The mountains MAHENDRAGIRI IN ORISSA &

MAHENDRAPARVATA IN KAMBUJ PART II OF A SERIE ON

MOUNTAINS OF KHMER
DR UDAY DOKRAS

Many rivers in Bali are named after the sacred rivers of India, like Ganga, Sindhu and Yamuna.
The Balinese thought that those rivers really were in Kling (Kalinga). Along with other rivers,
the Mahanadi River flowing in Odisha is considered sacred by the Balinese. They chant “Om
Ganga, Sindhu, Saraswati, Vipasa, Kausiki-nadi, Yamuna, Mahanadi, srestha Sarayu mahati”.
Mahendratanaya, another famous river of Odisha, was also held in high esteem in Bali. This river
originating from the foot of the Mahendragiri mountains falls in the Bay of Bengal and is
regarded as a holy river similarly it is regarded as the most sacred river in Bali. Even in the
Balinese stutis (verses), this river Mahendratanaya is mentioned along with other sacred rivers.
This may indicate that in ancient times some of the emigrants definitely were from the Mahendra
Parvata (Mahendra mountain) area of the Ganjam district of Odisha.
The stuti or shloka runs as follows:

Om Ganga Sindhu Saraswati su Yamuna

Godavari Narmada Kaveri Sarayu Mahendratanaya
Cornavati Renuka Bhadra Netravati Mahasuranadi
Khyata ca Gandaki Punyah Puranjalah Samudrasahitah
Kurvantu te mangalam

The Mountain The magnificent mountain Mahendragiri in India stands as the dosimali stone
of the provinces of Odisha and Andhra boarder in Ganjam and Gajapati districts of Odisha and
Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. Mahendragiri is 51 kms to the south-west of Brahmapur,
26 kms from the sea. It is approachable at Tumba from Brahmapur side, at Kainpur from
Parlakhemundi side and at Jangalapadu from Srikakulam side. More easiest way to ride
Mahendragiri mountain is from Paralakhemundi Dist. Headquarter which is about 50 kms
enroute Narayanpur, Jiranga, Kanipur and then about 20 kms on the undulating hill terrain to
reach at the flat land on the peak where temples of ancient past with archaeological remains
available. Mahendragiri mountain is also very close to Ramagiri and Gudguda waterfall.

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1.R.C.Majumdar, Hindu Colonies in the Far East, Calcutta (Firma KLM Pvt.
Ltd.), 1991, p.183; R.R.Das , Kambuja: A Blending of Indian Cultural Heritage,
Kolkata (Education Forum), 2008, p.22;
2. K.M.Srivastava, ‘The Hindu temples of Cambodia’, in: G.C.Pande (ed.) India’s
Interaction with Southeast Asia (History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in
Indian Civilization, Vol.I, Pt.3, New Delhi (Centre for Studies in Civilizations), 206,

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 p.322.
3.https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lift/women-who-made-cambodia
1. The Ocean of Churn: How the Indian Ocean Shaped Human History-By Sanjeev
Sanyal

Mahendraparavata in 3 Countries

The Mountain The magnificent mountain Mahendragiri stands as the dosimali stone of the

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provinces of Odisha and Andhra boarder in Ganjam and Gajapati districts of Odisha and
Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. Mahendragiri is 51 kms to the south-west of Brahmapur,
26 kms from the sea. It is approachable at Tumba from Brahmapur side, at Kainpur from
Parlakhemundi side and at Jangalapadu from Srikakulam side. More easiest way to ride
Mahendragiri mountain is from Paralakhemundi Dist. Headquarter which is about 50 kms
enroute Narayanpur, Jiranga, Kanipur and then about 20 kms on the undulating hill terrain to
reach at the flat land on the peak where temples of ancient past with archaeological remains
available. Mahendragiri mountain is also very close to Ramagiri and Gudguda waterfall.

The mountain is important from mythological, religious, historical, archaeological, ethnical,

ecological and tourism points of view. It is a famous centre of pilgrimage since time
immemorial. Every-year during Sivaratri (Feb-March) thousands of pilgrims from neighboring
Ganjam and Srikakulam districts usually visit and gather on the peak for celebration. The local
Adivasis or ethnic people also gather here on that day in large number. In our recent visit in
March 2020 to the site, we witnessed that many people from around Andhra Pradesh and Odisha
throng the place, particularly for ritualistic purpose in the age-old traditional Parasurama kshetra.
But historical evidences are there which reveals the cultural depth of the place when nowhere
temples constructed in entire Odishan region, there constructed the earliest temple in about 6th-
7th century CEwhich again proves the historicity of the place. Let us have a glimpse of the
traditions and history associated as known from the archaeological sources.

The Mahendra mountain had a strategic location due to which many early kingdoms were
established around and there are references in copperplate grants (charters) and inscriptions as
well as reflected in visible archaeological remains, that all speak a loud about the rich cultural
legacy. Almost all erudite scholars, starting from Pragiter, Pliny, H.C. Ray Choudhury, B.C.Law
and historians and archaeologists of Odisha like D.K.Ganguly, R.P. Mohaptara, B.K. Ratha and
some others have focused some aspects of Mahendra Mountain.

The Mahendra mountain has been eulogized by several hymns and religious texts as a sacred
place and is the abode of Lord Shiva. It is a Kula Parvata along with Maninagesvara, Malaya,
Sahayadri, Parijata, Shuktiman,Vindhya and M a l y a v a n t a . T h e Mahabharata mentions
Mahendra mountain while describing Parasurama’s penance. The story goes that Parasurama, the
youngest son of Jamadagni, exterminated the kshatriyas from the earth twenty-one times. Then
he performed a sacrifice at Ramatirtha with Kasyapa the Upadhyaya (preceptor). After
completion of the sacrifice, he offered the earth as his fees to Kasyapa but Kasyapa became
angry and banished him to the southern seas. As a result Parasurama went to Mahendragiri and
practiced penance and lived for a long time here. It is also said that Parashurama was meditating
on Mahendragiri when Lord Rama broke the sacred bow of Shiva. Ramayana and Mahabharata
also refer this mountain in various contexts. The Vamana, the Vishnu, the Markandeya, the Agni
and the Kunti Temple and Skanda Puranas also refer Mahendra Parvata. It is in fact that no
Purana is complete without mention of the Mahendra Hill. Hence no doubt that the Cambodian
name is inspired by Hindu legands

KAUNDINYA IN ANGKOR: Angkor is replete with Indian Gds, Sanskrit nomenclature

and Sanskrit Inscriptions. According to an article by Kausalya Santhanam quoting an
Eminent archaeologist R. Nagaswamy in.the.Newspaper.Hindu.dated.June.07,2018,
(https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/angkor-wat-a-bridge-to-the-

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past/article24103506.ece ) ) the maximum number of Sanskrit inscriptions is to be seen in
Cambodia rather than here. Siva linga pratishta is seen in almost every village. A 500-year
old inscription shows how the same astronomical calculation practised in India was also
practised in the Khmer empire (Cambodia). In Khmer, they consecrated the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata — and the chapters were recited daily in the temples.

Some of the interesting inscriptions pertain to Kaundinya who went to Cambodia and
married the ruling princess; their progeny became the rulers later. Whether it is history or
legend we do not know. In Tamil Nadu, Kaundinya was known as “Chozhiyan” (from the
Chola Nadu) during the Sangam period. Kaundinya belonged to a family of Vedic
scholars and was a staunch Saivite. Saivism, Buddhism and Vaishnavism integrated in
Cambodia and a composite culture came to be: Saiva-Vaishnavite-Buddhism. An
inscription (unfortunately damaged) in Cambodia, shows how the King of Kanchi sent a
Brahmana to Cambodia .
Jayavarman II began his reign after being consecrated on the sacred mountain of
Mahendraparvata, known as Phnom Kulen in contemporary Cambodian. It has for long
being considered a holy mountain. However the word and name Mahendraparvata though
refers to a mountain is actually the name of a city founded by Jayavarman II.

S ubmitted by:
Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom of Cambodia to UNESCO
Phnom Kulen: Archeological Site/Ancient Site of Mahendraparvata

Phnom Kulen range is located 30 km northeast of Angkor archaeological site, Siem Reap
province, northwest Cambodia. It is registered since 1992 on the Government of Cambodia’s
tentative list as a World Heritage potential cultural site, with the criteria V and VI. Phnom Kulen
means the Mountain of Leeches in Khmer. According to the old Khmer inscriptions (and
particularly Sdok Kak Thom inscription), the mountain is known as Mahendraparvata, the
mountain of the Great Indra, an ancient city established at the late 8 th-early 9th-centuries,
comprising several temples, the religious remains of this former capital of the Khmer Empire.
The capital was settled on the plateau, located 70 Km to the south of the Dangrek Mountains,
and 30 Km away from the great Tonle Sap Lake. Today, the Phnom Kulen national Park is a
37,375-hectares protected area, located in Banteay Srey, Svay Leu and Varin districts, in Siem
Reap province.
The ancient Mahendraparvata (late 8th-early 9th centuries) on Phnom Kulen is today a partially
forested site containing about 40 brick temples, including one pyramid mountain-temple, as well
as ancient reservoirs, dykes with spillway, channels, ponds, plots, platforms, and earthen
mounds, all part of an ancient urban system.
Other later archaeological remains are also located on Phnom Kulen such as dozen prehistoric
sites with rock paintings, more than 40 rock shelters occupied by hermits from the 10 th century,
including 2 sculpted riverbed (Kbal Spean and the One Thousand Linga), ceramic kilns dated
from the 10th to 11th centuries, a late Angkorian temples such as Prasat Krol Romeas located at
the large natural waterfall (end of the 12 th century), and the large and very much venerated
nowadays Preah Ang Thom reclining Buddha.

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Phnom Kulen is located in Northwest Cambodia, such as the others Cambodian Cultural World
Heritage sites: Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambor Prei Kuk. The mountain range is also at the
origin of the Siem Reap River, as well as the other main rivers of Angkor region (Puok and
Roluos). It has a major role for the local aquifer and for the surface water, draining most of the
plateau before reaching Angkor, nourishing its entire hydraulic system, the major reservoir
(baray) and the temples or city moats through a network of channels, and ending in the great
Tonle Sap Lake.
In addition, Phnom Kulen holds a major symbolic significance for the ancient Khmer Empire as,
according to ancient inscription, King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence from Java in 802
CE from the city of Mahendraparvata. There also, this king initiated the first Devaraja cult of the
king, as stated in Sdok Kak Thom inscription (Michael and Evans, 2018: 118). Among local
recent legends, one identifies the mountain with the place where Buddha stepped a foot, when
the entire country was flooded.

Recently, the LiDAR technology has revealed a very large and formally planned network of
oriented earthen dikes forming axis. This urban grid connects previously known, temples, and
the water infrastructures, such as the dams blocking the valleys of the plateau and creating large
reservoirs. Organizing the landscape on a large scale (more than 40 km 2), it also organizes
settlement plots. Most of the temples are single brick towers, attributed to Jayavarman II reign.
One of them stands out, Prasat Rong Chen, the five-tiered pyramid temple built on the highest
point of the southern part of the plateau. Partially constructed from leveling or soils
embankments (first two levels) and laterite blocks (last three levels), the temple’s top level is
accessible by ramps, unique remains of a construction left unfinished. An unfinished large
reservoir, or baray, was also evidenced thanks to the Lidar technology. Additionally, the Royal
Palace of the ancient capital (Banteay) was identified in 2009 (Chevance, 2014) and confirms the
presence of the king and his court on the plateau, at the early 9 th century. Mahendraparvata
(Phnom Kulen) is, therefore, very significant as it is one of the earliest capitals of the Angkor
period, which extended from the 9th to 15th centuries.

Systematic archaeological survey and excavations have identified an array of cultural features.
There are more extensive of a large settlement than the historical record indication. For instance,
later Angkorian inscriptions often refer to Jayavarman’s capital on the plateau, but no
inscriptions dating from that period have been found so far in Phnom Kulen. However, the
significant infrastructures in Phnom Kulen demonstrated the “first engineered landscapes of the
era, offering key insights into the transition from the pre-Angkorian to Angkorian period,
including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic engineering and sociopolitical organization
that would shape the course of the region’s history for the next 500 years” (Chevance et al, 2019:
1305). Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen, “therefore, represents a significant milestone in the
development of urban from/in the region”.

It is believed that “the grid of major axes provides the overall framework upon which other
patterns of habitation are based and elaborated” (Chevance et al, 2019:1316). According to Lidar
and following field verification researchers “found hundreds of ponds within the central area,
only two of them interrupt the course of the major axes, the other ponds are scattered within the
city blocks.” Several evidences “suggest that the central grid was laid out before, or during, the
elaboration of the habitation network, and that the two systems functioned contemporaneously.”

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The existence of a royal palace, numerous temples and neighbourhoods, indicate that a royal
court was located on the Kulen plateau. A substantial population living in “an extensive, well-
defined, built-up area” supports it (Chevance et al, 2019:1318). “This area was clearly of
parceled neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant ceremonial centre . Prior to the
Mahendraparvata construction, “the evidence shows that settlement patterns in the Angkor
region comprised small, loosely structured urban areas that lacked any formal grid, had no clear
boundaries and appear to have developed organically without a coherent plan. Beyond the
Angkor region, a handful of centres show evidence of enclosing walls, for instead, at the sixth to
eight centuries AD site of Sambor Prei Kuk. On the other hand, these much smaller in scale than
at Mahendraparvata and contain no internal grids. Thus, Mahendraparvata marks an important
point of departure, and appears to represent the first large-scale ‘grid city’ elaborated in the
Khmer world. It would be some time before such a design would be fully realized again in the
Angkor region. The ninth-century AD city of Hariharalaya, the capital immediately following
Mahendraparvata, contains a monumental core but, overall, evinces an organic layout typical of
the early Angkorian ‘open cities’ (Evans 2010; Pottier 2012). It is only in the tenth and eleventh
centuries AD that the massive linear axes and internal frameworks of cities appear again in the
Angkor region,  and not until the twelfth century that we have unambiguous evidence for gridded
cities achieved on the same scale as Mahendraparvata (Evans 2016). Hence, the urban network
revealed by lidar and described here seems to form an enormous and remarkably early
experiment in formal urban planning. The urban model that first developed on this mountain
plateau, although sparsely inhabited at the time and not widely adopted straight away, would
eventually be adapted to the low-lying floodplains of Angkor, and become a prototype for high-
density urban centres at the height of the Khmer Empire” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1317, 1318).
Mahendraparvata map bring new insights regarding the history of the Angkorian urbanism. It
combines the two previously identified forms (Evans et al, 2013; Evans, 2016), while missing
many other elements. It has an extended city grid, but without any attempt to define a central
area with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to have been densely inhabited; and
there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity or a broader network of low-density
occupation revolving around fields and ponds. Hence, while Mahendraparvata is immediately
recognizable as Angkorian, and identifiably ‘urban’, it is totally unique in the Khmer world in its
development of urban form .

Moreover, the architecture and art of Phnom Kulen, moreover, indicate the development of a
unique style during the reign of Jayavarman II, at the end of the 8 th century. The sandstones
decorative architectural elements (columns and lintels) and the sculptures progressed to a unique
and a new “Kulen style”. This style illustrates a transition from the previous pre-angkorian styles
to the future angkorian and post-angkorian styles.

After this early capital of the Khmer Empire was abandoned as the siege of power, the court
moved from Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen to (Hariharalaya in Rolous, 15 Km east of the
future Angkor). Phnom Kulen site continued to be considered as a sacred mountain and later
archaeological sites show, it was never completely abandoned. Epigraphic evidence indicated
that Kings consecrated sculpture riverbed (Kbal Spean) and later temples and particular
infrastructures such as channels, stairways, ceramic kilns or mounds fields evidence an
occupation of the Phnom Kulen during the angkorian period. Nowadays, several Phnom Kulen

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archaeological sites still hold a sacred value for Cambodians and are the witnesses of an
important worship by Khmer people, coming from the entire country. Monks and modern
hermits often reused hermit’s sites, insuring a sacred continuity, and numerous legends, folktales,
and narratives continue to be associated by the local communities to the archaeological sites. 
Finally, Phnom Kulen is also known to host the ancient quarries, where the sandstone blocks
were extracted. From Phnom Kulen site, a complex and long network of channels and parallel
raised earthen road allowed their transportation to Angkor, to build the prestigious religious
monument, from the 10th century. Phnom Kulen ancient quarrying industry, known from the late
19th century, was developed on a very large scale, recently revealed by the Lidar (Evans, 2017).
It has left numerous localized pits with high stepped surfaces forming a complex network of
stone exploitation.
Justification of Outstanding Universal Value
The Phnom Kulen will be presented as an extension of Angkor site, in accordance with the
guideline for the implementation of the 1972 convention. The proposed tentative list meets
criteria ii, iv, and v for the inclusion of Mahendraparvata on the World Heritage List, as a
cultural site. There are three main outstanding universal value of Mahendraparvata/Phnom Kulen
tentative list, as a first unique urban city, a living cultural heritage, and as the sandstone source
for the construction of the Angkor temples (quarries location).
Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen has recently discovered an immense, formally planned urban
network, comprising axis and linking, temples, and water infrastructure (Chevance et al, 2019).
The majority of temples from site are primarily built of brick, laterite, and also dates from the
Jayavarman II period (Michael and Evans, 2018: 121). Together with the recently identified
Royal Palace Banteay (Chevance, 2014), they confirmed the presence of this early Angkorian
capital.
Recently, the LiDAR mission identified an additional main piece of hydrological infrastructure
in this area. The East-West orientated Thnal Srae Thbong dike and the 1 Km long Thnal Mrech
dike (Pepper Dyke), with several 10th to 11th centuries ceramic kiln sites, are part of a very large
unfinished reservoir of baray. This last feature completes, together with the mountain-temple and
the Royal Palace, the main markers of an angkorian capital. They are integrated in the urban
network and the whole indicates a significant evidence for the early Angkorian period to setup
infrastructure and city.