debts due and bad debts, verification of cash balances and securities, details of assets and liabilities, loans extended to
directors and details of donations and subscriptions. These are all integral parts of any audit, both statutory and internal and one fails to
understand the logic behind this stipulation.
26.4.4 Internal audit
It is mandated that every producer company should carry out internal audit of its accounts by chartered accountants. The Act has not so
far made it compulsory for limited companies to carry out internal audit, although listed companies, by virtue of the clause in the listing
agreement relating to corporate governance, are to have a full-scale internal audit system.
26.4.5 Resolution of disputes
Any dispute relating to the formation, management or business of producers companies is to be settled by conciliation or by arbitration
under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 as if the parties to the dispute have consented in writing to such procedure. The
arbitrator's decision shall be final. This seems to be inequitable since usually an arbitration award can be appealed against in high courts.
26.4.6 Inter-State cooperative societies
With objects not confined to one State may make an application to the Registrar for recognition as producer companies. The statute also
provides for reconversion of such producer companies to their former status as inter-State cooperative societies subject to the approval
of High Court.
26.5 The Companies (Amendment) Act, 2002 (Act No. 1 of 2003)
By this Amendment Act, Part IXA comprising sections 581A to 581ZT (46 sections) has been inserted in the Companies Act, 1956, to
provide a statutory and regulatory framework for producer-owned enterprises to compete with other enterprises on a competitive
footing. It gives an opportunity to cooperative institutions to voluntarily transform themselves into the new form of producer companies.
Members equity may not be publicly traded, but may only be transferred to active members at par value with the approval of Board of
directors and producer companies would not be vulnerable to takeover by multinationals/other companies. Conversion option by
cooperative society to Producer Company can be exercised only if two-thirds of members of the concerned society vote in favour of a
special resolution to that effect. The objects of a producer company have been defined to include, among other things, production,
processing, manufacture and sale of primary produce as well as allied matters. It provides for: one vote per member, irrespective of its
shareholding and adequate provisions regarding assets and liabilities to creditors to prevent cooperative-turned companies from vanishing
with funds raised in the markets. The producer companies can raise funds from financial institutions and banks through issue of
debentures and other securities. Every producer company having an average annual turnover exceeding five crore rupees in each of three
consecutive financial years shall have a whole-time secretary. The enactment has allowed reconversion of producer company into a
cooperative society where an application is made to the High Court, if not less than two-third of its members vote for such reconversion
or a request is made by its creditors representing three-fourth value of its total creditors for such reconversion, and the High Court
decides so after considering all material facts in the matter and a certified copy of the order of Court is filed with the Registrar of
Companies. The said Amendment Act came into force on 6-2-2003, as notified by the Central Government.
The following table gives comparison of cooperative Act and producer companies Act, which modern new generation cooperatives
should adopt to overcome the limitations of faced by cooperative dairies.
Table 26.1 Comparison of cooperative Act and producer companies Act
Parameters Cooperative Producer Company
Registration Cooperative Societies Indian Companies Act.
Act
Objectives Single object Multi‐object
Area of Operation Restricted, discretionary Entire Union of India
Membership Individuals and Any individual, group,
cooperatives association, producer of the
goods or services
Share Non tradable Not tradable but transferable
limited to members on par
value
Profit sharing Limited dividends on Commensurate with volume of
shares business
Voting rights One member, one vote, One member, one vote.
but Government and Members not having
Registrar of cooperative transactions with the company
societies hold veto cannot vote
power
Government control Highly patronized to the Minimal, limited to statutory
extent of interference requirements
Extent of Autonomy Limited in .real world Fully autonomous, self ruled
scenario. within the provisions of Act
Reserves Created if there are Mandatory to create every
profits year
Borrowing power Restricted More freedom and alternatives
Relationship with Transaction based Producers and corporate entity
other can together corporate /
business float a producer
company houses / NGOs
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 27. MAJOR AIDED DAIRY PROJECTS AND SELF-RELIANCE IN DAIRY DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 27
MAJOR AIDED DAIRY PROJECTS AND SELF-RELIANCE IN DAIRY DEVELOPMENT
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Food Aids
27.2.1 Forms of aid
27.3 Foreign Assistance to India
27.3.1 Australia
27.3.2 Canada
27.3.3 Denmark
27.3.4 New Zealand
27.3.5 Sweden
27.3.6 Switzerland
27.3.7 United States
27.3.8 United Kingdom
27.4 International Agencies
27.4.1 FAO/UNDP
27.4.2 FAO/WFP
27.4.3 UNICEF
27.4.4 World Bank (IDA)
27.5 India's Self Reliance in Dairy Industry
27.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the food Aid obtained by India from different countries and other world bodies to support its dairy development
activities.
27.2 Food Aids
India obtained food aid as free gift in the form of dairy products from food & Agricultural organization (FAO) and European Economic
Community (EEC). This was utilized for the development of dairy sector of India.
Generally a food aid has three important uses.
1. In case of natural disasters like flood, earthquake, draught etc., food aid can be provided. This food aid will provide emergency
relief. It helps the effected population until a disaster hit area regains normally.
2. Food aid may also be used for medium and long term alleviation of hunger and malnutrition.
3. The best use of food aid can be done by recipient by using the food aid for further production, processing and marketing of food
Products. This will help in continuous generation of funds and eliminate the need for aid in future. India through the operation
flood programme wisely used the food aid she received by this third mode.
Apart from this special food aid, foreign aid for variety of projects was obtained by India in a planned manner after independence. This
foreign aid either in kind or cash is obtained by various ministries of Government of India from interested embassies.
The foreign aid obtained by India for various projects can be classified as under.
1. Aid in the form of surplus dairy products.
2. Supply of plant and machinery and stainless steel.
3. Providing credit facilities.
4. Conducting training courses on dairy and animal husbandry.
5. Providing service of experts from FAO & other organization whenever required.
6. Supply of specialized equipment of laboratory.
7. Sponsoring Indian dairy personnel for admissions as well as for attending trainings abroad.
8. Giving Pedigree cows and bulls.
27.2.1 Forms of aid
Donation of surplus Dairy Products: India was importing some dairy products under foreign exchange programme. India obtained
skim milk powder / Non fat dry milk used to prepare tonned milk. UNICEF started a programme for feeding undernourished
school children with reconstituted skim milk. Co-operative for American Relief to Every where (CARE) also joined this UNICEF
programme. Milk powder was also received from Colombo plan countries for the same purpose. (Colombo Plan Countries Include
Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United States of America). Adhoc aid was received from several
countries in times of famine.
Supply of Plant and Machinery: UNICEF, Colombo Plan countries & USA gave most useful aid in the farm of plant and machinery
for one of the major dairy project in India. They also provided all the necessary technical assistance to start and operate this
machinery. UNICEF supplied plant and machinery for dairies at Ahmedabad, Anand, Bombay, Banglore, Vijaywada, Teaching
dairy at the Aarey milk colony & some other Places. UNICEF aid had an excellent built in welfare objectives. For example
whenever any state government run project receives plant and machinery, then the respective state government is also required to
provide similar contribution either as subsidy in price or distribute milk to school children and low income groups in the area served
by the dairy. Such an arrangement proved to be extremely useful health building socio-nutritional programme. New Zealand
provided machinery for the New Delhi projects and donated a 120 room hostel for dairy students at Aarey milk colony, Bombay.
UK and Australia jointly gave dairy equipments, refrigerated milk distributing equipment and feed mix equipment worth Rs. 47
million. USA gave dairy machinery & equipments worth Rs. 45 million.
Credit facilities: Bulgaria, Denmark, Poland, Sweden and Yugoslavia together provided Rs. 147 million for the benefit of dairy &
food project as soft loan.
Dairy Training Courses: Denmark organized 10 different training courses for middle level managers at Aarey milk colony, Bombay
during 1951-56. Further from all this 10 different courses, from each course at least 5 to 6 persons were selected for advanced
another six months training in Denmark. The entire expense for this was also borne by Denmark. New Zealand organized
workshops and seminars at NDRI Karnal.
Roviding Services of Experts : Experts in the field of Animal Husbandry, milk production, animal diseases, artificial insemination,
fodder growing & Conservation, Grass land management, design and erection of dairies, product development, quality control,
economics & marketing etc of foreign countries provided their professional help / guidance / expert knowledge to various projects.
Scientific Equipments: Sophisticated specialized laboratory equipments which are not available in India were donated by many
countries to be used at various dairy research stations.
Training : Australia, New Zealand & Denmark have provided facilities to middle and top level executives of dairy field to visit their
countries. During these visits appropriate training programme were organized to provide insight into their countries method of
productions, handling, quality control, marketing etc. Along with training onsite visit of dairy plants were also organized.
Gift of Cow & Bulls: Several Countries gave cows, bulls and frozen semen with equipment for handling it as gift. World Bank also
helped dairy projects at Karnataka & Madhya Pradesh. ‘Impact of Foreign Collaboration in Dairy Development’: International
bilateral collaboration in the field & dairy development was prominent feature after sixties. This collaboration helped in developing
appropriate technology for tropical conditions, supported cross breeding programme, supplied equipments, and provided services of
experts / consultants. These collaboration provided assistance in building an infrastructure of breeding units, frozen semen stations,
field insemination units, fodder seed production, improving milk processing and distribution facilities. It also helped in development
of training institution and a pool of well trained manpower.
27.3 Foreign Assistance to India
Some bilateral & multi-lateral assistance received by India in the field of dairy development is broadly indicated below.
27.3.1 Australia
Composite cattle breeding projects in Assam and Haryana states.
Supply of pure breed cattle of Jersey and Holstein breeds to set up nucleus breeding units in different states and supply of frozen
semen to breed these herds.
Fodder seeds production farm in Karnataka and supply of fodder seeds for trial and multiplication.
Experts and consultants in different fields.
Training of participants in Australia in dairy production, pasture & fodder development and animal health.
27.3.2 Canada
Supply of Holstein – Friesian cattle, frozen semen and equipment to Kheda District Milk Producers Union in Anand (Gujarat),
Punjab Dairy Development corporation (PDDC) and Bahratiya Agro-Industries Foundation (BAIF) in Maharashtra.
Experts & Consultants in different fields.
Training of participants in Canada in dairy cattle production, extension, technology and marketing.
27.3.3 Denmark
Composite cattle breeding projects in Karnataka and Meghalaya states.
Supply of Jersey, Holstein – Friesian and Red Dane cattle for setting up breeding units in different states with frozen semen &
equipments.
Supply of cryogenic equipment, bulls and frozen semen to set up semen stations in different states and under Operation Flood with
services of consultants for monitoring.
Assistance in the form of equipment, consultancy, etc for the central frozen semen training institute, Hessarghatta (Karnataka)
Experts & consultants in different fields.
Training of participants in dairy cattle productions, breeding technology and management.
Equipment for diagnostic laboratories at NDDB, Anand and Animal Husbandry Dept, Pune.
27.3.4 New Zealand
Composite cattle breeding project in Himachal Pradesh.
Supply of Jersey & Holstein Friesian cattle and frozen semen to set up breeding units in states.
Supply of dairy equipment.
Assistance for dairy training institute in Maharashtra
Experts & Consultants in different fields.
Training of participants in dairy cattle productions, technology, pasture and fodder production, marketing, and management.
27.3.5 Sweden
Consultancy and Experts in A.I.
Training in animal reproduction and gynecology for universities and selected development projects.
27.3.6 Switzerland
Composite cattle breeding projects in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala & Punjab States.
Composite dairy & breeding projects in Rajasthan.
27.3.7 United States
Supply of dairy equipment
Supply of Jersey cattle to set up breeding units.
Training of participants in dairy cattle production, marketing, technology, breeding & fodder production.
27.3.8 United Kingdom
Supply of Holstein- Friesian cattle
Experts and consultants in dairy cattle production and marketing.
Equipment to NDDB, Anand.
27.4 International Agencies
European Economic Community (EEC).
SMP and butteroil for operation Flood – II (NDDB/IDC)
27.4.1 FAO/UNDP
International frozen semen donation programme.
Setting up of grassland & forage demonstration stations on regional basis.
Training of participants in dairy cattle productions, fodder & pasture development, breeding & management.
27.4.2 FAO/WFP
Supply of coarse grains for the feed mixing plants for balanced feed production and utilizing the generated funds for development in
different states and to Kheda District Cooperative Milk union.
Supply of SMP & Butter oil for OF -I (NDDB/IDC)
27.4.3 UNICEF
Dairy equipment for dairy plants & processing units in different states.
Training of participants in Dairy Technology and allied fields.
27.4.4 World Bank (IDA)
Composite dairy development projects on the lines of OF in Karnataka, M.P, and Rajasthan, OF-II (NDDB/IDC).
27.5 India's Self Reliance in Dairy Industry
India obtains aids from different countries and many world bodies during the pre independence phase. India also obtains aid in the form
of commodities (Skim milk powder and butter oil) during operation flood programme. But today India is the largest milk producing
country in the world with milk production of 112.5 million tons in 2009-2010. Thus from era of dependency, India has reached to the
stage of self reliance. India is now importing only limited quantity. India is now self reliant but due to very high population the per capita
availability of milk is 263grms/day which is very near to world average.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 28. SOCIOECONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF INDIAN DAIRYING

Module 15. Functioning pattern of Indian dairying
Lesson 28
SOCIOECONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF INDIAN DAIRYING
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Dairy Profession
28.3 Constraints Related to Milk Production
28.4 Geographical Distribution of Dairy
28.5 Role of Animal Husbandry/Dairying in Indian Economy
28.6 Impact of Dairying on Milk Producers
28.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the socioeconomic and geographical features of Indian Dairy Industry. It describes the various benefits obtained
by milk producer through the profession of dairying.
28.2 Dairy Profession
The Profession of dairying covers three main activities namely production, processing and marketing. Socio-Economic and geographic
feature of Indian Dairying broadly covers all the milk producers, handling and processing of milk, transportation and marketing of milk &
milk products. It also covers all the institutions and organizations right from milk producer to the final consumer.
The Dairy Industry includes / or is formed of
(i) The traditional sector of milk production, processing and marketing which includes
- Producer to consumer
- Producer to trader to consumer
- Producer to milk collector to private trader (small dairy) to consumer.
(ii) Government and Private Dairies: Producer to dairies to consumers.
(iii) Co-operative dairies: Producer to milk union through village milk co-operative societies and finally to consumers through milk
marketing federation.
28.3 Constraints Related to Milk Production
The low productivity of Indigenous breeds, limits the milk improvement programmes. There is shortage of quality dairy animals and the
supply of such animals is less as compared to demand. There is inadequate feed & fodder resources which come in the way of rapid
growth of milk production. High rate of morality and morbidity (reduction in production) because of diseases cause heavy economy
losses. Statistics about livestock are inadequate and there is delay in publications of livestock statistics.
In India, milk production is undertaken as mixed farming along with agriculture. Small and marginal farmers/milch animal holders can be
considered as poor. They have limited resources and are unable to feed the animal (i.e. they are unable to provide balanced feed to their
animals) Milk Producers are scattered throughout the country in villages.
In India milk production is done by individual milk producers who generally keep 2 to 3 milch cattle. Mainly milch animals are reared in
the rural areas and large quantity of milk comes from rural areas. Mainly milk production is obtained from cows, buffaloes and in
negligible amount from goats. On an average majority of the farmers and landless laborers (live stock holders) keep one cow / buffalo,
one or two young stock. Male calf is reared for replacement of bullocks and female calves for replacement of cows. From religious view
point milch animals are not slaughtered in our country.
There are nomadic cattle breeders who own and breed cattle (especially cow). They have 25/50 to 500 heads of cattle. There would be
young stock, cows and bullocks. They supply male young stock and bullocks to the farmers and occasionally sell cows.
28.4 Geographical Distribution of Dairy
The country is divided into four zones/ regions for the purpose of dairying viz northern, western, and southern and Central & Eastern
regions. In these regions, following state is covered.
Northern: Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh
Western: Gujarat, Goa, Maharashtra, Dadra Nagar Haveli
Southern: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu, and Pondicherry
Central & Eastern: Andaman & Nicobar, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Orissa, Sikkim, Tripura and west Bengal.
28.5 Role of Animal Husbandry/Dairying in Indian Economy
India is an agricultural country. Agriculture & animal husbandry/ dairy are mutually dependent and are inseparable in Indian conditions
where mixed farming is practiced since centuries. According to one observation, agriculture is backbone of India and Animal Husbandry
is backbone of agriculture. Agriculture is the main occupation for livelihood for larger number of rural population and is a way of life
rather then a business. Out of the total production from agriculture, many commodities are exported and these exports earn valuable
foreign exchange, which is utilized for importing Technology, Petroleum Products, capital goods and other things needed for the
economic development of the country. Main exports from animal husbandry sectors are hides & skins leather goods, wool, etc.
The working animals provide the energy in the form of agricultural operations, transportation and as pack animals (pack animals: load
carriers e.g. Donkey). According to one estimate about 64% of energy in agriculture is provided by livestock (particularly bullocks), 10%
by mechanization and rest 26% is manual by human beings.
1 bullock = 1/2 H. P. and
Pair of bullock = 1 H. P.
About 1200 crore working hours per year are provided by bullocks. The dung and urine in the form of farm yard manure is supplied to
the agriculture which helps in maintaining the fertility of the soil.
About 1200 million tonnes of cow dung is produced in a year of which about 585 million tonnes is used for fuel, 215 million ton as
manure and rest remain unutilized and wasted. The manufacture of biogas out of cow dung is increasing in India which supplies fuel in
the form of biogas and electricity to the society. The left over slurry of biogas can be used for mannuring. The biogas as a livestock
product is used as cooking gas and light (electricity) which will satisfy energy requirement and save use of petroleum products such as
kerosene, coal and wood coal. Livestock is converting the residue of agriculture considered as waste not needed by human beings.
Animals are using this residue and providing various products needed by mankind in the form of milk, meat, eggs etc. Animals are
supplying proteins which are essential for men. Milk is considered as a complete food for children. The livestock management provides
employment and income to the rural people and helps in solving the problem of unemployment and poverty.
Dairy farming occupies a prominent & significant position among various animal husbandry programmes. According to one estimate, out
of the total income obtained from livestock, 64.5 percent is derived from milk and milk products, 9.7 percent from cattle manure, 7.9
percent from meat & meat product, 2.5 percent from hides & skins, 1.1 percent from hair and wool, 2.4 percent from egg & poultry, 0.1
percent from bones, 2.1 percent from increment in stock. It is realized that promotion of dairying contributes towards better health &
creates substantial employment opportunities. When properly organized, dairying becomes an effective instrument to achieve social &
economic justice.
28.6 Impact of Dairying on Milk Producers
Dairying in the form of milk co-operatives are organized by milk producers in the rural areas. This set up provides number of benefits to
milk producers.
(i) Economic Benefits: Co-operative societies provide assured market of milk to milk producers at remunerative price. It provides
regular timely payment of milk. It also provides direct employment to few persons of the village as regular employees of village
milk co-operative society at village level. In the same manner it also provides employment to other persons at union and federation
level.
(ii) Technical Benefits: The milk producers are made aware of the improved animal management practices in the field of breeding,
feeding and disease control of the milch animals. This also helps in giving economic benefits in the form of increased milk
production. The members become aware about the health and hygiene of the animals and importance of nutrition in the food
habits. On the same lines then awareness about health of family members is also created. The members also become aware about
the modern dairy industry by seeing the dairy plants operations; cattle feed plant's operation etc.
(iii) Social Benefits: The caste and class discrimination is also reduced as the members have to work in unity, meet frequently in
the meeting and meet daily for supplying milk to the society by standing in one queue. This have removed class barrier in the
society. The method of working of co-operative has benefitted the rural people in knowing the organization and working of co-
operative institutions. This has indirectly helped in running of the village panchayats and keeping alive the democratic principles
which has a perennial effect in maintaining democracy in the working of democratic institutions.
(iv) Other benefit: The working of dairy industry on co-operative lines has changed the social & economic life of milk producers
and the rural people. This has given indirect benefits in other fields also. The milk co-operative societies also provide money/funds
for the development of some of the amenities in village like drinking water, roads etc.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 29. INTEGRATED INFRASTRUCTURE OF MILK PRODUCTION: PUBLIC SECTOR
DAIRY/MILK SUPPLY SCHEMES, AND STRATEGIES OF CATTLE DEVELOPMENT AND POLICIES

Module 15. Functioning pattern of Indian dairying
Lesson 29
INTEGRATED INFRASTRUCTURE OF MILK PRODUCTION: PUBLIC SECTOR DAIRY/MILK SUPPLY SCHEMES, AND
STRATEGIES OF CATTLE DEVELOPMENT AND POLICIES
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Schemes for Dairy Development from GOI
29.2.1 List of centrally sponsored schemes
29.2.2 List of central sector schemes
29.3 Details of Schemes
29.3.1 Intensive dairy development programme
29.3.2 Strengthening infrastructure for quality & clean milk production
29.3.3 Assistance to Co-operatives
29.3.4 Dairy/Poultry venture capital funds
29.3.5 Dairy Venture Capital Fund
29.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses some of the major schemes implemented by Government of India (GOI) to develop dairy sector of the country. It
gives detailed description of major schemes in terms of implementing agency, period and mode of implementation.
29.2 Schemes for Dairy Development from GOI
Following Operation Flood, the Government of India had been implementing various dairy development schemes since 1993-94 and is
presently implementing Centrally Sponsored schemes "Intensive Dairy Development Programme", "Strengthening Infrastructure of
Quality & Clean Milk Production", Central Sector schemes: "Assistance to Cooperatives" & "Dairy/Poultry Venture Capital Fund" with
focused objectives. Apart from these, Government is also envisaging implementing a scheme "National Project for Cattle and Buffalo
Breeding" for genetic improvement of cattle and buffalo to increase the productivity. Government is also examining launching of a
National Dairy Plan with an outlay of more than Rs 17000 crores spread for over a period of 15 years to enhance average incremental
production of milk from 2.5 million tonnes to 5 million tonnes annually. This is being envisaged through increasing productivity,
expanding infrastructure for procurement, processing, marketing and quality assurance. Simultaneously the Government has launched a
new scheme called Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) with a massive investment of Rs 25,000 crore for the next 4 to 5 years to
promote agriculture and allied sectors. All these activities are expected to help India emerge as a major player in the world dairy sector.
29.2.1 List of centrally sponsored schemes
1. Intensive Dairy Development Programme (IDDP)
2. Strengthening infrastructure for quality & clean milk production
3. Evaluation study report of strengthening infrastructure for quality & clean milk production Central Sector
29.2.2 List of central sector schemes
Assistance to Cooperatives
Dairy/Poultry venture capital funds (implemented up to 31st August, 2010) DVCF
a. Dairy Venture Capital Fund
b. Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
Evaluation study report of Dairy/Poultry venture capital funds
Milk and Milk Product Order'1992 - This scheme is discussed in other lesson
29.3 Details of Schemes
29.3.1 Intensive dairy development programme
Intensive Dairy Development Programme (IDDP) is a Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme.
Objectives/Aims of Scheme
1. Development of milch cattle.
2. Increase milk production by providing Technical Inputs services.
3. Procurement, Processing and Marketing of milk in a cost effective manner.
4. Ensure remunerative prices to milk producers.
5. Generate additional employment opportunities.
6. Improve social, nutritional and economic status of residents of comparatively more disadvantaged areas.
Year of the Scheme Started: 1993-94.
XIth Plan outlay: Rs 225.00 Crore (merged allocation).
Implementing Agency: State Dairy Federations/District Milk Union.
Target/Beneficiaries: Rural milk producers irrespective of caste, class and gender. Cattle induction only for SC, ST and BPL
families.
Pattern of Assistance/Funding and Eligibility Criteria: The pattern of funding is 100% grant-in-aid from Central Government
for the districts where investment (central grant) under Operation Flood (OF) programme was less than Rs 50.00 lakh. There is a
maximum allocation of Rs 300.00 lakh per district under the programme. For establishment of dairy processing capacity up to
20,000 litres/day will be 100% grant-in-aid basis. Above this cap, OF pattern will be followed, namely, 70% loan and 30% grant.

Table 29.1 Year-wise outlay and expenditure under the scheme for the last 5 years (Rs. in crore)
2005‐ 2006‐ 2007‐ 2008‐ 2009‐

Year
06 07 08 09 10
B.E
50.00 23.00 23.00 29.99 32.49
Provision
Actual Exp. 39.91 33.61 34.68 31.62 31.97
Table 29.2 Physical targets and achievements (Cumulative)
Achievements
Component Targets
upto 31.12.2009
Organization of Dairy
28300 26597
Cooperative Societies
Enrolment of Farmer
2149.90 1940.98
Members (in thousands)
209 districts in 26 States
Districts covered
and a U.T.
Procedure for Applying: District wise project to be prepared based on a benchmark survey and as per guidelines laid down under IDDP
Scheme and to be submitted through the concerned State Government. A project may include one to five districts depending upon the
capability of implementing agency to implement in a period of three to five years.
29.3.2 Strengthening infrastructure for quality & clean milk production
Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality & Clean Milk Production (CMP) is a Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme.
Objectives of the scheme
1. Creation of necessary infrastructure for production of quality milk at the farmer’s level up to the points of consumption.
2. Improvement of milking procedure at the farmer’s level.
3. Training and Strengthening of infrastructure to create mass awareness about importance of clean milk production.
Implementing Agencies: This scheme is being implemented through the State Government by District Cooperative Milk
Union/State Level Milk Federation.
Target group/beneficiaries: Farmer members of Primary Dairy Co-operative Societies are targeted for assistance under the
scheme through training programmes to create awareness regarding importance of clean milk production.
Pattern of Assistance/Funding (proposed during 11th Plan): The Scheme is implemented on 100% grants-in-aid basis to the
State Government/UTs for the components, training of farmer members, supply of detergents and antiseptic solutions, stainless
steel utensils, strengthening of existing laboratory facilities whereas 75% financial assistance is provided for setting up of milk
chilling facilities at village level in the form of bulk milk coolers.
Year when the scheme started: This scheme was started during the year 2003-04 (Oct 2003) with a total outlay of Rs30.00 crore
for the Tenth Five year Plan. It is being continued during the 11th Five year Plan as merged scheme together with ‘Intensive Dairy
Development Programme’(IDDP) with a total plan outlay of Rs 225.00 Crore (IDDP&CMP) and budget provision of Rs 21.25
Crore for CMP during 2010-11. The evaluation and impact study has been completed and steps are being taken to modify the
scheme.
Table 29.3 Annual BE during Xth and XIth Plan period (Central assistance): (Rs in crore)
Xth Plan period
Year BE Expenditure
2004-05 8.42 24.64
2005‐06 20.00 30.39
2006‐07 35.00 24.65
XIth Plan Period
2007‐08 16.00 20.88
2008‐09 20.00 21.29
2009‐10 20.60 21.76
Achievement: Since inception, 144 projects for 21 states and 01 UT with a total cost of Rs 228.84 crore with a central share of Rs
186.76 crore have been approved up to 31.03.2010 under the scheme. So far under this scheme 5.43 farmers were trained and
1716 numbers of Bulk milk coolers with a total chilling capacity of 31,27,300 Litre per day has been installed and 1157 existing
laboratories have been strengthened.

29.3.3 Assistance to Co-operatives
Objectives and Aim of the Scheme: To revitalize the sick dairy co-operative unions at the district level and co-operative
federations at the State level.
Implementing Agency: The scheme is being implemented by the concerned District Co-operative Milk Unions/State Dairy
Federation. The Central grants under the Scheme are to be provided to the Milk Unions/Federations through NDDB.
Target Group/Beneficiaries: A number of dairy co-operatives with three-tier structure viz. village level primary co-operatives,
district level unions and state level federations have been set up in different parts of the country under the Operation Flood
Programme. For a variety of reasons, a number of these unions/federations have accumulated losses. These accumulated losses
have been imposing severe hardships to the milk producers and their dairy economy, resulting in, among other things, delayed and
irregular payments to the poor farmer members of these co-operatives. The Scheme seeks to assist the sick Co-operative Milk
Unions/Federations to rehabilitate them and make them viable.
Pattern of Assistance/Funding Pattern: The funds are released on 50:50 sharing basis between Union of India and the concerned
State Government. The maximum assistance of grant is limited to the minimum amount required so that the net flow becomes
positive within seven years. In any case, the total grant does not exceed the accumulated cash losses.
Year when the Scheme Started: 1999-2000 (January, 2000)
Table 29.4 Plan allocation and expenditure incurred under the scheme during IX, X, and XI plan period is under: (Rs in lakh)
Plan Allocation Actual expenditure

9th Plan 15000.00 3500.00
10th Plan 13000.00 3914.24
11th Plan 5000.00 2525.00 (till 31.3.10)
Table 29.5 Year-wise outlay and expenditure under the scheme for the last 8 years: (Rs in lakh)
2002‐ 2003‐ 2004‐ 2005‐ 2006‐ 2007‐ 2008‐ 2009‐

Year
03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
B.E
1500.00 900.00 1500.00 1000.00 500.00 350.00 700.00 900.00
Provision
Actual
1665.24 271.00 981.50 546.50 450.00 505.00 900.00 1120.00
expenditure
Eligibility Conditions: Only those Unions/Federations are considered where the concerned State Government agrees to:- Provide
matching contribution for rehabilitation assistance, Grant autonomy to the co-operatives in the matter of pricing decision and staff
matters, and Ensure regularity of statutory audit
Physical targets & Achievements: Since inception 37 rehabilitation proposals of milk unions in 12 states namely, Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala, Maharashtra, Assam, Nagaland, Punjab, West Bengal and Tamil
Nadu at a total cost of Rs 271.00 crore with a central share of Rs 135.69 crore have been approved upto 31.03.2010. A sum of Rs
39.14 crore was incurred against outlay Rs 130 crore provided during X plan period. Since inception a total sum of Rs 99.39 crore
has been released till 31.03.2010. The scheme is proposed to be continued with an outlay of Rs 50.00 crore during XI Five Year
Plan. An amount of Rs 8.30 crore in BE has been provided for continuation of the scheme during 2010-11.
29.3.4 Dairy/Poultry venture capital funds
To bring about structural changes in the unorganized sector, the measures like milk processing at village level, marketing of pasteurized
milk in a cost effective manner, quality up-gradation of traditional technology to handle commercial scale using modern equipment and
management skills, the Venture Capital Fund for Dairy and Poultry sector was started in Xth plan and Planning Commission has
approved the scheme for continuation during XI plan with an enhanced outlay of Rs 300 crore. However the dairy and poultry
components have been separated into two new schemes during 11th Plan and are now termed as Dairy Venture Capital Fund (DVCF)
with a separate allocation from 2009-10. Under the scheme, financial assistance is provided as loan to the rural/urban beneficiaries under
a schematic proposal through bankable projects. This scheme was approved in Dec. 2004 i.e. during 10th Five Year Plan with a total
outlay of Rs 25.00 crore against which an amount of Rs 28.00 crore were released. The scheme is being implemented through
NABARD and the funds released by GOI to NABARD are kept as revolving fund. Since inception, a sum of Rs 132.99 crore has been
released to NABARD for implementation of scheme throughout the country. An amount of Rs 20.00 crore has been released during the
year 2009-10.
29.3.5 Dairy Venture Capital Fund
Objectives of the scheme
1. To promote setting up of small dairy farms for milk production.
2. To bring structural changes in the unorganized sector: processing and marketing of pasteurized milk at village level.
3. To bring about upgradation of quality and traditional technology to handle milk on a commercial scale.
Implementing Agencies: National Bank for Agriculture & Rural Development (NABARD) will be the Nodal Agency for
implementation of the scheme. Commercial Banks, Co-operative Banks and Regional Rural Banks will implement the scheme. The
scheme is open to organized as well as unorganized sector.
Target group/beneficiaries: The Department has proposed this scheme for dairy development in the unorganized sector by
providing financial assistance through NABARD to the promoter on the basis of bankable project recommended by NABARD.
This scheme shall also help in employment generation at village level as well as Dairy Co-operative Society level.
Pattern of Assistance
Entrepreneur’s contribution - 10%
Interest free Loan from revolving fund provided by GOI - 50%
Bank loan at interest applicable for agricultural activities - 40%
Government of India subsidizes the interest component applicable for agricultural activities to the extent of 50% only in case of
regular/timely repayment by the beneficiary.
Year when the scheme started: Dairy/Poultry Venture Capital Fund scheme was started in Dec 2004 with an outlay of Rs 25.00
Crore. The fund was released during 2005-06 for the first time for implementation of the scheme. Planning Commission has
approved the scheme for continuation during XI plan with an enhanced outlay of Rs 300 crore. However the dairy and poultry
components have been separated into two new schemes during 11th Plan and are now termed as Dairy Venture Capital Fund
(DVCF) with a separate allocation from 2009-10.
Table 29.6 Annual outlay/expenditure (Central Assistance): (Rs. in crore)
2005‐ 2006‐ 2007‐ 2008‐ 2009‐

Year
06 07 08 09 10
RE/BE
14.00 15.00 49.99 35.00 20.00
provision
Expenditure 15.80* 12.20* 49.99* 35.00* 20.00*
*Fund has been released, to be kept as revolving fund by NABARD to provide interest free loan to the beneficiaries.
Physical Targets and achievements: No physical targets have been specified, as it is a demand driven scheme. Progress as on 31st
March 2010 indicates sanctioning of 15368 Dairy Units with revolving fund assistance of Rs 146.91 crore.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 30. MILK PRODUCT MANUFACTURE IN PRIVATE AND ORGANIZED SECTORS AND
IMPORT SUBSTITUTIONS IN DAIRY PRODUCTS

Module 16. Dairy manufacturing sector, its status and problems
Lesson 30
MILK PRODUCT MANUFACTURE IN PRIVATE AND ORGANIZED SECTORS AND IMPORT SUBSTITUTIONS IN
DAIRY PRODUCTS
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Data of Indian Dairy Industry
30.3 India's Dairy Export and Import Data
30.1 Introduction
This chapter describes/gives details about milk production, consumption, export and import of milk and milk products of India.
30.2 Data of Indian Dairy Industry
India’s milk production in 2009-2010 was 112.5 million tones. Although India is largest milk producing country in the world, it still has
milk demand supply gap due to higher milk demand from consumer’s particularly growing middle class. In India, milk production is
growing at 4% while consumer demand is growing at 8%. To meet this demand, Indian dairy industry is taking several steps. For
example the National Dairy Plan initiated by NDDB is aimed at increasing production potential of milch animals.
Indian Dairy Sector is unique as it lay emphasis on both Cow and Buffalo milk. Buffalo contribute to around 55% of milk and rest is
produced from indigenous and crossbreeds cows.
It is estimated that 40-50% of Indian dairy farmers are associated with organized sector. It is estimated that approximately 65% of milk
in India is consumed (in liquid or other forms) on farm by the unorganized sector consisting of local milk vendor, wholesaler, retailers
and produces themselves.
The following table shows the distribution/consumption pattern of India’s dairy industry in 2009.
Table 30.1 India’s milk utilization pattern -2009
Fluid Milk 46.0%
Ghee(clarified butter) 27.5%
Butter 6.5%
Yogurt 7.0%
Khoa(partially dehydrated condensed 6.5%
milk)
Milk powder 3.5%
Panner (cottage cheese) 2.0%
Others, including Cream. Ice Cream 1.0%
Source: Industry estimates
The following chart shows the distribution network of organized and unorganized Dairy sector of India
Fig. 30.1 the distribution channel in Indian dairy industry
Both organized and unorganized channels coexist in the market The betterment of transportation and infrastructure would further
strengthen the distribution network and make it more efficient in coming times.
30.3 India's Dairy Export and Import Data
Due to higher demand supply gap at local level, India generally exports very small proportion of its total production. If price and regional
demand conditions creates a favorable demand from neighbor countries then, some times, India exports non fat dry milk and butter.
India regularly exports products like casein. India’s import export data are shown in following figures.
(Source: Global Trade Information Services database (GTIS))
Fig. 30.2 India: share of dairy products imports, 2009
Fig. 30.3 India: share of sairy products pxports, 2009
Note: HS 0401=Milk and cream, not concentrated nor containing added sugar or other sweetening matter
HS 0402= Milk and cream, concentrated or containing added sugar or other sweetening matter
HS 0403= Buttermilk, curdled milk and cream, yogurt, and others
HS 0404=Whey
HS 0405= Butter and other fats and oils derived from milk, dairy spreads
HS 0406= Cheese and curd
HS 3501= Casein, caseinates and casein derivatives
HS 170211=Lactose and lactose syrup containing by weight 99% or more lactose , expressed as anhydrous lactose calculated on dry
matter.
HS 21050000= Ice cream and other edible ice, whether or not containing cocoa
Fig. 30.4 Country wise export of Indian dairy products
Figure 1 shows India’s imports of dairy products in 2009. Butter and other dairy derived fats constituted around 50 percent of total dairy
imports in volume terms during CY2009, followed by lactose (33 percent), and milk powder (8 percent). Import of milk and milk
products is permitted without any quantitative limitations, although tariff rate quotas apply and import permits are required. In 2010,
within-quota duty-free imports of milk powder and butter oil were allowed due to concerns that a possible deficient monsoon would lead
to a difficult lean season (April-August) and further drive up prices. Quantities of NFDM imported above the assigned quota of 30,000
tons attract a basic duty of 60 percent while imports of butter oil above the assigned quota of 15,000 tons attract a basic duty of 40
percent.
India exports various categories of milk products including milk powders, baby foods, butter and other fats, casein, milk and cream,
cheese, and whey products. Figure 2 shows that milk powders and baby food exports constituted more than 40 percent of the total dairy
exports in volume terms during CY 2009, followed by casein, milk and cream, butter and other fats, and other processed dairy products.
India exported around 50 percent of its total dairy products shipments to Bangladesh, the United States, U.A.E, and Singapore during
CY 2009. Figure 3 also provides a comparative account of country-wise exports of Indian dairy products in 2009 vis-a-vis 2008. India’s
dairy exports fell by around 60 percent in 2009 over the previous year (by volume). Exports shrank for almost all the major export
destinations for India‟s milk and milk products in 2009 due to high domestic demand.
Milk and milk product order (1992) regulates the functioning of dairy plants in India. The following table shows the number of dairy
plants registered under MMPO(1992)-As on 31st March, 2006.
Table 30.2 Numbers of dairy plants, state wise, registered under MMPO(1992) -As on 31st March, 2006
** includes Government Milk Scheme, Government Dairies and Mother Dairies.
(Source: Dairy Division, DAH&DF, M/O Agriculture.)
The table 30.2 shows the top dairy players in India in 2004-2005 in co-operative, public and multinational forms. It indicates that
GCMMF is largest co-operative dairy organization functioning in the country.
Table 30.3 Major dairy plants in India in 2004-2005
Organization Estimated Capacity Key markets Brands Ownership

million
Dairy litres/day
sales (Number
(Rs of plants)
million)
GCMMF 28.941/5.4 6.6 National Amul, Cooperative

extensions
Nestle 1,000 National Nestle, Multinational

extensions
Mother Dairy 9,000 2 National for Mother Cooperative

milk dairy
products: extensions
delhi,
Mumbai and
Hyderabad
for liquid milk
Hatsun Agro 4,550 1 Tamilnadu, Arokya, Public

Andra Arun,
Pradesh, Delight,
Karnataka, Komatha,
Kerala, Santosa
Kolkatta
Dynamix 3,000 1 Contract Private

Dairy manufacturing
Britannia 3,000 Outsource National Milkman Private
Heritage 2,660 0.5 Andra Heritage Public

Pradesh,
Tamilnadu,
Karnataka,
Kerala,
Kolkata
Visakha Dairy 2,400 0.3 Coastal Visakha Cooperative

Districts of
Andhra
Pradesh and
Hydrebad
Creamline 1,600 0.43 Tamilnadu, Jersey Private

Dairy andra
Paradesh,
Karnataka,
Kerala,
Nagpur
Metro dairy 1,500 0.35 West Bengal Metro Public

Metro
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 31. ECONOMIC BURDEN PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS: INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT POTENTIAL

Module 16. Dairy Manufacturing Sector, Its Status and Problems
Lesson 31
ECONOMIC BURDEN PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS: INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT POTENTIAL
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Economic Role of Dairying
31.3 Case Study
31.3.1 Illustrative example for small scale dairy entrepreneur
31.3.1.1 Cost of land & building
31.3.1.2 Cost of equipment
31.3.1.3 Manufacturing cost (for 30 days)
31.3.1.4 Probable Sales
31.3.1.5(F) Financial feasibility
31.4 IRR (INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN)
31.4.1 Payback period
31.1 Introduction
This chapter Describes one of the case study for dairy entrepreneurs. It gives detailed explanation about material, finances, profits etc associated with different product mix
which can be prepared in a small enterprise
31.2 Economic Role of Dairying
Dairying plays an important role in strengthening India’s rural economy. It has brought socio economic transformation. A symbiotic relationship exists between agriculture and
dairy farming. The agricultural byproducts provide feed and fodder for the cattle whereas cattle provides necessary draught power for various agricultural operations apart from
providing nutritional security and ready cash for milk producers from sale of surplus milk. India is the largest milk producing country in the world. About 70 million farmers rear
a milch herd of about 105 million (58 million cows and 47 million buffaloes). They contribute 98 percent of milk produced in the country. More than 70 percent of milk
producers in India are small marginal farmers. They possess low yielding animals.
Small holder dairy development being practiced in India has the potential to remove poverty. It can provide employment to the family, generate income on a daily basis and
provide milk for home consumption. For the resource poor and landless owing a milch animal act as a boon. In India, the labour dependent on crop production has been reduced
to 54 percent in 2000 from 74 percent in 1961 and that dependent on livestock and milk production increased from 2 percent in 1961 to 4.1 percent in 2000.
A study in the southern state of India has shown that rearing of dairy cattle by resource poor families, particularly women helped them earn an annual income ranging from Rs.
14,822 to 47, 820. Contribution of income from dairying was significant. Majority of families earned between 50-75 percent of their income from dairying and there was not a
single family that earned income less than 25 percent from dairying.The characteristics of production activities preferred by women were studied. All the activities of dairy
clearly fit their preferences. Also the dairy activities do not put any extra pressure on women and can be treated as part of the household chores. The studies have indicated that
the money earned by women from sale of milk is used in managing the household. The income from milk helps good upkeep of family members as well as of milch animals.
Dairying supplemented family nutrition as the first priority was given to family consumption and then the surplus milk was sold.
A nationwide study in India by the National Council of Applied Economic Research on ‘Impact Evaluation of Operation Flood’ in 1999 reported that dairy production, sale of
milk alone accounted for the bulk of the contribution to the household income from livestock. Annual household cash income by sources in different land holding categories
revealed by the NCAER study is shown in given table.
Table 31.1 Annual household cash income by various sources in different land holding categories
Category Dairy (%) Crop (%) Others
Landless 53.08 0.00 46.92
Marginal 30.14 46.55 23.30
Small 29.17 53.75 16.58
Small – medium 26.25 58.98 14.76
Medium 25.33 62.77 11.91
Large 19.02 71.48 9.50
31.3 Case Study
31.3.1 Illustrative example for small scale dairy entrepreneur
To establish a dairy business on small scale (100 to 200 liters/day), some of the basic equipments like the Fat testing machine, Milk cans, Facility to boil the milk; Cream
Separator, etc are required. In general, the production cost includes cost of raw materials, processing, fuel charges, interest on investment, depreciation/rent on buildings,
marketing etc. Following is the illustrative example wherein the market price prevailing in August 2010 are considered. For a small household dairy entrepreneur handling 100 Kg
of milk capacity per day, the following points may be considered to know the production cost.
31.3.1.1 Cost of land & building
For establishing a cottage type/house hold dairy business, a room of at least 15 feet x 15 feet may be required. The rent for the same (small space) may be assumed as Rs. 2000
per month.
31.3.1.2 Cost of equipment
Table 31.2 Cost of equipments
Name of the equipment No.s Cost
(Rs.)
Multipurpose vat/Kettle of 100 liter capacity with diesel or Gas furnace chulah 1 40,000/-
Milk cans/Pails/ Other containers 5 7,000/-
Cream Separator of 165 lit. capacity 1 15,000/-
Hand cum electric Butter Churn 1 8,000/-
Scrapers & Sweet containers 1 3,000/-
Fat testing machine (hand operated) 1 3,000/-
Deep Freezer (500 liter) 1 25,000/-
Miscellaneous Fixed assets -- 24,000/-
Investment in Net Working capital 25,000/-
Total Investment 1,50,000/-
31.3.1.3 Manufacturing cost (for 30 days)
Table 31.3 Manufacturing cost
Particulars Cost (Rs)
Milk 100 Kgs. (6 % fat) per day 63000/-
Considering cost of Fat: 350 Rs/ Kg fat
Labor charges (2 persons) 5,000/-
Fuel Charges 5000 to 10000 (Variable depending upon type of product to be prepared)
Electricity charges 2000/-
Rent 2000/-
Miscellaneous Expenses 4000/-
TOTAL 81000 to 86000/-
31.3.1.4 Probable Sales
It is possible to produce different types of milk products. It is beneficial to prepare milk products as per the demand and season of the year to reduce spoilage loss and storage
cost. Following table indicates probable profitability associated with different milk product mix options available to entrepreneur.
Table 31.4 Profitability associated with different milk products
Selling
Sales
Product Monthly Price
Revenue
combination production per unit
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
Sweet Dahi 90 Kg 35 94500/-
Ghee 1.5 Kg 270 12150/-
1,06,650/-
Sour dahi 90 Kg 25 67500/-
Ghee 5.8 Kg 270 46980/-
114480/-
Maska 25 Kg 80 60000/-
Ghee 5.8 Kg 270 46980/-
106980/-
Paneer 18 Kg 180 97200/-
Ghee 2 Kg 270 16200/-
113400/-
Mava 23 Kg 150 103500/-
Ghee 2 Kg 270 15600/-

119700/-
Peda/Burfi 25 kg 170 127500/-
Gulab Jamun 45 Kg 100 135000/-
Shrikhand 50 kg 85 127500/-
Ghee 3 Kg 270 24300/-
151800/-
D. Probable Profit from Different product mix manufacturing possibilities per month
Table 31.5 Probable Profit from Different product mix manufacturing possibilities
Product Sale per month, Production cost Net profit per
Combination Rs per month, Rs month, Rs*****
Number
01 1,06,650 81000 25650
02 114480 81000 33480
03 106980 81000 25980
04 113400 81000 32400
05 119700 86000* 33700
06 127500 91000** 36500
07 135000 96000*** 39000
08 151800 107000**** 44800
Includes cost of sugar.
Includes fuel cost and cost of sugar. Fuel cost increases due to heat desiccation and frying. (Rs 5000 as fuel cost and Rs 5000 as cost of sugar for 6 Kg sugar to be added)
Includes fuel cost and cost of sugar. Fuel cost increases due to heat desiccation and frying. (Rs 5000 as fuel cost and Rs 10000 as cost of sugar for 12 Kg sugar to be
added)
Shrikhand preparation cost includes cost of sugar and flavouring agents.
Net profit mentioned is for 100 liters of milk handled per day at initial level capacity. However there is full scope to increase the production capacity.
31.3.1.5(F) Financial feasibility
To evaluate the financial feasibility of the given project the following important points have been considered
* Total Capital cost of the project.(i.e long term funds required for the project)
* Calculation of Cost of Production.
* Calculation of Gross and Net working capital
* Statement of annual Income & expenditure and net surplus.
* Cash flow for the entire life of the project & checking the financial feasibility of the project using most popular criteria such as - NPV (Net present Value), IRR (Internal
Rate of Return), Payback Period & Benefit cost ratio.
I Total Capital cost of the project.(i.e long term funds required for the project)
Refer to the data given in Table No.31.2
The total investment outlay of the project will be Rs. 1, 50,000. Out of which ,
Plant & machinery, equipment cost = Rs. 1, 25,000
& Investment in Net working capital = Rs. 25,000
Project life is assumed to be of 5 years
Plant & Machinery shall be depreciated by using the straight-line method. Assuming the scrap value of Plant & machinery at the end of 5 years as 12,500, the annual
depreciation comes to
Annual Depreciation = Rs. (1,25,000 – 12,500)
5 years = Rs. 22,500 p.a
The requirement of working capital is likely to change over time. At the start of business there is an initial investment in working-capital. This level of working capital
changes with the level of output of the firm. Working capital is not subject to depreciation hence the salvage value of working capital at the end of project is assumed to be
the same as its book value (i.e. Rs 25,000)
Bank Loan
The entire outlay of the project Rs 1,50,000 will be financed from a bank, with condition of 20% margin money & 14% rate of interest for a loan period of 5 years.
This indicates -
Rs. 30,000 = Contribution to be made by the owner
Rs. 1,20,000 = Bank loan with rate of interest 14% p.a for 5 years
Equated Monthly Installment (EMI) has been calculated as follows -
Principal = Rs. 1,20,000
Interest = 14% × 1,20,000 × 5 years
= 84,000
Total amount to be repaid in 5 years = Rs, 2,04,000 /-
(EMI) Equated Monthly Installment = Rs. 2,04,000
12 × 5
= Rs. 3400 /-
Annual Installment = Rs. 3400 × 12
= Rs. 40,800 /-
II. Calculation of cost of production.
The cost of production has been calculated as the cost of processing/manufacturing products from 100 liters of milk per day. Refer to the data given in Table No.31.3
Table 31. 6
Manufacturing cost for 100 liters Milk per day.
a) Cost of material Rs. 2100 per day
Milk 100 kg. 6% fat
Cost of fat @ Rs 350 /kg fat
b) Cost of labour Rs. 166.66 per
Monthly salary for two workers is Rs. 5000 day
c) Fuel consumption charges Rs. 333.33 per
Range Rs. 5000 – Rs. 10,000 p.m day
Considering upper limit Rs. 10,000 p.m
d) Electricity charges Rs. 66.66 per day
Rs. 2000 p.m
e) Rent Rs. 66.66 per day
Rs. 2000 p.m
f) Miscellaneous Rs. 133.33 per
Rs. 4000 p.m expenses day
Total cost Rs. 2866.00 per
Total cost incurred in processing / day
manufacturing
products from 100 Kg of milk per day

III Calculation of Gross and Net working capital
Gross working capital is defined as the Total of current Assets and Net working capital is defined as current assets (CA) minus current liabilities (CL),
Assumptions
No short term interest bearing loans or a cash credit facility from a bank has been availed.
The Net working capital (CA - CL), represents the amount of working capital to be supported by the long term funds. The investment in net working capital has been
made in the initial outlay (capital cost) of the project itself.
Table 31. 7
A Current Assets
a) Inventory Rs. 2100
· Stock of milk for 1 day Rs. 2866
· Work-in-process for 1 day Rs. 2866 × 3
· Finished goods stock held for 3 days Rs.13,564
Total inventory
b) Debtors Rs. 2866
· Debtor collection period 1 day
(i.e credit extended to customers is one day
c) Cash Balance Rs. 18570
· Assumed amount
Total Current Assets Rs. 35000
B Current liabilities
· Deferred wages – one month Rs. 5000
· Deferred Rent – one month Rs. 2000
· Deferred Electricity charges – one month Rs. 2000
· Deferred payment of miscellaneous Rs. 1000
expenses– one month
Total current liabilities Rs. 10,000
NET WORKING CAPITAL ( T o b e Rs. (35,000 –
supported by long term funds) 10,000)
Current assets – current liabilities=(A - Rs. 25,000
B)
Note on working capital
The level of Gross working capital (Current Assets) is affected by several factors such as seasonal fluctuations, demand of products, certainty in supply of milk, quality of
debtors, availability of credit from the supplier etc. Hence, the working capital level changes throughout the life of the project. A prudent entrepreneur should try to minimize his
investment in working capital, but at same time ensure that there are no production stoppages due to lack of materials, there is no loss of business due to non granting of credit
to customers etc. In case of large cash balances lying idle in bank, such amounts should be invested in short term bank fixed deposits or any other suitable short term financial
security.
IV. Statement of annual income & expenditure and net surplus.
Table 31. 8
Calculation of Income & expenditure :-
A. Annual Income from Sales Revenue. Rs. 1,21,938 ×
The sales revenue has been taken as the average of 12
the 8 options given in table no. 5 Rs. 14,63,256
B. Annual Cost of Processing /Manufacturing products Rs. 88,000 × 12
from 100 liters of Milk per day. Rs. 10,56,000
This cost has been taken as an average of the 8
options given in table no.5
C Gross Profit (Before Depreciation, Interest & Rs. 4,07,256
tax) = A – B
Less : Annual Depreciation of Plant & machinery Rs. 22,500
D Operating Profit (Profit before Interest & Tax) Rs. 3,84,756
E Appropriations from the Profit
F Profit Rs. 3,84,756
G Annual cash outflow due to Repayment of Loan Rs. 40,800
(principal & Interest)
H Net Surplus with the owner (before tax)= F-G Rs. 3,43,956
Note:
1. The owner pays annually Rs. 40,800 to the bank as a repayment of his loan. At this juncture the break up of Rs. 40,800 into Principal portion and interest portion is not
necessary.(Though it can be done if required).
2. The Net surplus before tax has been given because the Net profit after tax depends upon the tax slabs and tax planning of individual owners.
V Cash flow for the entire life of the project & checking the financial feasibility of the project.
Calculation of cash flows and Project profitability
Table 31. 9
Particulars/ Year 0 1 2 3 4 5
Capital equipment -125,000 - - - - -
Net working capital -25,000 - - - - -
Sales Revenues (Average
of
all 8 option given in table
No5 .) - 1,463,265 1,463,265 1,463,265 1,463,265 1,463,265
Cost (Average of all 8
option
Given in table No 5.)
(excluding Depreciation
& Interest) - 1,056,000 1,056,000 1,056,000 1,056,000 1,056,000
Depreciation - 22,500 22,500 22,500 22,500 22,500
Profit before tax [3-4-5] - 384,765 384,765 384,765 384,765 384,765
Assumed Tax rate @
20% - 76,953 76,953 76,953 76,953 76,953
Profit after tax (6 – 7) - 307,812 307,812 307,812 307,812 307,812
Net salvage value of fixed
assets - - - - - 12,500
Net Recovery of working
capital - - - - - 25,000
Initial Outlay (Initial cash
outflow) (1+ 2) -150,000 - - - - -
Operating cash flow
(8+5) - 330,312 330,312 330,312 330,312 330,312
Terminal cash flow
(9+10) - - - - - 37,500
Net cash flow -150,000 330,312 330,312 330,312 330,312 367,812
The Net cash flows for the entire life of the given project can be summarized as follows
Table 31. 10
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5
a Net cash flow -150,000 330,312 330,312 330,312 330,312 367,812
b Discount factor @ 15% - 0.86956 0.75614 0.65751 0.57175 0.497177
Discounted cash flows
c (a*b) -150,000 287,228 249,763 217,186 188,857 182,868
Total Present Value of
benefits
=sum of discounted
cash flows from year 1
d to 5. 1,125,901
Total investment in 0th
e year 150,000
Net Present Value (d - The project is acceptable since its NPV is
e) 975,901 positive.
Calculation of NPV at higher discounting factors
Table 31.11
Discount Total PV Total Benefit cost ratio=

NPV
factors of benefits Investment PV/investment
15% 1125901 150000 975901 7.506008
20% 1002905 150000 852905 6.686037
30% 814598 150000 664598 5.430652
50% 578567 150000 428567 3.85711
31.4 IRR (INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN)
From the above table it is clear that the IRR of the project ( i.e the discount factor for which the value of NPV becomes zero) is much higher than 50%.
31.4.1 Payback period
It is the time period in which the initial investment of the project is fully recovered. Clearly, by looking at the net cash flows it can be seen that the project has a payback period
of less than one year.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► MP-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 32. DAIRY PROBLEMS; RESOURCE INADEQUACY, POST PARTITION PRESSURE,
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES

Module 16. Dairy manufacturing sector, its status and problems
Lesson 32
DAIRY PROBLEMS; RESOURCE INADEQUACY, POST PARTITION PRESSURE, STRATEGIES AND POLICIES
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Problems
32.2.1 Problematic issues at the milk producers level
32.2.2 Problematic issues at milk collection level
32.2.3 Problematic issues at processing plants
32.2.4 Problematic issues at storage and logistic level
32.2.5 Problematic issues at cooperative level
32.2.6 Problematic issues at marketing
32.3 Policy Environment
32.4 Milk and Milk Products Order (MMPO) 1992
32.4.1 Collection of milk
32.4.2 Quarterly returns and additional information
32.4.3 Discontinuation of the milk shed concept in the MMPO
32.5 National Dairy Plan
32.5.1 The National dairy plan focuses on
32.5.2 SWOT analysis of Indian dairy industry
32.1 Introduction
This chapter describes problems of dairy industry and strategies to overcome them. It discusses the milk and milk product order (1992)
as an important policy measure of dairy industry of India as an important strategy/policy of Government of India with respect to Dairy
sector of India.
From an era of shortage of milk, today India is largest milk producing country in the world. Although the milk yield of our milch animals
is quite low compared to other countries, India became largest milk producing country due to the efforts of millions of small holder
producers and several other policy matters. The various problems faced by dairy industry at various stages are given below.
32.2 Problems
The Indian Dairy Industry is characterized as small scale, dispersed and unorganized. It is facing following problems.
Low productivity of milk animals.
Inadequate and inappropriate animal feeding and health care.
Lack of assured remunerative price of milk producers throughout the year.
Inadequate basic infrastructure for collection, transportation, processing and marketing of milk.
Lack of professional management.
Lack of proper cold chain facilities and logistics lead to revenue and milk losses.
The return of investment for the farmer is on the decline.
Huge gap in the production standards presents for the need of intervention to boost the overall yield and in production parameters.
There is need for incentives for the private corporate houses and conglomerates to venture in to dairy sector extensively on large
scale.
32.2.1 Problematic issues at the milk producers level
Insufficient feeding of milk animals.
Increase incidence of diseases.
Low genetic potential of milk animals.
Inadequate chilling facilities.
Exploitation of milk producers.
More production cost.
Delay in payment.
32.2.2 Problematic issues at milk collection level
Producers are largely small scale.
Large number of intermediaries.
Gaps in information.
Lack of infrastructure.
Absence of a screening system.
Manipulation of quality by milk producer.
32.2.3 Problematic issues at processing plants
Seasonality effects of lean and flush seasons.
Absence and non maintenance of quality standards.
Adulteration and food safety.
Lack of trained and skilled workers.
32.2.4 Problematic issues at storage and logistic level
Lack of cold storage facilities.
Gap in the cold chain and transport facilities.
32.2.5 Problematic issues at cooperative level
Less enrolment as members.
Lower participation in decision making process.
Losses.
Less price of milk.
Poor services.
Poor infrastructure.
32.2.6 Problematic issues at marketing
Large unorganized market.
Less penetration to rural markets.
Acceptability of the consumer base.
Lack of transparent milk pricing system.
32.3 Policy Environment
Dairy sector is a part of agriculture and falls under the state subject for policy matters. However the central government takes a lead in
formulating policies in this sector at the national level while its implementation is left to the respective state governments. Before 1970-71
(pre OF period), the main focus of government was to improve the milk production capacity of milch animals. Various programmes were
initiated to achieve this objectives viz., key village scheme, intensive cattle development programme etc. A network of veterinary
hospitals was established across different states. A number of city milk supply schemes were implemented for the benefits of urban
consumers. But one of the drawbacks of pre OF programme was absence of appropriate link between rural producers and urban
consumers. The Operation flood programme was launched in 1970-71. The operation flood was a major policy development. It provided
missing market link between rural producers and urban consumers through cooperative set up. Under operation flood programme, dairy
development through milk producers cooperatives and milk production based on milk sheds was promoted in the rural areas. The
government policies were formulated to help dairy cooperatives and large public investments were made in processing and marketing
infrastructure through cooperatives. In order to promote milk production, the cooperatives were protected from cheap subsidized imports
of dairy products (milk powder and butter oil) by imposing various import restrictions. The milk product imports were regulated through
Indian Dairy Corporation. At that time milk powder and butter oil were available in international market at lower prices. This made
reconstitution of milk cheaper than collecting and selling fresh milk. Thus it was very essential to protect the dairy cooperatives against
such cheap imports. In such a protected regime, milk procurement, processing capacities and urban supplies all grew in matching
proportion making India, the self sufficient and modern dairy country in the world. During protected regime, India pursued import
substitution policy under which domestic cooperative dairy sector was protected from cheap imports by imposition of quantitative
restrictions and other non tariff barriers such as canalizing of imports and exports of the dairy products. At the same time competition
from private sector was also eliminated by dissolving new private entrepreneurs into dairy sector under industrial development and
regulation Act of 1951 through the provision of industrial licensing.
In the early nineties, Indian government faced the problem of balance of payment crisis. This led to change in policy measures for all
sectors of the economy. India adopted the policy of liberalization for all sectors of economy including dairy sectors of the economy. The
dairy industry was relicensed in 1991. The aim of delicensing was to encourage private investment and flow of capital and new
technology. Upon opening up the sector, many new private dairy plants were established. Within a year of removing the licensing system,
more than 100 new dairy plants were established by private entrepreneurs. This led to unhealthy competition due to limitation of
adequate availability of basic raw material (milk). Thus in 1992 again government of India enacted milk and milk product order (MMPO-
1992). The salient provisions of MMPO 1992 are as under.
32.4 Milk and Milk Products Order (MMPO) 1992
MMPO, 1992 regulates entry in to the dairy industry by providing for a system of registration for new units beyond a specified
processing capacity. It has also laid down standards of safety & hygiene for dairy units. One of the key objectives of MMPO is to ensure
adequate availability of liquid milk for consumers.
Salient provisions of MMPO, 1992 are as under:
"Business in milk & milk products" means sale or purchase of milk & milk products and includes manufacturing, processing, handling or
controlling of milk or milk products.
"Milk shed" means an area geographically demarcated by the registering authority for the collection of milk or milk products by-the
holder of a registration certificate.
Registration: It is necessary to obtain registration certificate from registering authority for manufacturing or carrying on business in milk
or any milk products for creating any manufacturing facility for the business.
Plants producing between 10,000 to 75,000 liters of milk per day or manufacturing milk products containing between 500 to 3750 tones
of milk solids per year need state registration. When the volume exceeds 75,000 liters of milk per day or 3,750 tones of milk solids per
year, registration with central authority is necessary.
The applicant has to satisfy the registering authority with regard to:
Proper utilization of milk in the region from the milksheds
Availability of milk for the general public
Quality & quantity of milk available in the region
Remunerative price for milk
Facilities available for handling milk & milk products
Policy of preferential treatment to the cooperative sector
Any other matter which may be relevant to the healthy development of the dairy industry
The holder of the registration certificate shall (a) be bound to confine the collection of milk to the milkshed and (b) inform of any
additions /alternations made to the premises to the registering authorities within 30 days from the completion of addition/alteration.
The registration certificate issued under this order shall be valid for a period of five years from the date of issue.

32.4.1 Collection of milk
a. Only from the milk shed assigned under the registration certificate.
b. In case of shortage of milk in the milkshed area or surplus of liquid milk outside the milkshed area, the authority may permit to
collect milk from outside the milkshed for not exceeding 90 days.
c. Milk collection outside the milk shed be made only through cooperative milk federation or union, at a price mutually agreed
upon, and in the absence of any such agreement at the price at which the cooperative federation or union concerned sells milk to
any other cooperative federation or the union.
d. Liquid milk should not be used for making any products for period specified by Central Government & declared by notification
in official Gazette.
32.4.2 Quarterly returns and additional information
Every holder of registration certificate shall, within 30 days of the expiry of every quarter, submit a return in duplicate in the specified
forms. Detailed procedures have been specified for many other related areas as well as other provisions of MMPO (1992).
32.4.3 Discontinuation of the milk shed concept in the MMPO
There was a perception that the MMPO is an entry barrier for private sector investment in the dairy sector where only 10-15 per cent of
the milk is processed and more private sector investment is required, to "process" more milk. The "Integrated Sample Surveys"
conducted by the concerned departments of the state governments indicate that milk retention on an all India basis by rural households is
about 50 per cent of the production, Therefore, considering that milk production in India averages 220 million litres per day, only 110
million litres per day is available as marketable surplus for processing. The capacity registered under is about 60 million litres per day,
capable of processing about 63 per cent of the marketable surplus.
Yielding to the criticism that the MMPO contained entry barriers to the creation new and additional milk processing capacities. The
Government made some important amendments to the MMPO in March 2002. The salient features of the new amendments are:
The provision of assigning milkshed to processors has been done away with. Processors are free to procure milk from any area of
their choice,
MMPO 92 will now basically regulate food safety, quality, sanitary and hygienic conditions of all registered units.
Dairy plants have to be inspected before commissioning and also need to be inspected at least once every year. However, dairy
plants been given flexibility in choosing whether the inspection should be done by a team of experts or a firm of quality auditors
from an approved list.
In monitoring product safety, quality, hygienic and sanitary standards in the dairy industry, the Registering Authority is required to
make use of reports issued by inspection teams or quality audit firms.
The provision for food safety and quality have been made applicable even for business milk handling less than 10,000 liters per day
or less than 500 metric tons milk solids per annum. However, such business would not be required to obtain registration, undergo
inspection prior to commissioning their plants or undergo routine annual inspections.

32.5 National Dairy Plan
India's leading dairy development agency, the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), as proposed around $4 billion ( 173 billion)
draft National Dairy Plan to increase the country's milk production from the current 102 million tonnes to meet the projected demand of
180 million tones by 2021-22. NDDB proposed the draft plan in its annual report for 2007-08.
Top of FormBottom of Form
32.5.1 The National dairy plan focuses on
1. Productivity measures to enhance milk production as the average annual incremental production will have to increase from 2.5
million tons now to 5 million tons over the next 15 years.
2. Strengthening and expanding infrastructure to procure, process and market milk through existing and new institutional structures.
The plan proposes to increase the share of the organized sector in milk production to 65 percent from the current 30 percent to
ensure supply of quality milk to consumers.
32.5.2 SWOT analysis of Indian dairy industry:
Strengths
1. Enhanced milk production with consequently increased availability of milk processing.
2. Improved purchasing power of the consumer.
3. Improved transportation facilities for movement of milk & milk products.
4. Increased availability of indigenously manufactured equipment.
5. Large no. of dairy plants (678) in the country.
6. Vast pool of highly trained & qualified manpower available to the industry.
7. Country’s vast natural resources offer immense potential for growth & development of dairying.
Weaknesses
1. Lake of appropriate technologies for:
2. Tropical climate conditions.
3. Erratic power supply.
4. Lake of awareness for clean milk production.
5. Underdeveloped raw milk collection systems in certain parts of the country.
6. Seasonal fluctuations in milk production pattern.
7. Regional imbalances of milk supply.
8. Species – wise variation in milk quality received by dairy plants.
9. Poor productivity of cattle & arable land.
10. Scarce capital for investment in the dairy development programme on a priority basis.
11. Absence of proper data records which is essential for preparing development programme.
12. Dairy development programs have not been fully implemented as per the needs of the region in different agro – climatic zones.
13. Lake of marketing avenues for the dairy produce.
14. Non-availability of software for preparing needed dairy schemes / projects.
15. Lake of infrastructure for offering dairy business management programs.
Opportunities
1. Greatly improved export potential for milk products of western as well as traditional types.
2. Established & expanding market for traditional dairy products.
3. Increasing demand for fluid milk as well as value added production.
4. Byproduct utilization for import substitution.
5. Employment generation.
6. Growing demand for milk & milk products.
7. Liberalized polices in dairy sector.
8. Availability of large resources of unconventional feeds & folders.
9. Availability of diverse germ plasm with unique features like heat tolerance, disease resistance, draft ability & ability to survive &
produce under stress conditions.
10. Availability of animal production technologies for faster development & effective implementation.
11. Integrated structure of marketing for milk & milk products.
12. Integrated structure of livestock marketing through regulated markets.
13. Improved collection of data on contract basis through agencies.
14. Market information intelligence system for milk & milk products.
15. Development of software for project formulation for dairy enterprise.
Threats
1. Introduction of foreign products in Indian market.
2. Increasing chemical contaminants & residual antibiotics in milk .
3. Poor microbiological quality of milk.
4. Export of quality feed ingredients particularly cakes under the liberalization policy.
5. Deficiency of molasses, a rich source of binding agent in feed industry & constituent of urea molasses mineral lick.
6. Excessive grazing pressure on marginal & small community lands resulting in complete degradation of land.
7. Extinction of the indigenous breeds of cattle due to indiscriminate use of crossbreeding program to enhance milk production.
8. The liberalization of the dairy industry is likely to be exploited by multinationals. They will be interested in manufacturing value
added products. It will create milk shortage in the country adversely affecting the consumers.
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Milk Production

Management & Dairy

AgriMoon App AgriVarsha App

Sahiwal Ongole Amritmahal

Redsindhi Haryana Nagori

Gir Kankrej Killari

Deoni Gaoao Kangayam

Parameters Zebu Taurus

Hump Present absent

Color Shades of red, brown, Brown, mostly black with

Body size Small Large

Body weight Less More

Back Slightly curved Straight

Wedges Less prominent More prominent

Dewlap More developed Developed

Feed in take Less More

Water In take Less More

Preference for shade Yes Relatively more

Heat tolerance More Less

Resistance to diseases More Less

Weaning Easy Easier

Management Relatively easy Difficult

Age at maturity 24-36 months 15-18 months

Calving Interval 18-24 months 13months

Dry period More than 60 days Less than 60 days

Adoptability Good Poor

Milk yield Less More

Water 86.4 87.5

Fat 4.5 3.6

Protein 3.7 3.5

Lactose 4.7 4.7

Minerals 0.7 0.7

Total solids 13.6 12.5

S.N.F 9.1 8.8

Murrah Group Gujarat Uttar Pradesh Central Indian South Indian

Murrah Surti Bhadawari Nagpuri Toda(TN)

Kundi Mehsana Sambalpuri,

Types of animal Floor space Maximum Height of the

Bulls 12.0 24.0 1 175 cm in

Down-calves 12.0 12.0 1

Young- calves 1.0 2.0 30

Type of animal Space/animal Total manger length Total water tank

Adult cattle and 60-75 6000-7500 600-750

Calves 40-50 4000-5000 400-500

Body Energy Vit-A

350 0.217 2.70 9.72 8 8 37

400 0.255 3.03 10.91 9 9 42

100 0.28 1.9 6900 13 10 4000

150 0.35 2.6 9360 13 12 6500

11.0 0.085 0.650 2.34 2 1.4

250 0.270 3.0 10.8 14 12 21

300 0.290 3.4 12.4 16 14 25

350 0.320 3.7 13.2 21 16 27

400 0.350 4.0 14.1 23 18 30

450 0.400 4.4 15.9 26 20 34

500 0.430 4.8 17.3 29 22 38

550 0.465 5.2 18.8 31 24 42

600 0.500 5.6 20.2 34 26 46

650 0.530 6.0 21.6 36 28 50

700 0.550 6.3 22.7 39 30 53