BARCH 2ND YEAR

GLASS
CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS-IV

GROUP MEMBERS -
-ARYAN VAISHYA
-RACHIT AGARWAL
-ARYAN
-ASHISH RAJ
-RITU SINGH
-PRATIKSHA PALIWAL
-APOORVA BHATNAGAR
-AROOBA SALMAN
-RAHUL CHAUHAN
-RAHUL KUMAR
-PRIYANSH AGRAWAL
-ANAS
 CONTENT-

1. Transparent Glass
2. Translucent Glass
3. Opaque Glass
4. Toughened Glass
5. Laminated Glass
6. Glass Brick

1.Transparent Glass
Glass is a transparent material which means it lets light pass through it and allow

and have a clear view of the objects on the other side or allowing light to pass

through so that objects behind can be distinctly seen.

2
 ● Glass has been a fascinating material to humankind since it was first made in

about 3500BC. At first thought to possess magical properties, glass has

come a long way. It is one of the most versatile and oldest materials in the
building industry. From its humble beginnings as a window pane in luxury
houses of Pompeii to sophisticated structural members in new age buildings,
its role in architecture has evolved over the years.

Properties
The main property of transparent glass is transparency which allows the vision of the outside
world through it. The transparency of glass can either be from both sides or from one side only.

● it is brittle in nature
● It is capable of being worked in many ways. It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
● It is 100% recyclable, cullets (Scraps of broken or waste glass gathered for re-melting)
are used as raw materials in glass manufacture, as aggregates in concrete construction etc.
● It is the fraction of incident solar radiation that actually enters a building through
theentire window assembly as heat gain.

Applications:
● An extra clear glass is extensively used in applications where edges of the glass
are visible such as shower frames, table tops, office desks, shop counters, etc.

● It is used in interior applications, where cleaR vision is desired such as doors,

windows, glass partitions, wall cladding, handrails, balustrades, stairs, etc.

3
 ● Extra clear glass is used in laminated glass, which has more thickness, as float
glass will produce dark green tint, which is undesirable.
● It is used to make glass furniture, which have visible edges and are of more
thickness such as glass tables, showcases, display cabinets, etc.
● Nowadays, extra clear glass after undergoing tempering process is used in the
manufacturing of sky – decks and houses on hanging cliffs, which are popular
tourist attraction centre.

Disadvantages
1. Cost Manufacturing of glass is a highly energy consuming process due to
high temperatures required for processing the raw materials.
2. enhances the cost of security and privacy because of the transparency but it
is costly.
3. Brittle. Glass can breaks into pieces or which can be easily reduced to
powder form.
4. The Glass is less impact resistant, so the capability of the glass to withstand
an immediately applied load is very poor. It will immediately break.
5. Etching on Glass surface: The Glass is affected by external hydrofluoric
acid, and hence etching appears occasionally on the glass surface.

1. Corrosion due to alkali solution: The Glass is affected by alkalis ions. Alkali
solution dissolves a glass surface, and if the supply of alkali is more, this
type of corrosion takes place at a uniform rate.

4
Glass Manufacturing Process
It consists of the following steps:

Stage 1- Melting & Refining:

Fine grained ingredients closely controlled for quality, are mixed to make a
batch, which flows into the furnace, which is heated up to 1500 degree
Celsius. This temperature is the melting point of glass.

The raw materials that float glass is made up of are:

SiO2 – Silica Sand
Na2O – Sodium Oxide from Soda Ash
MgO – Dolomite
Al2O3 – Feldspar

The above raw materials primarily mixed in batch helps to make clear glass. If
certain metal oxides are mixed to this batch they impart colors to the glass giving
it a body tint.
For e.g.
NiO & CoO – to give grey tinted glasses (Oxides of Nickel & Cobalt)
SeO – to give Bronze tinted glasses (oxide of Selenium)
Fe2O3 – To give Green tinted glasses (oxides of iron which at times is also
present as impurity in Silica Sand)
CoO – To give blue tinted glass (oxides of Cobalt)

Stage 2 – Float Bath:

5
Glass from the furnace gently flows over the refractory spout on to the mirror-like
surface of molten tin, starting at 1100 deg Celsius and leaving the float bath as
solid ribbon at 600 deg Celsius.

Stage 3 – Coating (for making reflective glasses):

Coatings that make profound changes in optical properties can be applied by

advanced high temperature technology to the cooling ribbon of glass. Online
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is the most significant advance in the float
process since it was invented. CVD can be used to lay down a variety of
coatings, a few microns thick, for reflect visible and infra-red radiance for
instance. Multiple coatings can be deposited in the few seconds available as the
glass flows beneath the coater (e.g. Sunergy)

Market survey
● Price of transparent glass depends upon the thickness of the glass
being purchased.
● The thickness varies From 4MM to 10MM mainly.
Top Glass Manufacturing Companies in India: Asahi India Glass Ltd,
Borosil Renewables Ltd, La Opala RG Ltd.

Glass Thickness Rate per sqft

4MM 35Rs.

6MM 50Rs.

8MM 60-65 Rs.

10MM 100-120Rs.

6
2. Translucent Glass
A substance is called translucent if it allows partial transmission. The light rays get
scattered in the interior of such objects. Consequently, the light rays emerge out
at random directions. If any object is seen through a translucent material, the
image appears fuzzy or blurred.

Characteristics

● It is not clear in appearance but rather stained or frosted

● Seeing through translucent glass is hard
● It only allows half of the light to pass through
● It does not follow the law of refraction

7
● Images are not formed clearly. They are only partially formed

Stage 4 – Annealing:
Despite the tranquillity with which the glass is formed, considerable
stresses are developed in the ribbon as the glass cools. The glass is made

to move t Applications
hrough the annealing lehr where such internal stresses are removed, as th
To achieve visual privacy while still allowing light to pass through.
● Decorative patterns may be created on plain glass by using wax .
● Given the benefits of privacy and light control that this glass provides, it
makes for the best companion for your bedroom’s windows.
● It is also used in various places like Attics ,home libraries, kitchen gardens and
bathrooms.
● Translucent glass has uses for both office and home environment.
● It plays a vital role in the interiors as Shower screens , Partitions , Cabinets
and shelves and Bathroom doors and windows.

8
 Manufacturing

● This style of glass has a frosted appearance and is produced by sandblasting

or acid-etching clear sheet glass.
● By creating a marked surface on one side of the pane, the light is scattered
and diffused. The effect is that it blurs images while still allowing light to
pass through. The frosted glass effect can also be achieved with the
application of vinyl film.
● It undergoes a process of rapid heating and cooling to make it a durable
glass. The ingredients include a wallpaper paste, a white powder pigment
of payment and a sort of PVA glue which is acid free. After the addition of
water, all the items are mixed vigorously, apart from the glue which is added
later. After the mixture settles down, the glue is added to the glass mixture
so that it applies onto the glass perfectly.
The final touches are put using a stencil and a painter’s type. It is left to dry after
which the glass is ready to use.

Type of Translucent Glass

1) Sandblasted

2) Satin Glass
3) Acid Etched Glass

9
 ● 1) Sandblasted Glass: It is made by spraying and at high velocities

over the surface of the glass .This gives the glass a translucent
surface ,which is usually rougher than that obtained by etching.

● 2) Satin Glass: It is produced by the sandblasting or acid etching of

clear sheet glass. It has the effect of rendering the glass translucent
by scattering of light during transmission.

3) Acid Etched Glass: is produced by acid etching the glass to form an

obscure and smooth surface. This glass admits light while providing
softening and vision control.

Market Survey

S.NO. TYPE THICKNESS PRICE

1 Frosted 2mm Rs.15/ sq. inch

glass
2 Frosted 5mm Rs.40/ sq. ft
glass
3 Sandblaste 5mm Rs.200/sq. ft
d frosted
glass
4 Frosted 10mm Rs.60/ sq. ft
glass

10
 5 Decorative 10mm Rs.180/ sq. ft
translucent
glass
6 Decorative 18mm Rs.2000/sq. m
translucent
glass

OPAQUE GLASS
Opaque glass is produced by the sandblasting or acid etching of clear
sheet glass. This creates a pitted surface on one side of the glass pane
and has the effect of rendering the glass translucent by scattering the light
which passes through, thus blurring images while still transmitting light.

11
In technical terms, frosted glass is a clear sheet of glass that is turned
opaque through the process of sandblasting or acid etching. Because of
light scattering during transmission, the glass comes out as translucent,
obscuring visibility even as it transmits light.

This effect of frosting can also be achieved by applying a film of vinyl that
acts as a stencil on the surface of the glass or through canned frosted
glass sprays.

12
Different kinds of frostings are available to suit
different purposes

1. Permanent frosting, achieved by painting the glass surface with white

lead and oil.

2. Temporary frosting where a piece of marble is first dipped into glass

cutter’s sharp sand, is subsequently moistened with water, and then rubbed
over the glass.

3. Ultra-fine frosting, achieved by applying a warm mixture of Epsom Salt

and Gum Arabic.

A Dive into History

It was the Victorians who originally came up with the process of
acid-etching or ‘French-embossing’ glass in delicate hues of white and
other diffused shades to decorate windows and doors. After all, the
Victorian love for opulence is well known. The added benefit of privacy
made it an attractive interior décor option. Thanks to them, the world was
introduced to an aesthetic yet functional product.

Advantage of Opaque glass :-

13
● Its translucent surface provides a great degree of privacy. At the same
time, it allows light transmission. This eliminates the need for artificial
lights

● It is a great alternative to curtains or blinds. For instance, many people

find curtains in bathrooms a hassle to maintain, and some don’t prefer
them simply for the love of better aesthetics. In such cases, using
frosted glass is a better option.

● Glass is available in a plethora of different colours and designs. Hence,

it is not only used for its functionality but also for its aesthetic appeal.

● It can be easily cleaned as it is highly resistant to scratches and is

low-maintenance.

● It provides a pleasant and comforting environment as the translucent

surface of the glass diffuses light uniformly, reducing the glare of light.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The frosted glass production requires a thorough cleaning of the glass surface
before beginning the frosted glass process.
Frosted glass frosting formula is mixed with wallpaper paste, white powder paint
pigment, water, and acid free PVA glue. All ingredients are mixed well, except the

14
glue until having a pudding texture for the frosted glass project. Once this texture
is achieved, a drop of glue is added so that the mixture will adhere to the glass.
The stencil should be placed on the glass, using painters tape to secure it to the
glass surface. The frosted glass mixture is applied using a stiff brush over the
stencil. This is continued until all of the areas of the glass that we want to turn
into frosted glass have been coated.

Applications:

● To achieve visual privacy while still allowing light to pass through.

● Decorative patterns may be created on plain glass by using wax or other
inhibitors to retain transparent areas.

● Frosted glass in light bulbs is used for evenly distributing the light from
the bulb's filament across its surface area.
● To distribute light uniformly in a photographic contact printer.
● To create an airtight seal in tubes.

Toughened Glass
● Tempered or toughened glass is a type of safety glass processed by
controlled thermal or chemical treatments to increase its strength
compared with normal glass.

15
 ● These types of glasses is six times as hard to break as ordinary glass
panes.
● Tempering puts the outer surfaces into compression and the interior
into tension. Such stresses cause the glass, when broken, to shatter
into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards
as ordinary annealed glass does. The granular chunks are less likely
to cause injury.
● Tempered glass is used for its safety and strength in a variety of
applications, including passenger vehicle windows, shower doors,
aquariums, architectural glass doors and tables, refrigerator trays,
mobile phone protectors, bulletproof glass components, diving
masks, and plates and cookware.

Manufacturing
There are mainly two ways in which glass can be toughened
Tempering glass with heat and cold
● Most toughened glass or safety glass is made by tempering, a process in
which ordinary glass is heated up to a temperature of around 620° for
some time following abrupt cooling using jets of cold air. As a result of
this process, the outside of the glass is forced into compression while
the inside remains free to float for some time (creating tension on the
inside). The higher the thermal expansion of the glass and the lower its
thermal conductivity, the higher will be the level of residue stresses, and
as a result of this, the stronger will be the resulting glass.

16
Tempering glass with chemical reactions

● It involves forcing a surface layer of glass at least 0.1 mm thick into

compression by ion exchange of the sodium ions in the glass surface
with potassium ions (which are 30% larger), by immersion of the glass
into a bath of molten potassium nitrate. Chemical toughening results in
increased toughness compared with thermal tempering and can be
applied to glass objects of complex shapes.

Properties

● It is five times stronger than regular glass of the same size and thickness,
which means it can withstand a much harder hit without breaking and is less
prone to shattering. Toughened glass is difficult to break and even if it breaks,
it will shatter into small pieces which are blunt and do not cause fatal injuries.
Thus it is widely used as safety glass
● Tempered glass has high resistance to electric and thermal breakage.
● Toughened glass has almost twice the soundproofing abilities of standard
glass.
● Toughened glass is more durable and less prone to breakage than standard
glass.
● Toughened glass is a material that is extremely flexible and versatile, which
means that you can use as it per your needs and requirements.

17
● Toughened glass cannot be cut or re-sized. Thus before the process of
tempering, the glass should be cut to the desired size.

Application

● Toughened glass is used where strength, thermal resistance, and safety are
important considerations. For example, Passenger vehicles. Since they are
stored outdoors, they are subject to constant heating and cooling as well as
dramatic temperature changes throughout the year.

● Toughened glass is also used in buildings as doorways, stairways, big windows

and for unframed assemblies (such as frameless glass doors).

Types of toughened glass

● Clear toughened glass

● Laminated toughened glass
● Reflective toughened glass
● Tinted toughened glass
● Frosted toughened glass

18
 Advantages
● Toughened glass is 6 times stronger than normal float glass.
● Toughened glass can withstand massive differences in temperature.
● Toughened glass is difficult to break.
● Toughened glass is highly resistance to electric and thermal shock.
● It is highly durable.

Disadvantages

● Re-sizing, re-cutting and re-working on a toughened glass is not possible

Tempered glass must be cut to size or pressed to shape before tempering.
Polishing the edges or drilling holes in the glass is carried out before the
tempering process starts. Because of the balanced stresses in the glass,
damage to any portion will eventually result in the glass shattering into
thumbnail-sized pieces.
● Although the strength of tempered glass is stronger than ordinary glass,
tempered glass has the possibility of self-explosion (self-rupture) when the
temperature difference changes greatly.
● Using tempered glass can pose a security risk in some situations because of
the tendency of the glass to shatter completely upon hard impact rather than
leaving shards in the window frame.

19
● The surface of tempered glass does exhibit surface waves caused by contact
with the rollers. This waviness is a significant problem in manufacturing of
thin film solar cells.
●

Thickness Min Price Max Price

10.0 mm Rs 90/Square Feet Rs 600/Square Feet

12.0 mm Rs 100/Square Feet Rs 450/Square Feet

14.0 mm Rs 200/Square Feet Rs 245/Square Feet

16.0 mm Rs 190/Square Feet Rs 245/Square Feet

●
●

LAMINATED GLASS
● Laminated glass (sometimes called toughened laminated glass) comprises
two or more layers of glass sandwiched together with tear-resistant Plastic
film interlayers (usually polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or ethylene-vinyl acetate
(EVA).
● The aim is to create a glass composite which can absorb the energy of a
person or object that strikes it, preventing penetration of the pane and
potential injuries that might result from flying fragments of broken glass.
● An additional benefit of laminated glass is that most ultraviolet radiation
can be blocked by the PVB or EVA interlayer. Thermoset EVA layers can
block up to 99.9% of UV rays.

20
 ●

APPLICATIONS
● Laminated glass can be used for safety or security reasons. It is used for
architectural applications where for example, the glass could fall from a
heights and shatter, and also for roof, balcony and terrace balustrading , as
well as for skylights .
● It can also be used as a decorative material due to the wide variety of
interlayers available, e.g coloured, textured, meshed or patterned. It is
particularly useful for windows and shopfronts in areas prone to hurricanes.
● The laminated glass is used as cover, facades, balconies, guardrail, doors,
windows, partitions, showcase, floorings and others.
● The laminated glass is used as cover, facades, balconies, guardrail, doors,
windows, partitions, showcase, floorings and others.

MANUFACTURES

21
 ● Bonding together the alternating layers of, typically annealed glass,
and plastic film is usually achieved through the use of heat and
pressure created by an autoclave.
● Manufacture can involve using heat-strengthened glass, which, when
it breaks, does so into large
pieces held in the frame by the PVB inter- layer.
Or it can be made from tempered glass, where the
sheet may fall out of the frame but will mostly stay together due to the
interlayer.
● Digital printing for special effects can be created by printing on to the
glass prior to laminating or printing onto the interlayer.

● The Disadvantages of Laminated Glass

● Poor Installation Can Lead To Many Problems

● The number one way that you can not reap any of the benefits of
laminated glass is to install it incorrectly.
● For instance, to take full advantage of the sound-dampening
properties of laminated glass, it must be installed correctly with the
exact right fit and with sufficient airspace between the two panes.
● If this is done incorrectly, it may not work as needed. You may need
to consult a professional for this job if you are not one yourself.

The Laminated Glass common have Three types:

22
 ● EVA Laminated Glass,
● PVB laminated glass and
● SGP Laminated Glass.

● Polyvinyl butyral (or PVB) is a resin mostly used for applications that require strong
binding, optical clarity, adhesion to many surfaces, toughness and flexibility. It is
prepared from polyvinyl alcohol by reaction with butyraldehyde. The major application is
laminated safety glass for automobile windshields.[1] Trade names for PVB-films include
KB PVB, Saflex, GlasNovations, Butacite, WINLITE, S-Lec, Trosifol and EVERLAM.
PVB is also available as 3D printer filament that is stronger and more heat resistant than
polylactic acid (PLA).

● SGP is called the ionic interlayer film (SentryGlas Plus), which is a high-performance
interlayer developed by DuPont. Its high performance is:
Excellent mechanical properties and high strength. At the same thickness, the SGP
interlayer bearing capacity is twice that of PVB; under the same load and thickness, the
bending deflection of SGP laminated glass is one quarter of PVB;

● EVA ‘s cost performance is higher. Compared with PVB and SGP, EVA has better fluidity,
lower melting temperature and can be processed at temperatures up to 110 °C.
EVA has a good fluidity of the film layer, and can be subjected to a process such as wire
drawing and engraving in the film layer to produce a beautiful decorative glass with a pattern
and a pattern. EVA has good water resistance, but its UV resistance is weak. It is easy to
yellow and black in long-term sun exposure, so it is mainly used for indoor partitions

GLASS BRICK

23
● Glass bricks also known as glass block are hollow translucent architectural
item manufactured from glass.
● Glass bricks are available in many different style ,texture ,size ,form and

colour .
● It is provide visual obscuration while admitting light and serve as a decorative
addition to an architectural structure .

MANUFACTURING OF GLASS BRICK -

STEP 1-
● Four Ingredients required –limestone,sand,soda ash and cullet.
● Heat up in furnance at 2700° C.
● Ingreduents mixed together and molten, they will be poured into moulds .
● Pattern will be imprinted.

24
 STEP 2
● Cooled down from 1800°C to 1100°C. This will help them to keep their
new shape.
● Transported into sealing machine that joins the block together to make
complete block.
● To ensure glass temperature kept constant, they will need to pass through
several burner.

STEP 3
● Block will continue to be reheated Untill the edge start melting.
● In squeeze station where the machine force bottom half and top half of the
block .
● Molten edges create a single block.
● The block will now cooled down at 175°C.

STEP 4
● A special type of Liquid binder is going to be used in order to bind
mortar on it sirface.
● A product code will be applied by special inkjet printer.
● The seal between two halves and the strength of sidesurface Is going
to be checked by worker.

25
 ● When the inspection is over, the glass blocks will be packaged using
cardboard boxes and loaded into trucks so they can be transported to
the clients who ordered them.

Construction method
Glass wall blocks are fixed together to form complete walls by several
methods – the most common method of construction is to bed the blocks
together in a Portland cement-based mortar with reinforcing rods of steel
placed within the mortar as recommended by the project architect or block
manufacturer.

Types of glass brick

Other methods of construction include several proprietary systems whereby
the mortar is replaced by timber or PVC extrusions.
● 1.WAVY GLASS BLOCK WINDOWS:
● The most popular type for home windows is commonly used as basement
home windows.
● The wavy pattern allows light to flow but still provides privacy.

● 2.CLARITY GLASS BLOCKS WINDOW:

● This glass does not provide privacy, such glass blocks home windows are
commonly used for kitchen windows.
● Consequently, provide a maximum amount of light.

26
 ● 3.ICE GLASS BLOCKS WINDOW:
● These are popularly used as toilet windows.
● This appears due to the frosted pattern that also considers gentle, but
not visibility.
● 4.DIAMOND GLASS BLOCKS WINDOWS:
● Unlike wavy and ice blocks, the diamond glass blocks are clean for

contact because the pattern is inside the blocks.

Uses Of Glass Brick

● They are used in interior decoration for all commercial and

residential buildings.
● Glass blocks wall panels can also be used in bathrooms that accept
lightand beauty of the bathroom.
● These blocks can be used for wall cladding work on the exterior of
commercial buildings that enhance the beauty of the building.
● These blocks can be used to add light and illusion to space in a
walk-in shower.

Advantages of Glass Brick

● Glass blocks work well as windows as they give light

● Glass blocks permits natural gentle to cross.

27
 ● It provides privacy.
● Is available in a wide range of options.
● Also, provides safety.
● It provides tolerance.
● It provides good thermal and sound insulation.
● They are extremely resistant.

Disadvantages Of Glass Brick

1. Glass manufacturing is a high energy consumption process due to the

high temperatures required for processing raw materials.
2. There is corrosion due to alkali solution.
3. They are brittle.
4. Unsafe for earthquake-prone areas.

GLASS Rate

RESIN LAMINATED GLASS ₹350/SQ FEET (6 TO 10mm)

RED PVB LAMINATED GLASS ₹550/SQ FEET(13,14mm)

PVB LAMINATED GLASS ₹150-440/SQ FEET(AS PER

REQUIREMENT)

EVA LAMINATED GLASS ₹156/SQ FEET

28
 QUESTIONS-
1.Does laminate glass contribute to fire spread?
2.Glass is known to be transparent material. But ground glass is
opaque and white in colour. Why?
3.How strong is glass block?
4.How long does glass need to cool?
5.Can I use glass block as pavers?
6.You are given a transparent glass sheet. Suggest any two ways to
make it translucent without breaking it.
7.In the laminate whitepaper it shows the monolithic glass smashing.
What could residents do to ensure fire safety on their balcony?
8.Can you cut glass after it has been toughened?
9.What kind of glass is laminated and toughened?
10.Which is harder to break, toughened or annealed glass?
11.How is toughened glass used in everyday life?

29
30
31
e glass is cooled gradually, to make the glass more prone to cutting.

Stage 5 – Inspection:
To ensure the highest quality, glass manufacturers carry out inspection at
every stage. Occasionally a bubble that is not removed during refining, a
sand grain that refuses to melt or a tremor in the tin puts ripples in the glass
ribbon. Automated online inspection does two things. It reveals process
faults upstream that can be corrected. And it enables computers
downstream to steer round the flaws. Inspection technology now allows
100 million inspections per second to be made across the ribbon, locating
flaws the unaided eye would be unable to see.

Stage 6 – Cutting to Order:

The entire process of glass making is finally complete when diamond steels
trim off selvedge – stressed edges- and cut ribbon to size dictated by the
computer. Glass is finally sold only in squ

32