Ilovepdf Merged
Ilovepdf Merged
Ilovepdf Merged
09.08.2021
3 About the course
Course objective:
The objective of this course is to explore the evolution of CAD models from simply being
geometrical representation of a product to having added value and intelligence to interface effectively with
manufacturing the product, and even beyond, in the areas of maintenance and life-cycle management of the
product.
Slot - B
No of Credits - 9
Evaluation Pattern - 25% - Course Project
10% - Assignment
15% - Tutorials
50% - End Semester exam
Text books:
Integrating Advanced Computer-Aided Design, Manufacturing and Numerical Control, by Xun Xu.
Computer-Aided Manufacturing by T-C Chang, R. A. Wysk and H-P Wang.
Reference Books:
Delaunay mesh generation, by Siu-Wing Cheng, Tamal Krishna Dey and Jonathan Richard Shewchuk.
4 Course Content
1. Introduction to CAD
2. Geometric modelling and Wireframe modelling: Definitions and importance of models,
Importance of geometric information in product life cycle, parametric and non-parametric
representation.
3. Surface modelling: Plane surface, ruled surface, surface of revolution, tabulated surface, reformed
surface, Two parameters for surfaces, Torus surface parametric equation, Bounded Surface, Tabulated
cylinder, Blending curves, surface patches, Blending points to get surface, Torus surface equation
(Rational bi-quadratic Bezier)
4. Solid modelling: Boundary representation, Basic Entities and the Connectivity of B-rep, Validation
of a B-rep Model, Constructive Solid Geometry, Other Types of Representations, Analytical Solid
Modelling.
5. CAD System Architecture: Feature-Based Design, Parametric Design, Variational Design,
History-Based and History-Free CAD, Adding Intelligence to CAD, Computer hardware for CAD
6. CAD Data Exchange and CAD Standards: CAD Kernels, Data Interoperability, Different Types of
Data Translation/Conversion, Dual Kernel CAD Systems, Direct Data Translators, Common/Neutral
Translators, STEP files in detail, Comparing Data Exchange Methods, Data Quality.
5 Introduction to Geometric modelling
• The geometric information about an object essentially includes types of surfaces, edges and
their dimensions and tolerances.
• Prior to the availability of commercial CAD systems, this information was represented on
blueprints by a draftsperson, hence in a two-dimensional (2D) form.
• Earlier problems:
1. It is hard to comprehend complex geometry through a 2D
form of description. This is particularly true with
assemblies that have many components, e.g. an engine
assembly.
2. The design information in this form is difficult to be
archived for a longer period of time and it is cumbersome
to search for.
3. It is considered unfit for the modern manufacturing
industry in which data management is mostly in the
electronic format.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcwIMsh_g3o
8 History of CAD
• 1960s - Starting of Computer Aided Design Systems.
• 1970s - Limited to producing drawings similar to
hand-drafted drawings.
• 1980s - Solid modelling due to the Advances in
programming and computer hardware
• 1981 - Romulus™ (ShapeData) and Uni-Solid
(Unigraphics®) based on PADL-2 and the release of the
surface modeler Catia® (Dassault Systems).
• 1982 - Autodesk® was founded 1982 and AutoCAD® soon
became one of the most successful 2D CAD systems.
• 1988 - Release of Pro/Engineer® (Pro/E® for short)
• feature-based modelling methods
• parametric linking of the parameters of features.
9 History of CAD
• Development of B-rep solid modelling kernels (engines for manipulating
geometrically and topologically consistent 3D objects) such as Parasolid®
(ShapeData) and ACIS® (Spatial Technology Inc.)
• 1995-96 - Affordable, mid-range packages such as
• SolidWorks® in 1995.
• SolidEdge® (Intergraph™ ) in 1996.
• IronCAD® in 1998.
• Present - Product design and development.
10 Engineering Drawing vs Computer Aided Drawing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z4xZmBpXIzQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wsuNS7tE_Ow
Database Software
• Component • Model
models Working data definition Hardware
CAD systems basically consists of:
• Geometry
• Hardware: the computer and • Manipulation
associated peripheral equipment • Drawings
• Applications
12 Product life cycle
Customer
Demands
Design Manufacturing
Process Process
Synthesis
Analysis
• Sketches Process planning
• Layouts
• Production planning
• Tools Procurement
• Material order
• Machine Programming
A Typical product cycle
13
14 Product life cycle
• The product begins with a need that depends on customer’s and market’s demands.
• The product goes through two main processes from inception to finished product:
• Design process
• Manufacturing process.
Design Process : Two components
• Synthesis
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Sketches and layout drawings showing the relationship among the product parts.
• Drawn using CAD/CAM systems or simply hand drawn.
• Analysis
• Check for stress concentration zones, deflections, material selection.
• Using CAD/CAM systems.
15 Product life cycle
Manufacturing process begins with process planning and ends with actual product.
• Process planning is considered as backbone of manufacturing process as it attempts to
determine the most efficient sequence in which to produce the product.
• The outcome of process planning is production plan, tools procurement, Material order, and
machine programming.
16 Geometric Modelling approaches
The development of geometric modelling is coupled with three
departments of sciences and technologies:
They are computer graphics techniques, three-dimensional (3D)
geometric representation schemes and computer hardware advances.
The research started in the 1960’s.
The basic geometric modelling approaches used in today’s CAD/CAM
systems are wire-frame, surface and solid modelling.
1 Design Production
analysis
2 Introduction to Geometric modelling
• The geometric information about an object essentially includes types of
surfaces, edges and their dimensions and tolerances.
• Prior to the availability of commercial CAD systems, this information was
represented on blueprints by a draftsperson, hence in a two-dimensional
(2D) form.
Geometric modelling…
3
• Earlier problems:
• Wire-frame is the first developed and is also the most basic method of
geometric modelling techniques and initially developed particularly for
computer version of a 3D object.
• Basic entities in this model include points, lines, arcs and circles, conics,
and other type of curves. Figure shows the wire-frame representation of a
part.
Wireframe Modelling…
8
• So the wire-frame scheme is relatively easy and straightforward to use, and it
is the most economical of the 3D schemes in terms of computing time and
memory requirements.
Ambiguous
wireframe models
Wire-Frame Entities
9
• Vertices (points) and edges (lines) are the main entities in a wire-frame
model. To represent these entities in a computer, we use data structure so that
management of these entities (e.g. modify, save and load) is made easier.
• Normally, wire-frame entities are divided into two categories: analytic and
synthetic entities. The choice of a curve in a CAD system depends on the
effectiveness of a curve in terms of manipulating complex geometries such as
blends, trims and intersections.
10 Curve Entities
Analytic
Points, lines, arcs, fillets, chamfers and conics (ellipses,
parabolas and hyperbolas)
Synthetic
Types of splines: Cubic spline, B spline and Bezier curve
11 Curve entities…
Defining points
12 Curve entities…
Defining points
13 Curve entities…
Defining lines
14 Curve entities…
Defining lines
15 Curve entities…
Defining circles
16 Curve entities…
Defining circles
17 Curve entities…
Defining ellipse
18 Curve entities…
Synthetic curves
19 Curve entities…
Synthetic curves
Analytic Entities
20
• Analytic entities include points, straight lines, arcs, circles, ellipses,
parabolas, and hyperbolas.
• Different CAD systems may provide a different set of methods.
Analytic Entities…
21
example: a straight line may be defined by two 3D vertices, or by an existing line
that may be parallel or perpendicular to the line being defined.
• The latter method suits the modelling option of defining a line with an imbedded
reference to an existing one, or simply to support a “copy & paste” option for line
creation.
22 Curve Representation
• This equation defines the x and y coordinates of each point without the
assistance of extra parameters. Thus, it is called the nonparametric
equation of a line.
• The same line also may be described by defining the coordinates of each
point using equation,
• This equation expresses the relationship between the coordinates x and y, x and
z of each point in the 3D space. Therefore, the relationship between y and z is
implicit. This equation, however, must be solved analytically to obtain the
explicit form.
• It is possible to solve it, accurate data cannot always be guaranteed. This limits
its use in CAD systems.
27 Limitations of Non Parametric
representation
If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or near
vertical, its value becomes infinity or very large.
Shapes of the engineering objects are intrinsically
independent of any coordinate system.
If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or
straight line segments, the computations involved could
be extensive
Parametric Representation of a Curve
28
• Parametric representation of a curve is well suited for its use in CAD
systems because of its properties.
L(t) = [x, y, z]T = [X(t), Y(t), Z(t)]T, tmin < t < tmax
L(t) is the point vector and t is the parameter of the equation.
Advantages Explicit curves Implicit curves Parametric curves
31 Easy to trace Closed and multivalued Closed and multivalued
curves and infinite slopes can curves and infinite slopes can
be represented be represented
Disadvantages
Explicit curves Implicit curves Parametric curves
Infinite slopes are impossible Difficult to fit and manipulate Highly flexible but
if f(x,y) is polynomial free form curves complicates intersections,
point classification
Axis dependent Axis dependent
Closed and multivalued curves Complex to trace
are difficult to represent
32 Synthetic Entities
Synthetic entities are basically synthetic curves. These are more genetic curves
that can take virtually any shape in order to meet geometric design
requirements of a mechanical part and/or various engineering applications.
Represent the problem of constructing a smooth curve that passes through given data
points.
Synthetic Entities…
33
a. Car body. The curves of a car body are usually designed to increase
aerodynamic performances as well as to meet the aesthetic requirements.
They could take any shape that is required.
Bezier curve
The curve is formed by a set of contact
V(1)
points, no requirement of slope V(3)
V(2)
V(n)
V(0)
V(2)
V(i)
Bezier curve...
37
8. The most desirable feature for any polygon based curve is the Convex hull property.
❑ Relates the curve to its characteristic polygon.
❑ A curve is said to have a convex hull if it lies entirely within the convex hull defined the
polygon vertices.
V(0) V(n)
V(3)
B-spline curve
Synthetic Entities…
41
Four control points can always produce a cubic Bezier curve, they can generate a
linear, quadratic or cubic B-spline curve.
Achieved by choosing the basis (blending) functions pf B-spline curves with a an
additional degree of freedom that does not exist in Bernstein polynomials.
Where
• P(u) is any point on the curve
• Pi is a control point
• Ni,k(u) are the B-spline basis functions of degree k
0 ≤ u ≤ ( (n+1) – (k-1) )
• It should be noted that the range of u is not 0 to 1, but it varies
with the number of control points and the degree of the curve 0≤u≤n–k+2
The parameter k controls the degree (k-1) of the resulting B-spline curve and is usually
independent of he number of control points.
The maximum limit of the parameter u is no longer 1 as was arbitrarily chosen for
Bezier curves.
42 Synthetic Curves
B-spline curves
If k = 2, we get a linear curve
If k = 3, we get quadratic curve
If k = 4, we get cubic curve
Where, 0 ≤ j ≤ n+k
The number of knots (n + k + 1) are needed to create a (k-1) degree curve defined by (n+1)
control points
44 Characteristics of B-spline curves
1. The local control of the curve can be achieved by changing the position of a
control point(s), using multiple control points by placing several points at the
same location, or by choosing a different degree (k-1).
2. A periodic B spline curve passes through the first and last points P0 and Pn+1, and
is tangent to the first and last segments of the control points.
The Ri,p (u) are the rational basis functions. They are piecewise
rational functions on u in [0, 1].
Rational B-splines
50
• Hermite and Bézier curves changing one control point (or slope) affects
the whole curve. This may cause some inconvenience for designers when
they only wish to modify a curve locally.
Control points
51 NURBS – Non Uniform Rational B-Spline
• Increasing the value of weight (wi) of a control point (Pi) will pull
the curve towards it and vice versa.
Point 9
52 NURBS – Knot Vectors
• The curve is defined on the non-periodic, non-decreasing and
non-uniform knot vector
• The values a and b are repeated (p+1) times, denoting the order of
the NURBS curve.
53 NURBS – B-Spline Basis Functions
• The value of Ni, p (u) can be estimated using the following recursive
relations, choosing 0/0 = 0, if the denominators become zero.
where,
Ni, 0 (u) = 1 ui ≤ u < ui+1
0 otherwise
54
Surface Modelling
55 Surface Modelling
• Surface model is more complete and less ambiguous representation compared to wire
frame model
• Can be used for design of tool path (but wire frame model cannot)
• Surface models store only the information of outer geometry of the objects, but they will
• Surface models provide hidden line removal and surface algorithms to make the objects
• Surface modelling systems also offer better graphic interaction, although the
models are more difficult to create than wire-frame models.
- Plane Surface
- Ruled Surface
- Surface of revolution
- Tabulated surface
- Off-set surface
- Synthetic/Free-form surface
58 Plane Surface
• It interpolates linearly between two boundary curves that define the surface
• It is generated by rotating a planar wire frame entity in space about the axis
63 • These both surfaces are synthetic surfaces, Like synthetic curves, a synthetic
surface approximates the given input data, often in form of an array of given
points in 3D space.
• Bézier and B-spline surfaces are general surfaces that permit twists and kinks.
Bezier surface
64
• The difference between them, also similar to the case of curves, is
that local control is possible for a B-spline surface but not for a
Bézier surface.
B-Spline Surface
Analytic Surface Representations
65
• Like a general analytic curve, general analytic surface can also be defined by
either an implicit or an explicit equation.
Implicit Equation
F(x, y, z) = 0
• Geometric meaning of above equation is that the locus of the points that
satisfy the above constraint equation defines the surface.
Analytic Surface Representations…
66 Explicit Equation
68
Bézier Surface Patches
• In Bézier curve, the Bernstein basis function is used for the Bézier surface
patch. most common use of Bézier surfaces is as nets of bi-cubic patches.
69 Bézier Surface Patches…
• These are typically linked up to form a B-spline surface in the similar way that
Bézier curves are linked up to form a B-spline curve.
Surface Manipulation
70
• Various surface manipulation techniques are employed in CAD systems. The
simplest and most widely used method is to display a surface by a mesh of
curves. This is usually called a mesh in the CAD software.
71
• Intersection is another useful function where curves can be defined as a result of
intersection.
• Curve transformation, one can translate, rotate, mirror and scale a surface in
most CAD systems.
Surface Manipulation…
72
Meshing Transformation
73
Solid Modelling
74
Solid Modelling
Solid modeling can be defined as the process of creating
Solid models
Key points
• There are a number of representation schemes for solid modelling, such as boundary
representation (B-rep), constructive solid geometry (CSG), destructive solid
geometry(DSG), sweep representation, parameterized primitive instancing, cell
decomposition, spatial occupancy (voxel), and analytical solid modelling.
Solid Modelling…
80
• B-rep and CSG are the most widely used representation schemes. B-rep is
more suitable for representing complex designs, whereas with CSG, models
are easy to create and are usually used in representing relatively simple
objects.
Boundary Representation
81
• This method uses representation of shapes using the limits, or rather
boundaries as the name suggests. A solid is represented as a collection of
connected surface elements and the boundary between solid.
• By convention, the inside is the material and the outside is the void space. The
direction of the face normal is usually used as the orientation of the face, and the
face that carries the orientation information is called orientable surface.
Boundary Representation…
82
• Since a solid is bounded by orientable surfaces, one can define a solid by a set
of faces. A face is generally bounded by edges which are bounded by vertices.
• Other elements are the shell, the loop and loop-edge links (also known as
winged-edge links or half-edges) which are used to create the edge circuits to
bound a face.
84 Basic Entities and the Connectivity of B-rep…
• There are 6 faces, each containing a loop of 4 edges. Each edge is bounded by 2 vertices. Every
edge is shared by two faces and every vertex is shared by three edges.
• The edges in a loop are stored in a particular sequence, one after the other, in
the database so that the normal of the face (pointing away from the object) is defined using
the right-hand rule (e.g. n1, n2, n3 …)
86
B-REP…
87 Validation of a B-rep Model
• Euler’s law states that a polyhedron is topologically valid (or a sane solid) if the
following equation is satisfied,
F-E+V=2
• In order to cope with solids that have passageways or holes, the generalized
version of Euler’s law can be used.
F-E+V-L = 2(B-G)
• These laws are critical in a CAD system as they govern the construction syntax of
a solid modelling kernel.
B-REP…
88
• B-rep have a complete set of information and it is explicit but using operators
such as “make vertex, make face, kill vertex, and kill face” can be a hectic job
to construct a reasonably complex solid.
• The common Boolean operators include set theoretic intersection (∩), set-theoretic
union (∪), and difference (-).
• The simplest solid objects used for representation are called primitives. An object is
constructed from primitives by means of allowable Boolean operations.
• This method is called analytical solid modelling. The solid thus created is
called a parametric solid or a hyper patch because it is similar to a surface patch
in surface representation.
Analytical Solid Modelling…
96
Geometric Modelling
Bezier Curves
Introduction
• First introduced by P. Bezier of Regie Renault (French Car firm)
Geometric Modelling 2
Bezier Curves
• Controlled by data points. The tangents vectors are not used as in
Cubic splines. Better feel for the relationship between the input(points)
and output (curve).
Geometric Modelling 3
Bezier Curves
• The data points are called the CONTROL POINTS.
Geometric modelling 5
Observations
• Mathematically, for n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is
defined by a nth order polynomial.
Geometric modelling 6
Observations
• Mathematically, for n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is
defined by a nth order polynomial.
Geometric modelling 7
Observations
• Bernstein polynomial serves as the blending or basis function
Geometric modelling 8
Observations
• Equation of the curve
Geometric modelling 9
Characteristics
• Based on the properties of Bernstein polynomials
1. The curve interpolates the first and last points; that is it passes through P0
and Pn if we substitute u = 0 and 1 in the characteristic equation
2. The curve is tangent to the first and last segments of the characteristic
polygon.
ADD A FOOTER 10
Characteristics
•
ADD A FOOTER 11
Characteristics
• Based on the properties of Bernstein polynomials
5. The curve can be modified by either changing one or more vertices of its
polygon or by keeping the polygon fixed and specifying multiple coincident
points at a vertex as shown in the figures
ADD A FOOTER 12
Characteristics
• Based on the properties of Bernstein polynomials
6. A closed Bezier curve can simply be generated by closing its characteristic
polygon or choosing P0 and Pn to be coincident.
7. For any valid value of u, the sum of the bi,n functions associated with the
control points is always one for any degree Bezier curve.
ADD A FOOTER 13
Convex Hull
The most desirable feature for any polygon based curve is the Convex hull property.
❑ Relates the curve to its characteristic polygon.
❑ A curve is said to have a convex hull if it lies entirely within the convex hull
defined the polygon vertices.
V(2)
V(0) V(n)
V(3)
B-spline Curves 16
Introduction
Four control points can always produce a cubic Bezier curve, they can generate a linear, quadratic
or cubic B-spline curve.
Achieved by choosing the basis (blending) functions pf B-spline curves with a an additional degree of
freedom that does not exist in Bernstein polynomials.
Where
• P(u) is any point on the curve 0 ≤ u ≤ ( (n+1) – (k-1) )
• Pi is a control point 0≤u≤n–k+2
• Ni,k(u) are the B-spline basis functions of degree k
B Spline Curve 18
Introduction
The ui are called parametric knots or knot values. These values form a sequence of
non-decreasing integers called knot vector. The point on the curve corresponding to
a knot ui is referred to as a knot point. The knot points divide a B-spline curve into
curve segments.
Where, 0 ≤ j ≤ n+k
The number of knots (n + k + 1) are needed to create a (k-1) degree curve defined
by (n+1) control points
B Spline Curve 19
Characteristics of B-spline curves
1. The local control of the curve can be achieved by changing the position of a
control point(s), using multiple control points by placing several points at the
same location, or by choosing a different degree (k-1).
2. A periodic B spline curve passes through the first and last points P0 and Pn+1, and
is tangent to the first and last segments of the control points.
B-spline curves 21
Characteristics of B-spline curves
6. Multiple control points induce regions of high curvature in a
b-spline curve.
▪ The curve is pulled more toward a control point by increasing its multiplicity.
7. Increasing the degree of the curve makes it more difficult to control
and to calculate accurately.
Surface Modelling
Surface Modelling
• In wireframe model, only the boundary of a face can be precisely represented not the actual geometric
property of the face itself.
• Disadvantages:
• Surface models store only the information of outer geometry of the objects, but they will not have inner
details.
• Complicated computation, depending on the number of surfaces .
Surface patches
• Surface patch are defined as surfaces generated using 1 or more curves that make a closed connection.
• In general, real parts are represented using surface geometry by an assembly of surface patches, For
example a complete car body may require several hundred patches
• A Hermite surface also requires the values of tangent vectors at the corners of the surface.
Synthetic Surface Representations
• Bezier surface Patches:
• The only difference between a Hermite surface patch and a Bezier surface patch is Basis Functions.
• Bernstein basis function is used for Bezier surface patch.
• The cubic Bezier surface can be expressed as
• Where ,
Synthetic Surface Representations
• Bezier Surface Patches:
• Advantages:
• Bezier patch meshes are superior to meshes of triangles as a representation of smooth surfaces.
• They are compact, easier to manipulate, and have much better continuity properties.
• Parametric surfaces such as spheres and cylinders can be well approximated by relatively small
number of cubic Bezier patches.
• Disadvantages:
• Bezier patch meshes are difficult to render directly.
• Calculating the intersections of Bezier patches with lines is difficult, making them awkward for pure
ray tracing or other direct geometric techniques which do not use subdivision or successive
approximation techniques.
• Difficult to combine directly with perspective projection algorithms.
Synthetic Surface Representations
• B- Spline Surfaces:
• Extension of the idea of B-Spline curves.
• Segmentation and Trimming is a way of representing part of surface with localized interests.
Surface Modelling
Surface Modelling
• In wireframe model, only the boundary of a face can be precisely represented not the actual geometric
property of the face itself.
• A Hermite surface also requires the values of tangent vectors at the corners of the surface.
Synthetic Surface Representations
• Bezier surface Patches:
• The only difference between a Hermite surface patch and a Bezier surface patch is Basis Functions.
• Bernstein basis function is used for Bezier surface patch.
• The cubic Bezier surface can be expressed as
• Where ,
Synthetic Surface Representations
• Bezier Surface Patches:
• Advantages:
• Bezier patch meshes are superior to meshes of triangles as a representation of smooth surfaces.
• They are compact, easier to manipulate, and have much better continuity properties.
• Parametric surfaces such as spheres and cylinders can be well approximated by relatively small
number of cubic Bezier patches.
• Disadvantages:
• Bezier patch meshes are difficult to render directly.
• Calculating the intersections of Bezier patches with lines is difficult, making them awkward for pure
ray tracing or other direct geometric techniques which do not use subdivision or successive
approximation techniques.
• Difficult to combine directly with perspective projection algorithms.
Synthetic Surface Representations
• B- Spline Surfaces:
• Extension of the idea of B-Spline curves.
• Segmentation and trimming is a way of representing part of surface with localized interests.
• Intersection is another useful function where curves can be defined as a result of intersection.
• Projection is performed by projecting an entity onto a plane or surface. When a curve or surface is projected,
the point projections are repeatedly. This function is often used in determining shadows of entities.
• Transformations : Translate Rotate, Mirror and Scale a surface in most CAD systems.
Solid Modelling
• Number of Faces = 6
• Number of Edges = 12
• Number of Vertices =8
• F-E+V = 6-12+8 = 2 ,
• Hence according to Euler’s law Simple cube is
a valid one.
1. Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
• Validation of B- Rep Model :
• For the solids that have passageways or holes, the generalized version of Euler’s law
used is,
• F-E+V-L = 2(B-G) .
• Where, L= inner loops, B= body, G= genera (such as torus, through-hole).
• Number of Faces: 14
• Number of Edges : 36
• Number of Vertices : 24
• Number of inner loops: 2
• Number of Bodies = 1
• Number of Genera= 1
• F-E+V-L = 2(B-G) = 14-36+24-2 = 2 (1-1)
• = 0=0.
• Euler's theory validates the given model.
2. Constructive Solid Geometry
• Constructive solid geometry allows a modeler to create a complex surface or object by
using Boolean operators to combine objects.
• The simplest solid objects used for representation are called Primitives.
• Primitives : a) Cube, b) Sphere, c) Cylinder, d) Cone, e) Taurus, f) Wedge, g) Pyramid.
2. Constructive Solid Geometry
• An object is constructed from primitives by means of allowable Boolean operations.
• The common Boolean operators include set theoretic intersection (∩), set-theoretic
union (∪), and difference (-).
“T” cross section sweeping along a closed path to give solid geometry
4. Parameterized primitive instancing
• The primitive instancing technique is based on a concept that considers an object
that has the same topology as a potential primitive (also called generic primitive)
but different geometry.
• Set of parameters govern the topology of the object, different objects can be
generated by setting the parameters to different values.
• Example:
• A gear can be defined by a set of parameters such as, its
pitch-circle diameter, thickness, number of teeth and
etc.
• Different gears can be easily generated by specifying a
specific set of parameters.
5. Cell Decomposition
• In Cell Decomposition method a solid is represented by a collection of smaller
regular volumes or cells that are mutually contiguous and do not interpenetrate.
• The cells may be any shape and do not have to be identical.
the 2D plane
• Tapered Sweep : Scale area while sweeping 2
V-E+F-H=2(C–G)
V-E+F-H=2(C–G)
24 36 15 3 1 1
Surface Patch
• Patch Surfaces are defined as surfaces generated using 1 or more curves that
make a closed connection.
A twisted ribbon segmented using different values of the Complex Patch Boundary Methodology in Sketching system
parameter α. a). α = 0, b). α = 0.2, c). α = 0.4
Coons Surface Patch
Windshield of a car
Coons Surface patch (Contd)
• Produced by the superposition of two ruled surfaces connecting the two pairs
of boundary curves satisfying the boundary curve conditions.
P(u, ν) = G(u) + ν[Q(u) – G(u)] = (1 - ν)G(u) + ν Q(u)
Where ν = ruling parameter 0≤u≤1, 0 ≤ ν ≤1
A bilinear surface is derived by interpolating four data points, using linear equations in
the parameters u and v so that the resulting surface has the four points at its corners,
denoted by P00, P10, P01 and P11.
P0v = (1 -v)P00 + vP01
P1v = (1 -v)P10 + vP11
Similarly P(u,v) can be obtained by using P0v & P1v :
P(u,v) = (1-u)P0v + uP1v
By replacing P0v and P1v into P(u,v):
•
Bicubic Patch
F - surface patch
• Advantages
• Boundary curves are Hermite curves
• Interior points can be controlled
• Disadvantages
• It is not easy to sense the effect of twist vector (Ferguson patch twist vector is 0)
• Cannot be used with higher order polynomials.
Triangular patches
• Used when the data points of a surface form a triangle or if a surface cannot
be modeled by rectangular patches only and may require at least one
triangular patch.
•
Triangular patches
FEATURE
TECHNOLOGY
Chapter – 6
Feature
◦ Feature - A shape and an operation to build parts
◦ Shape is a 2D sketch
◦ Sketch orientation – 3D modelling space
◦ Operation is an activity that converts a sketch into a 3D
entity
Go to Sketch View
The 2D Sketch – contd….
• Select a tool from the panel and make a sketch
• Click on scroll wheel button to exit the tool and change
the dimensions
Note: A sketch should always be a closed sketch. No 3D conversions is possible with an open sketch!
The ways to 3D
◦ Similar to holes
◦ Removal of material
◦ 5 types
◦ rectangular slot
◦ Ball end slot
◦ T slot
◦ U slot
◦ Dovetail Slot
The ways to 3D
◦ Steps to be followed
• To mirror a feature, a centreline need to
be defined.
• So first define a centreline(s) by clicking on
2 points on the required line
• Click scroll wheel button
• Select the feature, click on mirror and
select the above defined centreline
The ways to 3D
2
1
4
Tools
Working Space
Model Tree
Repeat….
Features:
1 1. The base cylinder
2 2. The circular groove
3 3. The central hole
4. The other holes
Go to Sketch View
Note: A sketch should always be a closed sketch. No 3D conversions is possible with an open sketch!
Arc Ellipse
Spline
Fillet
Circular Circular
Fillet Fillet Trim
Elliptical Elliptical
Fillet Fillet Trim
Chamfer
Chamfer
Chamfer
Trim
• To mirror a feature, a
centreline need to be
defined.
• So first define a
centreline(s) by clicking
on 2 points on the
required line
• Click scroll wheel button
3
• Select the feature, click on
mirror and select the 2
above defined centreline 5
Delete Segment
• Trimming an arc or segment between any two features
• Difference between the options in fillet and chamfer lies in trimming
Constrains
Tangent Constrain
Extrude
Revolve
Sweep
Helical Sweep
Swept Blend
Round Chamfer
Draft
Shell
Rib
1 2
THANK YOU
Contents
Assembly
1. The basics
2. Flange Coupling Example
3. Constrains Available
4. Exploded View
Drawing
5. The basics
6. Views
7. Sectional Views
8. Bill of Materials
ASSEMBLY
2
1
4
3
5
Base part
Edge of Part 2
constrained
to be
coincident
with
Edge of Part 1
2. Coincident :
3. Distance:
4. Angle Offset:
5. Parallel
5. Normal
6. Coplanar
Makes the entities to be on same plane
7. Centered
Centers pairs of conical surfaces, spherical surfaces, and toroidal surfaces.
8. Tangent
Makes one tangent to the other
Automatic :
• Creo identities the type automatically!
• Doesn’t work right always!
DRAWING
1 4
2
6
To create a View,
• Click on General View
• Click anywhere on the sheet. Drawing View dialogue
box appears
• Select the view(Top, front, left, default etc.) in View
Type Tab
• Give the scale in Scale Tab
• Selection any sections(if required). This requires
definition of a section in the part/assembly file.
• Select View Display as No Hidden
• Bill of materials requires the user to give the information in the corresponding files. Eg: The material,
heat treatment and all that jazz of a part should be specified in the corresponding part file at:
File → Prepare → Model Properties
• In the drawing sheet, create a table with 2 rows
• Type the column names in the first row
• Set the 2nd row as a repeating region. Click on
Repeating Region → Add → Click on first and last cells → Done
• Click on Switch Symbols. Double click each cell to add the variable.
o Sl. No : rpt → index
o Component Name : asm → mbr → name
o Material : asm → mbr → ptc_material → PTC_MATERIAL_NAME
o Quantity : rpt → qty
• Click on Update Table and then Switch Symbols
• To see the quantity column, Click
Repeating Region → Attributes → Click on the quantity cell → No Duplicates → Done
To add a dimension,
• Go to Annotate → Dimensions
• Click on the entity whose dimension is to be show.
If we need distance between two lines, click on 1st line, press Ctrl and click on 2nd line.
If we need length of line/ Radius of a circle, just click on them
Once dimension appears on the screen, to place it on the sheet, move the cursor to the
required location, and then click on middle mouse button
THANK YOU
• Automotive.
o Testing part design to verify correctness and completeness
o Parts for race vehicles, luxury sports cars, antique cars, etc.
o Replacement of parts that are defective or cannot be purchased
o Manufacturing structures using lightweight, high strength materials
Applications of 3D Printing 6
• Electronics.
o Embedding Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) devices embedded
inside solid materials
o Short lead time electronic products
o Polymer based, three-dimensional micro-electromechanical systems
o Microwave circuits fabricated on paper substrates
• Tool and Mold Making.
o Universal tool holders with standardized pocket sizes
o Die casting forms
o Injection molding tooling
o Tooling for prototyping of short lead time surgical devices
Applications of 3D Printing 7
• Medical Applications.
o Design and modeling methods for customized implants and medical devices
o Processes for fabrication of “smart scaffolds” and for construction of 3D biological and
tissue models
Steps in 3D Printing 8
1. Generation of 2. Converting 3D
Virtual 3D Model, 3. Slicing the 3D
Model to STL file 4. G Code file
model
or VRML file
6. Post
5.3D printing
Processing
1. Generation of Virtual 3D Model 9
• Virtual 3D Model are developed by,
• Commercial Computer-aided design (CAD) programs.
• CAD Programs are the predominant means to generate 3D models, which can
be easily extended, developed, and customized by the user, without great deal
of technical expertise.
• CAD programs hold information about the shape and size of an object.
• Mathematical Equations.
2. Converting 3D Model to standard STL or
VRML File 10
• CAD models cannot be directly interpreted by a 3D Printer.
• CAD models are converted to Standard Tessellation Language (STL) file.
• STL file is created by tessellating a 3D model with small triangle (facets) and
recording the vertices and components of the unit normal vector of the triangles in
ASCII or binary formats.
• STL files store objects
geometry.
• Lack information on object
colour.
• STL files can only used for
monochromatic printing.
• Multi colour printing
requires Virtual Reality
Modelling Language (VRML).
3. Slicing the 3D Model 11
Slicing Software
STL (or) Slices the 3D
G- Codes
VRMl Files Models in to 2D
Layers
• The information about each layer is coded in NC part program , G Code File.
• It directs the various components of 3D Printer : Print heads, Lasers, Build
platforms, and extruders to move in a defined and synchronised paths.
• Some of the important G-Codes are shown in the table.
5. 3D Printer 13
3D Printer
6. Post Processing of 3D Printed Product 14
• Post Processing of 3D printed part include
1) Cleaning:
• Removing support material.
• Powder removal ( in case of powder based fusion).
• Washing: With post processing washing machines using isopropyl alcohol .
2) Fixing:
• Filling unwanted holes or cracks in the printed object.
• Glueing and welding, when separately printed parts need to be attached together.
3) Curing:
• Heating the models after they have been printed enhances mechanical properties.
• It enhances the aesthetic characteristics.
6. Post Processing of 3D Printed Product 15
4) Surface finishing:
• To remove the unwanted material on the surface and to make look model
aesthetically nicer.
• Sanding : Layer lines, where support structure was attached to the model can be
removed by carefully sanding.
• Automated polishing replaced manual sanding in many applications for better finish.
• Vapour or Chemical smoothing: chemicals or vapours which react with outer layer
of the surface are used smoothening of the model surface.
• Acetone and Tetrahydrofuran (THF) are often used.
5) Coating and painting:
• 3D models can be printed using coloured material or sometimes can opt to colouring
during post processing.
3D Printing Techniques 16
1. Stereolithography (SL).
2. Inkjet Printing.
3. Selective Laser Sintering and Melting (SLS/M).
4. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM).
1. Stereolithography (SL).
17
• SL technique is based on the spatially controlled photo polymerization of liquid
resins using a laser.
• The basic principle of stereolithography is the selective curing of Photo Polymer
(Resin) using a UV laser.
• Resin is a light reactive thermoset materials.
► As with increasing size of STL file , major challenge is to maintain the efficiency, this is taken
care by tolerant Slicing algorithm.
► Stage 1: Preprocessing stage- Regarding optimum orientation of the part.
► Stage 2: Slicing stage- Generating slices from STL model
► The orientation of the STL model is usually user defined or obtained with respect to the
optimal build time, the surface quality, support structures required, or other criteria.
Flowchart of the tolerance slicing algorithm
Uni-direction slicing…
► For each layer construction in slicing, the method scans the STL file to extract one
facet at a time sequentially and compares the z-coordinates of its three vertices to the
z-height of the slicing (cutting) plane.
► Through setting a small value bound tolerance, the possibilities of intersection of a
facet with a cutting plane can be divided into the following cases.
(a) Model
(b) Decomposition tree
(c) Supports
Transition wall
► The key idea of this strategy is to identify the overhang layers by computing the
difference between the current layer and the previous layer.
► Then, as shown to build an overhang structure, the machine is turned 90° to start
depositing a transition, namely thin wall.
► After the deposition of the first few layers, the wall is finished and the subsequent
overhang structures can be deposited in the vertical direction again.
• Electronics.
o Embedding Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) devices
embedded inside solid materials
o Short lead time electronic products
o Polymer based, three-dimensional micro-electromechanical
systems
o Microwave circuits fabricated on paper substrates
• Tool and Mold Making.
o Universal tool holders with standardized pocket sizes
o Die casting forms
o Injection molding tooling
o Tooling for prototyping of short lead time surgical devices
Applications
• Medical Applications.
o Design and modeling
methods for customized
implants and medical
devices
o Processes for fabrication of
“smart scaffolds” and for
construction of 3D
biological and tissue models
Steps in 3D Printing
1. Generation of 2. Converting 3D
Virtual 3D Model, 3. Slicing the 3D
Model to STL file 4. G Code file
model
or VRML file
6. Post
5.3D printing
Processing
Generation o Virtual 3D Model
• The information about each layer is coded in NC part program , G Code File.
• It directs the various components of 3D Printer : Print heads, Lasers, Build
platforms, and extruders to move in a defined and synchronised paths.
• Some of the important G-Codes are shown in the table.
3D Printer
3D Printer
Post Processing
No Yes
Define the cutting
plane at Z height
Intersect Increase the Z-height and
with the Post slicing operations
cutting
reset pointer to the STL
Define the cutting such as hatching, etc
plane file
plane at Z height
No Yes
• Large STL files – higher computation time. Scan the STL file to find the
properties of the model
• Class 1 –
• Facet intersects with the cutting plane without one
vertex lies on the plane.
• Two intersecting points are calculated by the
intersection of the plane and the triangular facet.
• A line segment is generated by connecting the
intersection points and stored for constructing the
slice layer contour
Slicing Stage (Intersection possibilites)
• Class 2 –
• One vertex lies in the cutting plane while the
two remaining vertices lie in different sides of
the cutting plane.
• One vertex lies in the cutting plane while other
vertices lie in the same side of the cutting
plane.
• There will be no intersection line segments
calculated
Slicing Stage (Intersection possibilites)
• Class 3 –
• Two vertices of the facet lie in the cutting
plane
• The remaining vertex can be either above or
below the cutting plane.
• A concurrent case in a valid STL model that
results in one duplicated line segment and
either one should be ignored
Slicing Stage (Intersection possibilites)
• Class 4 –
• All three vertices lie in the cutting plane.
• The whole triangular facet lies in the cutting
plane and will not contribute any line
segments to the contour of the slice layer.
Slicing Stage
An engineering STL model ------ Resulting slices A Great Wall STL Model ------ Resulting Slices
Multidirectional Slicing
STRATEGIES
• Silhouette edges Projection strategy
• Transition wall strategy
• Centroid axis extraction
• Adaptive slicing
• Offset slicing
• Skeleton method
• Modular boundary decomposition
Multidirectional
Printing
Silhouette edges Projection
• The implementation is complicated and a). Model, b). Decomposition tree, c).
computationally expensive for complex Supports
components with inner cavities.
Transition wall
Holes hamper
implementing multiple
direction slicing algorithm
Decomposition regrouping method
Fractal-like build
style
Hybrid and continuous path
• Aerospace
• Part precision is critical for aircraft, aerospace engineers have taken to 3D
printing inspection tooling to reduce costs for low-volume parts.
Bio Mimicry
• Bio-3D Printing
• The first medical application of 3DP was in the early 2000s
for the production of custom dental prostheses.
• A polymer gel scaffold containing cells of specified origin
with the potential to print fully functional artificial organs.
• In 1988, an inkjet printer was used to deposit cells in a
pattern labeled “cyto-scribing” marking the first recorded
use of bio-printing.
• In 2001, cyto-scribe technology was used to seed
patient-sourced cells into a bladder-shaped scaffold.
• The first fully printed functional organ was a miniature
kidney in 2003.
Applications of 3DP
• In Drug delivery
• The first 3DP drug was approved for usage in 2015 for
treating epilepsy.
• Develop multiple layers with variable drug content and
shape.
• Polypills can provide more personalized drug
combinations for ease of consumption, the freedom to
combine different drugs.
3D Slicing Softwares
Ultimaker Cura
• Requires subscription
• The import of STL, OBJ, or 3MF files is
very fast, and even huge meshes are
displayed in no time.
• Settings can be saved in so-called
“Processes”.
• Helps in experimenting with different
settings, 3D printer nozzles, or different
filaments.
Octoprint
• Natively-compiled, multi-threaded,
64-bit slicing engine that enables fast
slicing speeds
• Supports FDM 3D printer.
• Automatic support generation
• Repair for lackluster models,
• Auto-layout for multiple files in a
single print job.
• Automatically separate parts in
assemblies.
Slicing in 3D Printing
Prof. G L Samuel
3D CAD Slicing
No Yes
Define the cutting
plane at Z height
Intersect Increase the Z-height and
with the Post slicing operations
cutting
reset pointer to the STL
Define the cutting such as hatching, etc
plane file
plane at Z height
No Yes
• Large STL files – higher computation time. Scan the STL file to find the
properties of the model
• Class 1 –
• Facet intersects with the cutting plane without one
vertex lies on the plane.
• Two intersecting points are calculated by the
intersection of the plane and the triangular facet.
• A line segment is generated by connecting the
intersection points and stored for constructing the
slice layer contour
Slicing Stage (Intersection possibilites)
• Class 2 –
• One vertex lies in the cutting plane while the
two remaining vertices lie in different sides of
the cutting plane.
• One vertex lies in the cutting plane while other
vertices lie in the same side of the cutting
plane.
• There will be no intersection line segments
calculated
Slicing Stage (Intersection possibilites)
• Class 3 –
• Two vertices of the facet lie in the cutting
plane
• The remaining vertex can be either above or
below the cutting plane.
• A concurrent case in a valid STL model that
results in one duplicated line segment and
either one should be ignored
Slicing Stage (Intersection possibilites)
• Class 4 –
• All three vertices lie in the cutting plane.
• The whole triangular facet lies in the cutting
plane and will not contribute any line
segments to the contour of the slice layer.
Slicing Stage
An engineering STL model ------ Resulting slices A Great Wall STL Model ------ Resulting Slices
Multidirectional Slicing
STRATEGIES
• Silhouette edges Projection strategy
• Transition wall strategy
• Centroid axis extraction
• Adaptive slicing
• Offset slicing
• Skeleton method
• Modular boundary decomposition
Multidirectional
Printing
Silhouette edges Projection
• The implementation is complicated and a). Model, b). Decomposition tree, c).
computationally expensive for complex Supports
components with inner cavities.
Transition wall
Holes hamper
implementing multiple
direction slicing algorithm
Decomposition regrouping method
Fractal-like build
style
Hybrid and continuous path
◦ Direct Solution
◦ Translates the modelling data directly from one CAD/CAM format to another in one step.
◦ Converts the data format from one native format to another.
◦ Indirect Solution
◦ Neutral database structure (neutral file).
◦ Independent of any existing or future CAD/CAM system.
Preprocessor
Native Neutral
format format
Postprocessor
Directory Entity
Combined in Section (D)
compressed
ASCII format Parameter Data
Section (P)
Terminal Section (T)
Typical Situation:
Major supplier uses I-DEAS Partner uses Unigraphics
• Transferring data between various CAD systems must embrace the complete product
description stored in its database.
• This includes the geometric data, metadata (non-graphic data), design intent data, and
application data.
1. Geometric data: Discussed earlier.
2. Design intent data: Discussed earlier
CAD Data Exchange and CAD Standards…
3. Metadata: Information (e.g. time stamps and the owner of the data) about a particular data. This
data is used to facilitate the understanding, use and management of core CAD data.
4. Application data: Any information related to the final manufacture and application of the design,
e.g. tooling, NC tool paths, tolerancing, process planning etc.
• At some instances, data can be used in part or fully whereas in others it can be used with
combination of different types.
CAD KERNELS
• CAD data formats are governed by the (solid) modelling kernels that the CAD systems were
built upon.
• A modelling kernel is a collection of classes and components comprised of mathematical functions that
perform specific modelling tasks.
• A modelling kernel may support solid modelling, generalized cellular modelling and freeform
surface/sheet modelling. It may contain functions such as model creation and editing feature modelling
support, advanced surfacing, thickening and hollowing, blending and filleting and sheet modelling.
CAD KERNELS…
• Most of the kernels also provide graphical and rendering support, including hidden-line,
wire-frame and drafting, as well as tessellation functionality and a suite of model data inquiries.
• Parasolid® modelling kernel as an example, which provides 3D digital representation
capabilities for NX™, Solid Edge, Femap and Teamcenter solutions.
• The 3D-based application interacts with Parasolid® through one of its three interfaces:
Parasolid® Kernel (PK) interface, Kernel Interface (KI) and Downward Interface (DI).
DATA INTEROPERABILITY
Inconsistencies occur when differing solid modelling kernels are used. Consequences of these
inconsistencies can mean anomalies in data. Experiences gained by some Parasolid® customers
showed that up to 20% of models imported from a different kernel contain errors that have to be
mixed.
CAD
Viewing
CAD CAD
Automation Translation
CAD Interoperability
CAD
CAD
comparison
Model
and
Repair
validation
Different Types of Data Translation/Conversion
• Different companies handle CAD conversions in different ways. When a product model received follows
the neutral data exchanging formats such as STEP (Standard for Exchange of Product data model) and
IGES (Initial Graphic Exchange Standard) (IGES), the company may opt to “re-establish” or re-create the
features based on the received data model.
• This exercise is called “re-mastering” a model. Re-mastering is necessary because currently STEP and
IGES can only describe a model’s pure geometric and topological data minus all other product-related
data such as design features and tolerances.
Different Types of Data Translation/Conversion…
• Alternatively, the company may just leave it as it is since it can be a costly exercise to
re-master the model. When a vendor proprietary data model (often containing feature
information) is received, companies may chose to re-master or send the data to other companies
for re-mastering.
• There have been different technique-oriented approaches being explored by different
companies and software developers. Use of dual solid modelling kernels is one option. Use of
so-called direct data translators is another.
Dual Kernel CAD Systems
• Unique type of CAD system with two differing kernels built into one system.
example: IronCAD®, formally an ACIS®-only system, has now been twinned with
Parasolid® to become the first dual-kernel system.
• IronCAD® uses both kernels simultaneously, switching back and forth when needed.
• The principal benefit is obviously the ability to work on models developed under either
kernel, even to the extent of combining data from either kernel into a single model.
Dual Kernel CAD Systems…
• The switch from one kernel to the other in IronCAD® only happens when problems are
encountered in one - say, complex bends - that can only be handled by the other.
• This option is efficient when ACIS® and Parasolid® are the data formats involved. It has
though proven to be extremely difficult to build such a system.
Direct Data Translators
• Provide a direct solution which entails translating the modelling data stored in a product
database directly from one CAD system format to another, usually in one step.
• There usually exists a neutral database in a direct data translator.
• The structure of the neutral database must be general, governed by the minimum required
definitions of any of the modelling data types, and be independent of any vendor format.
CAD Translation
CAD Validation
Direct Data Translators…
• Example: CADporter from Elysium™, CADporter is not CAD software for making models,
but rather a CAD file reader.
• This product can read several different formats of CAD files from various vendors.
• However, as the CAD model gets more complicated the chances that the translation breaks
down increase.
• When this happens, the model needs to be simplified or re-modelled.
Common/Neutral Translators
• The true type of common translator converts a proprietary CAD data format into a neutral data
format and vice versa, and this neutral data is made available to the users.
• This neutral data format may be of an international or industry accepted data format or a
proprietary data format.
• Popular industry standards:
1. DXF (Drawing eXchange Format) (DXF, 2007)
2. PDES (Product Data Exchange Specification) (PDES, 2007)
3. IGES (Initial Graphic Exchange Standard) (IGES, 2007)
4. STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data) (ISO 10303-1, 1994)
5. XML (Extensible Markup Language) (XML, 2007)
6. 3DXML (3D Extensible Markup Language) (3DXML, 2007)
Other formats
DXF
• It is the AutoCAD®’s CAD data file format, developed by Autodesk® as their solution for
enabling data interoperability between AutoCAD® and other programs.
• It provides an exact representation of the data in the AutoCAD® native file format, DWG
(Drawing), whose specifications have never been published.
DXF…
• This format has been the very first of the data transfer formats used in CAD. DXF is
primarily a 2D-based data format.
• As AutoCAD® becomes more powerful and supports more complex object types,
DXF has become less useful.
• This is because certain object types, including ACIS® solids and regions, cannot be easily
documented using DXF files.
IGES
• It is still one of the viable methods of transferring CAD data. The file format defined by this
Specification treats the product definition as a file of entities.
• Each entity is represented in an application-independent format, to and from which the native
representation of a specific CAD/CAM system can be mapped.
• The entity representations provided in this Specification include forms common to the
CAD/CAM systems currently available and forms which support the system technologies
currently emerging.
IGES…
• Entities are categorized as geometry and non-geometry. Geometry entities represent the
definition of a physical shape. They include points, curves, surfaces, solids and relations (collections
of similarly structured entities).
• Non-geometry entities typically serve to enrich the model by providing:
a). a viewing perspective in which a planar drawing may be composed.
b). an annotation and dimensioning appropriate to the drawing.
• Non-geometry entities further serve to provide specific attributes or characteristics for individual or
groups of entities.
IGES…
• An IGES file consists of 5 sections, Start, Global, Directory Entry, Parameter Data, and
Terminate. It may include any number of entities of any type as required to represent a product.
• Each entity occurrence consists of a directory entry and a parameter data entry. The directory
entry provides an index and includes descriptive attributes about the data. The parameter data
provides the specific entity definition.
IGES…
• IGES provides for groupings whose definitions will be found in a file other than the one in which they are
used. Attributes for the geometric entity are defined in the directory segment.
• IGES is a popular method of data transfer, it lacks a means of transferring solid objects. This leads to users
spending more time to build the solid object on the receiving end.
PDES
• PDES was designed to completely define a product for all applications over its expected life
cycle.
• Product data include geometry, topology, tolerances, relationships, attributes, and features
necessary to completely define a part or assembly of parts for the purpose of design, analysis,
manufacture, test, inspection and product support.
• PDES is designed to be informationally complete for all downstream applications and to be
directly interpretable by these applications.
PDES…
• The main types of data which are used in PDES to describe a product include:
Administrative and Control data
Geometry such as points, curves and surfaces
Topology such as vertices, loops and faces
Tolerances
Form Features
Attributes such as surface finish
Material Properties
Part Assemblies
STEP
• The development of PDES under the guidance of the IGES organization and in close
collaboration with the International Organization for Standardization, led to the birth of
STEP.
• STEP is intended to support data exchange, data sharing and data archiving. For data
exchange, STEP defines the form of the product data that is to be transferred between a pair of
applications.
• STEP supports data sharing by providing access of and operation on a single copy of the same
product data by more than one application, potentially simultaneously.
• As in product data sharing, the architectural elements of STEP may be used to support the
development of the archived product data itself.
STEP…
• Another primary concept contributing to the STEP architecture is that the content of the standard
is to be completely driven by industrial requirements.
• This, in combination with the concept that the re-use of data specifications is the basis for
standards, led to developing two distinct types of data specifications.
a). first type - reusable, context-independent specifications - are the building blocks of the
standard.
b). The second type - application-context-dependent specifications (application protocols).
• This combination enables avoiding unnecessary duplication of data specifications between
application protocols.
Components of STEP
The architectural components of STEP are reflected in the decomposition of the standard
into several series of parts.
Components of STEP…
Description Methods
• Description methods are common mechanisms for specifying the data constructs of STEP.
They include the formal data specification language developed for STEP, known as
EXPRESS.
• A main feature of EXPRESS is the possibility to formally validate a population of data
types, i.e. to check for all the structural and algorithmic rules.
Components of STEP…
Implementation Methods
• Implementation methods are standard implementation techniques for the information
structures specified by the only STEP data specifications intended for implementation,
application protocols.
• Each STEP implementation method defines the way in which the data constructs specified
using STEP description methods are mapped to that implementation method.
Components of STEP…
Data Specifications
• There are four part series of data specifications in the STEP documentation structure, though
conceptually there are three primary types of data specifications: integrated resources,
application protocols, and application interpreted constructs.
• Integrated application resources represent concepts related to a particular application context
that supports common requirements of many other product data applications.
example: drawing sheet revision, drawing revision, and dimension callout. These constructs
may be used by any application that includes drawings.
• Application protocols are the implementable data specifications of STEP. APs include an
EXPRESS information model that satisfies the specific product data needs of a given application
context.
Components of STEP…
Conformance Testing
• Conformance testing is covered by two series of 10303 parts: conformance testing
methodology and framework, and abstract test suites.
• The conformance testing methodology and framework series provide an explicit framework for
conformance and other types of testing as an integral part of the standard. This methodology
describes how testing of implementations of various STEP parts is accomplished.
• An abstract test suite contains the set of abstract test cases necessary for conformance testing of
an implementation of a STEP application protocol. Each abstract test case specifies input data
to be provided to the implementation under test, along with information on how to assess the
capabilities of the implementation.
IGES VS STEP
Data Quality
• Product data quality can be addressed intrinsically and extrinsically. The intrinsic aspect
of product data quality refers to the fundamental issues of product data modelling.
• Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG) defines product data quality in the following
Way:
Quality Product Model Data is constructed accurately, completely representing the
geometric model (math data), and accurately and completely representing all additional
information in a way that can be shared and used by multiple users and managed with a
minimum effort.
• Design data, when converted from one type to the other, may also suffer from quality
problems. This is the extrinsic aspect of product data quality. These problems are often
related to topological errors, i.e., aggregate errors, such as zero-volume parts, duplicate or
missing parts, inconsistent surface orientation, etc., and geometric errors, i.e., numerical
imprecision errors, such as cracks or overlaps of geometry.