Chapter 9

William Ranney’s 1853 painting Advice
on the Prairie is an idealistic image of a

family travelling west in the mid-1800s.
1832 Chief Black

Hawk leads Sauk
1825 The Erie 1830 Joseph rebellion. 1836 Martin
Canal connects 1828 Andrew Smith establishes Van Buren
the East to the Jackson is the Mormon 1832 Andrew is elected
West. elected president. Church. Jackson is reelected. president.
USA 1825 1830 1835

WORLD
1828 Uruguay 1830 Revolutions 1833 Santa 1835 Ferdinand I

becomes an inde- occur in Belgium, Anna is elected becomes emperor
pendent republic. France, and Poland. president of of Austria.
Mexico.
272 CHAPTER 9
INTERACT
WITH HI STO RY
In the 1820s and 1830s the country

was energized by new inventions and
new business. Now it is 1840, and an
economic downturn dampens the
hopes of workers and business owners
alike. Newspaper ads urge Americans
to pack up and move west. But many
people and nations already inhabit
the North American West. Mexico
owns a large part of the area, and
Native Americans have been living
there for centuries.
What are the

ways that a
nation increases
its territory?
Examine the Issues
• What are some reasons countries
expand their borders?
• What might be benefits or draw-
backs of expansion?
RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM

Visit the Chapter 9 links for more information
about Expanding Markets and Moving West.
1837
John Deere 1841 John 1848 Gold is discov-
invents Tyler becomes ered in California.
the president when 1844 James K.
steel President Polk is elected 1848 Zachary Taylor
plow. William Henry president. is elected president.
Harrison dies.
1840 1845 1850

1840 Benito
1837 1847 U.S. wins 1848 Marx and
Juárez begins
Constitutional Mexican-American Engels issue the
liberal reform
revolts occur War. Communist
movement in
in Lower and Manifesto.
Mexico.
Upper Canada.
Expanding Markets and Moving West 273

The Market Revolution
MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW Terms & Names
Technological changes The linking of markets •Samuel F. B. •entrepreneur

created greater interaction continues today, as new Morse •telegraph
and more economic diversity technologies are opening the •specialization •John Deere
among the regions of the United States to globalized •market revolution •Cyrus McCormick
nation. trade. •capitalism
One American's Story
In 1837, painter and scientist Samuel F. B. Morse, with Leonard Gale, built an
electromagnetic telegraph. Morse’s first model could send signals ten miles
through copper wire. Morse asked Congress to fund an experimental
telegraphic communication that would travel for 100 miles.
A PERSONAL VOICE SAMUEL F. B. MORSE

“ This mode of instantaneous communication must inevitably
become an instrument of immense power, to be wielded for
good or for evil. . . . Let the sole right of using the Telegraph
belong, in the first place, to the Government, who should
grant . . . the right to lay down a communication between any
two points for the purpose of transmitting intelligence.”
—quoted in Samuel F. B. Morse: His Letters and Journals
Congress granted Morse $30,000 to build a 40-mile tele-

graph line between Baltimore and Washington, D.C. In 1844,
Morse tapped out in code the words “What hath God wrought?”
The message sped from Washington, D.C., over a metal wire in less ▼
than a second. As new communication links began to put people into
Samuel Morse
instant communication with one another, new transportation links carried goods
was a painter
and people across vast regions.
before he became
famous as an
inventor.
U.S. Markets Expand

In the early 19th century, rural American workers produced their own goods or
traded with neighbors to meet almost all of their needs. Farm families were self-
sufficient—they grew crops and raised animals for food and made their own
clothing, candles, and soap. At local markets, farmers sold wood, eggs, or butter
for cash, which they used to purchase the coffee, tea, sugar, or horseshoes they
couldn’t produce themselves.
By midcentury, however, the United States had become more industrialized,
especially in the Northeast, where the rise of textile mills and the factory system
changed the lives of workers and consumers. Now, workers spent their earnings
274 CHAPTER 9
on goods produced by other workers. Farmers began to shift
from self-sufficiency to specialization, raising one or two
cash crops that they could sell at home or abroad. ECONOMIC
These developments led to a market revolution, in
which people bought and sold goods rather than making
them for their own use. The market revolution created a GOODYEAR AS
striking change in the U.S. economy and in the daily lives ENTREPRENEUR
of Americans. In these decades, goods and services multi- One entrepreneur who developed
plied while incomes rose. In fact, in the 1840s, the nation- an industry still vital today was
al economy grew more than it had in the previous 40 years. Charles Goodyear (1800–1860).
Goodyear took a big risk that
THE ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT The quickening pace of paid off for the American public—
U.S. economic growth depended on capitalism, the eco- but left him penniless.
nomic system in which private businesses and individuals While he was exploring the
problem of how to keep rubber
control the means of production—such as factories,
elastic and waterproof under
machines, and land—and use them to earn profits. For extreme temperatures, Goodyear
example, in 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell and other Boston purchased the rights of an inven-
merchants had put up $400,000 to form the Boston tor who had mixed rubber with
Manufacturing Company, which produced textiles. Other sulfur. In 1839, Goodyear discov-
ered that when heated, the mix-
businesspeople supplied their own funds to create capital—
ture toughened into a durable
the money, property, machines, and factories that fueled elastic. In 1844, he received a
America’s expanding economy. patent for the process, named
These investors, called entrepreneurs from a French vulcanization after Vulcan, the
word that means “to undertake,” risked their own money in mythological god of fire.
Unfortunately, Goodyear earned
new industries. They risked losing their investment, but
only scant monetary reward for
MAIN IDEA they also stood to earn huge profits if they succeeded. his discovery, which others stole
Analyzing
Alexander Mackay, a Scottish journalist who lived in and used. The inventor was deep
Causes Canada and traveled in the United States, applauded the in debt when he died in 1860.
A What led to entrepreneurs’ competitive spirit. A
the rise of
capitalism?
A PERSONAL VOICE ALEXANDER MACKAY
I. M. Singer’s foot-treadle sewing machine
“ America is a country in which fortunes have was patented in 1851 and soon dominated
yet to be made. . . . All cannot be made wealthy, the industry.
but all have a chance of securing a prize. This ▼
stimulates to the race, and hence the eagerness
of the competition.”
—quoted in The Western World
NEW INVENTIONS Inventor-entrepreneurs began

to develop goods to make life more comfortable
for more people. For example, Charles Goodyear
developed vulcanized rubber in 1839. Unlike
untreated India rubber, the new product didn’t
freeze in cold weather or melt in hot weather.
People first used the product to protect their boots,
but, in the early 1900s, it became indispensable in
the manufacturing of automobile tires.
A natural place for the growth of industrial-
ization was in producing clothing, a process great-
ly aided by the invention of the sewing machine.
Patented by Elias Howe in 1846, the sewing
machine found its first use in shoe factories.
Homemakers appreciated I. M. Singer’s addition
of the foot treadle, which drastically reduced the
time it took to sew garments. More importantly,
the foot-treadle sewing machine led to the factory production of clothing. When
clothing prices tumbled by more than 75 percent, increasing numbers of working
people could afford to buy store-bought clothes.
IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY While entrepreneurial activity boosted
America’s industrial output, American agriculture continued to flourish. Workers
in industrial cities needed food. To meet this demand, American farmers began to
use mechanized farm equipment produced in factories. Farmers, therefore, made
significant contributions to the American industrial machine and became impor- MAIN IDEA
tant consumers of manufactured items. Analyzing
Manufactured items grew less expensive as technology advances lowered Effects
expenses. For example, a clock that had cost $50 to craft by hand in 1800 could B Describe the
impact of the
be turned out by machine for half a dollar by midcentury. Falling prices meant
market revolution
that many workers became regular consumers. They purchased new products not on potential
only for work, but for comfort as well. B customers.
The Economic Revolution

These new inventions, many developed in the United
States, contributed immensely to changes in American
N OW THEN life. Some inventions simply made life more enjoyable.
Other inventions fueled the economic revolution of the
midcentury, and transformed manufacturing, transporta-
FROM TELEGRAPH tion and communication.
TO INTERNET
What do the telegraph and the IMPACT ON COMMUNICATION Improving on a device
Internet have in common? They developed by Joseph Henry, Samuel F. B. Morse, a New
are both tools for instant commu- England artist, created the telegraph in 1837 to carry
nication. The telegraph relied on a
messages, tapped in code, across copper wire. Within ten
network of wires that spanned the
country.The Internet—an interna- years, telegraph lines connected the larger cities on the
tional network of smaller comput- East Coast.
er networks—allows any computer Businesses used the new communication device to
user to communicate instantly transmit orders and to relay up-to-date information on
with any other computer user in
the world.
MORSE CODE In 1837 Samuel TELEPHONE In 1876 Alexander MARCONI RADIO In 1895, Guglielmo
Morse patents the telegraph, Graham Bell invents the telephone, Marconi, an Italian inventor, sends telegraph
the first instant electronic which relies on a steady stream of code through the air as electromagnetic waves.
communicator. Morse taps on a electricity, rather than electrical By the early 1900s, “the wireless” makes
key to send bursts of electricity bursts, to transmit voice transmissions possible. Commercial
down a wire to the receiver, where sounds. By 1900, radio stations are broadcasting music and
an operator “translates” the there are over one entertainment
coded bursts into understandable million telephones programs by
language within seconds. in the United the 1920s.
States.
1837 1876 1895
276 CHAPTER 9
prices and sales. The telegraph was a huge success. The new railroads employed
the telegraph to keep trains moving regularly and to warn engineers of safety haz-
ards. By 1854, 23,000 miles of telegraph wire crossed the country.
IMPACT ON TRANSPORTATION Better and faster transportation became essen-
tial to the expansion of agriculture and industry. Farmers and manufacturers alike
sought more direct ways to ship their goods to market. In 1807, Pennsylvanian
Robert Fulton had ushered in the steamboat era when his boat, the Clermont,
made the 150-mile trip up the Hudson River from New York City to Albany, New
York, in 32 hours. Ships that had previously only been able to drift southward
down the Mississippi with the current could now turn around to make the return
trip because they were powered by steam engines. By 1830, 200 steamboats trav-
eled the nation’s western rivers, thus slashing freight rates as well as voyage times.
Water transport was particularly important in moving heavy machinery and
such raw materials as lead and copper. Where waterways didn’t exist, workers
excavated them. In 1816, America had a mere 100 miles of canals. Twenty-five
years later, the country boasted more than 3,300 miles of canals.
The Erie Canal was the nation’s first major canal, and it was used heavily.
Shipping charges fell to about a tenth of the cost of sending goods over land.
Before the first shovel broke ground on the Erie Canal in 1817, for example,
freight charges between Buffalo, New York, and New York City averaged 19 cents
a ton per mile. By 1830, that average had fallen to less than 2 cents.
The Erie Canal’s success led to dozens of other canal projects. Farmers in Ohio
no longer depended on Mississippi River passage to New Orleans. They could now
ship their grain via canal and river to New York City, the nation’s major port. The
canals also opened the heartland of America to world markets by connecting the
Northeast to the Midwest.
EMERGENCE OF RAILROADS The heyday of the canals lasted only until the
1860s, due to the rapid emergence of railroads. Although shipping by rail cost sig-
nificantly more in the 1840s than did shipping by canal, railroads offered the
advantage of speed. In addition, trains could operate in the winter, and they
brought goods to people who lived inland.
TELEVISION In the late 1800s, scien- COMPUTERS Scientists develop electroni- INTERNET Today, on the Internet,
tists begin to experiment with transmit- cally powered computers during the 1940s. through e-mail (electronic mail) or online
ting pictures as well as In 1951, UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic conversation, any two people can have
words through the air. Computer) becomes the first commercially instant dialogue. The Internet becomes
In 1923, Vladimir available computer. In 1964, IBM initiates the modern tool for instant global com-
Zworykin, a Russian- System/360, a family of mutually compatible munication not only
born American scientist, computers that allow several terminals to be of words, but
files a patent for the attached to one computer system. images, too.
iconoscope, the first
television camera tube
suitable for broadcast-
ing. In 1924 he files
a patent for the
kinescope, the picture
tube used in receiving
television signals.
In 1929, Zworykin
demonstrated his new
television.
1929 1964

By the 1840s, steam engines pulled freight at ten miles an hour—more than
four times faster than canal boats traveled. Passengers found such speeds exciting,
although early train travel was far from comfortable, as Samuel Breck, a
Philadelphia merchant, complained.
A PERSONAL VOICE SAMUEL BRECK

“ If one could stop when one wanted, and if one were not locked up in a box with
50 or 60 tobacco-chewers; and the engine and fire did not burn holes in one’s MAIN IDEA
clothes . . . and the smell of the smoke, of the oil, and of the chimney did not poi- Analyzing
son one . . . and [one] were not in danger of being blown sky-high or knocked off Effects
the rails—it would be the perfection of travelling.” C How did
—quoted in American Railroads new products,
communications
methods, and
Eventually, railroads grew to be both safe and reliable, and the cost of rail
transportation
freight gradually came down. By 1850, almost 10,000 miles of track had been laid, methods help the
and by 1859, railroads carried 2 billion tons of freight a year. C U.S. economy?
New Markets Link Regions

By the 1840s, improved transportation and communication made America’s
regions interdependent. Arteries like the National Road, whose construction
began in 1811, had also opened up western travel. By 1818, the road extended
from Cumberland, Maryland, west to Wheeling, Virginia; by 1838, it reached as
far west as Springfield, Illinois.
Growing links between America’s regions contributed to the development of
regional specialties. The South exported its cotton to England as well as to New
England. The West’s grain and livestock fed hungry factory workers in eastern
cities and in Europe. The East manufactured textiles and machinery.
SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE Most of the South remained agricultural and relied
on such crops as cotton, tobacco, and rice. Southerners who had seen the North’s
“filthy, overcrowded, licentious factories” looked with dis-
favor on industrialization. Even if wealthy Southerners
LD STAGE
W OR
wanted to build factories, they usually lacked the capital to
do so because their money was tied up in land and the
slaves required to plant and harvest the crops.
BRITAIN’S COTTON IMPORTS Though the new transportation and communication
By 1840, the American South, lines were less advanced in the South, these improvements
the world’s leading producer of helped keep Americans from every region in touch with
cotton, was also the leading sup- one another. Furthermore, they changed the economic re-
plier of cotton to Great Britain. In lationships between the regions, creating new markets and
all, Great Britain imported four-
interdependencies.
fifths of its cotton from the
South. Cotton directly or indirectly NORTHEAST SHIPPING AND MANUFACTURING Heavy
provided work for one in eight investment in canals and railroads transformed the
people in Britain, then the
Northeast into the center of American commerce. After the
world’s leading industrial power.
For its part, Britain relied so opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, New York City became MAIN IDEA
heavily on Southern cotton that the central link between American agriculture and European
Analyzing
some cotton growers incorrectly markets. In fact, more cotton was exported through New
Causes
assumed that the British would York City than through any other American city. D How did the
actively support the South during
The most striking development of the era, however, was transportation
the Civil War. “No power on earth revolution bind
dares make war upon [cotton],” a the rise in manufacturing. Although most Americans still
U.S. regions to
South Carolina senator boldly lived in rural areas and only 14 percent of workers had man-
one another and
declared in 1858. “Cotton is ufacturing jobs, these workers produced more and better to the rest of the
king.” goods at lower prices than had ever been produced before. D world?
278 CHAPTER 9
MIDWEST FARMING
As the Northeast be-
gan to industrialize,
many people moved
to farm the fertile soil
of the Midwest. First,
however, they had to
work very hard to ▼
make the land arable, or fit to cultivate. Many wooded areas had to be cleared Cyrus McCormick
before fields could be planted. Then two ingenious inventions allowed farmers to patented the first
develop the farmland more efficiently and cheaply, and made farming more prof- successful horse-
itable. In 1837, blacksmith John Deere invented the first steel plow. It sliced drawn grain reaper
through heavy soil much more easily than existing plows and therefore took less (above left).
animal power to pull. Deere’s steel plow enabled farmers to replace their oxen The McCormick
company grew
with horses.
into the huge
Once harvest time arrived, the mechanical reaper, invented by Cyrus International
McCormick, permitted one farmer to do the work of five hired hands. The Harvester Company.
reaper was packed in parts and shipped to the farmer, along with a handbook of Their ads helped
directions for assembling and operating. Armed with plows and reapers, ambi- persuade farmers
tious farmers could shift from subsistence farming to growing such cash crops as to revolutionize
wheat and corn. farming.
Meanwhile, the rapid changes encouraged Southerners as well as Northerners
to seek land in the seemingly limitless West.
1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
•Samuel F. B. Morse •market revolution •entrepreneur •John Deere
•specialization •capitalism •telegraph •Cyrus McCormick
MAIN IDEA CRITICAL THINKING

2. TAKING NOTES 3. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING 5. ANALYZING EFFECTS
Create a time line like the one Compare economies of the different During the 1830s and 1840s,
below, on which you label and regions of the United States in the transportation and communication
date the important innovations mid-1800s. Use details from the linked the country more than ever
in transportation, communication, section to support your answer. before. How did these advances
and manufacturing during the early affect ordinary Americans?
4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
19th century. Think About:
Why were the reaper and the steel
plow important? • the new kinds of transportation
• specific changes in communi-
1825 1850
cations
Which innovation do you think was
• the new industries of the time
most important, and why?
period

Manifest Destiny
Americans moved west, The South and Southwest are •manifest destiny •Mormons
energized by their belief in now the fastest-growing regions •Treaty of Fort •Joseph Smith
the rightful expansion of the of the United States. Laramie •Brigham Young
United States from the •Santa Fe Trail •“Fifty-Four Forty
Atlantic to the Pacific. •Oregon Trail or Fight!”
Amelia Stewart Knight’s diary of her family’s five-month journey to

Oregon in 1853 described “the beautiful Boise River, with her green
timber,” which delighted the family. The last entry in the diary
describes when she and her family reached their destination, Oregon.
A PERSONAL VOICE AMELIA STEWART KNIGHT

“ [M]y eighth child was born. After this we picked up and ferried
across the Columbia River, utilizing a skiff, canoes and flatboat.
It took three days. Here husband traded two yoke of oxen for a
half section of land with one-half acre planted to potatoes and a
small log cabin and lean-to with no windows. This is the jour-
ney’s end.”
—quoted in Covered Wagon Women
Knight’s situation was by no means unique; probably one in

five women who made the trek was pregnant. Her condition, how-
ever, did little to lighten her workload. Even young children shoul-
dered important responsibilities on the trail.
▼
Amelia Stewart
Knight told of
The Frontier Draws Settlers camping by hot
springs where
Many Americans assumed that the United States would extend its dominion to she could brew
the Pacific Ocean and create a vast republic that would spread the blessings of tea without
democracy and civilization across the continent. starting a fire.
AMERICAN MISSION Thomas Jefferson had dreamed that the United States
would become an “empire for liberty” by expanding across the continent “with
room enough for our descendants to the thousandth and thousandth generation.”
Toward that end, Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase in 1803 had doubled the
young nation’s size. For a quarter century after the War of 1812, Americans
explored this huge territory in limited numbers. Then, in the 1840s, expansion
fever gripped the country. Americans began to believe that their movement west-
ward and southward was destined and ordained by God.
280 CHAPTER 9
The editor of the United States Magazine and Democratic Review described the
annexation of Texas in 1845 as “the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to over-
spread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our
yearly multiplying millions.” Many Americans immediately seized on the phrase
MAIN IDEA “manifest destiny” to express their belief that the United States’ destiny was
Summarizing to expand to the Pacific Ocean and into Mexican territory. They believed that this
A Explain the destiny was manifest, or obvious. A
concept of
manifest destiny. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE FRONTIER Most Americans had practical reasons
for moving west. Many settlers endured the trek because of personal economic
problems. The panic of 1837, for example, had dire consequences and convinced
many people that they would be better off attempting a fresh start in the West.
The abundance of land in the West was the greatest attraction. Whether for
farming or speculation, land ownership was an important step toward prosperity.
As farmers and miners moved west, merchants followed, seeking new markets.
While Americans had always traded with Europe, the transportation revolu-
tion increased opportunities for trade with Asia as well. Several harbors in the
Oregon Territory helped expand trade with China and Japan and also served as
naval stations for a Pacific fleet.
Settlers and Native Americans

The increasing number of U.S. settlers moving west inevitably affected Native
American communities. Most Native Americans tried to maintain strong cultural
traditions, even if forced to move from
ancestral lands. Some began to assimi-
late—or become part of—the advan-
cing white culture. Still others, although
relatively few in number, fought hard
to keep whites away from their homes.
THE BLACK HAWK WAR In the early
1830s, white settlers in western Illinois
and eastern Iowa placed great pressure
on the Native American people there to
move west of the Mississippi River.
Consequently, representatives from
several Native American tribes visited
Chief Black Hawk of the Sauk tribe, and
one told of a prophet who had a vision
of future events involving Black Hawk.
▼
A PERSONAL VOICE John Wesley
Jarvis painted
“ He said that the Big Black Bird Hawk was the man to lead the [Native
Black Hawk (left)
American] nations and win back the old homes of the people; that when the fight
and his son,
began . . . the warriors would be without number; that back would come Whirling Thunder
the buffalo . . . and that in a little while the white man would be driven to the (right) in 1833.
eastern ocean and across to the farther shore from whence he came.”
MAIN IDEA
—tribal elder quoted in Native American Testimony
Evaluating
Leadership The story convinced Black Hawk to lead a rebellion against the United States.
B What The Black Hawk War started in Illinois and spread to the Wisconsin Territory. It
motivated Black
ended in August 1832, when Illinois militia members slaughtered more than 200
Hawk to rebel
against the United Sauk and Fox people. As a result, the Sauk and Fox tribes were forcibly removed
States? to areas west of the Mississippi. B

MIDDLE GROUND The place that neither the Native
N OW THEN Americans nor the settlers dominated, according to histori-

an Richard White, was the middle ground. As long as set-
tlers needed Native Americans as trading partners and
guides, relations between settlers and Native Americans
could be beneficial. Amelia Stewart Knight described such
an encounter on the middle ground.
A PERSONAL VOICE AMELIA STEWART KNIGHT

“ Traveled 13 miles, over very bad roads, without water.
After looking in vain for water, we were about to give up as
THE OGLALA SIOUX it was near night, when husband came across a company of
Following the Fort Laramie Treaty, friendly Cayuse Indians about to camp, who showed him
the federal government gradually where to find water. . . . We bought a few potatoes from an
reclaimed the Sioux’s sacred Indian, which will be a treat for our supper.”
Black Hills, and since 1889 the
—quoted in Covered Wagon Women
Oglala Sioux have lived on the
Pine Ridge reservation in South
By the 1840s, the middle ground was well west of the
Dakota.
In the 1990s, tourism was the Mississippi, because the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and
largest source of revenue for Pine other Indian removal treaties had pushed Native Americans
Ridge, which boasts some of the off their eastern lands to make room for the settlers.
most beautiful territory in the
Northern Plains. Visitors also FORT LARAMIE TREATY As settlers moved west, small
come for the annual pow-wow, numbers of displaced Native Americans occasionally fought
held in August, and the tribe’s them. The U.S. government responded to the settlers’ fears
Prairie Winds casino. of attack by calling a conference near what is now Laramie,
Nevertheless, with only 20 per- Wyoming. The Cheyenne, Arapaho, Sioux, Crow, and oth-
cent of adults employed and a 61
percent poverty rate, the reserva-
ers joined U.S. representatives in swearing “to maintain
tion remains one of the poorest good faith and friendship in all their mutual intercourse,
areas in the United States. and to make an effective and lasting peace.”
The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie provided various
Native American nations control of the Central Plains, land
east of the Rocky Mountains that stretched roughly from the Arkansas River north MAIN IDEA
to Canada. In turn, these Native Americans promised not to attack settlers and to
Analyzing
allow the construction of government forts and roads. The government pledged to Effects
honor the agreed-upon boundaries and to make annual payments to the Native C What were the
Americans. effects of the U.S.
Still the movement of settlers increased. Traditional Native American hunting government
policies toward
lands were trampled and depleted of buffalo and elk. The U.S. government repeat- Native Americans
edly violated the terms of the treaty. Subsequent treaties demanded that Native in the mid-1800s?
Americans abandon their lands and move to reservations. C
Trails West
While the westward movement of many U.S. settlers had disastrous effects on the
Native American communities there, the experience was also somewhat perilous
for traders and settlers. Nevertheless, thousands made the trek, using a series of
old Native American trails and new routes.
THE SANTA FE TRAIL One of the busiest and most well-known avenues of trade
was the Santa Fe Trail, which led 780 miles from Independence, Missouri, to
Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Each spring between 1821 and the 1860s, Missouri traders loaded their cov-
ered wagons with cloth, knives, and guns, and set off toward Santa Fe. For about
the first 150 miles—to Council Grove, Kansas—wagons traveled alone. After that,
fearing attacks by Kiowa and Comanche, among others, the traders banded into
282 CHAPTER 9
American Trails West, 1860
The interior of a covered wagon may
▼
have looked like this on its way west.
E
NG
Blackfoot
RA
C olu
R
Portland m bia R.
Sioux
Nez Percé
O
Yakima
Crow
DE
C K
CASCA
M
Sn i
Y
Mi
ss
ak Cheyenne s
Fort Hall
issi
e
R iv
so
pp
er
uri
i R
G
R i ver
M O U N
ive
r
RE
N. Pawnee
P la
tte Council Bluffs
AT
R iv
er
Great Salt
Lake Salt Lake City
PL
Sacramento Nauvoo
SIE
San
AIN
Francisco St. Louis
T A I N S
RR
Independence
r
A
ve
S
Ri
NE
o Ute
rad
VA
D
A olo
toff Ar
C
n Cu ka
imarro nsa
s R
Navajo C Cherokee i ve
Creek r
Santa Fe Seminole
ve r
Los Angeles Fort Smith
Choctaw
sissippi Ri
de
Chickasaw
Gran
Rio
Mis
PACI F I C
Re
Ri
d
ve
OC EAN El Paso
r
120°W
90°W
Butterfield Overland Trail

California Trail
N
Mormon Trail
E
Old Spanish Trail W
Oregon Trail
S
Sante Fe Trail
0 100 200 miles
0 100 200 kilometers
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER
1. Location Approximately how long was the trail
from St. Louis to El Paso?
110°W
2. Movement At a wagon train speed of about 15
A Navajo man and woman in photographs taken by Edward S. Curtis miles a day, about how long would that trip take?

Conestoga
▼
wagons were
usually pulled by
six horses. These
wagons were
capable of hauling
loads up to six
tons.
organized groups of up to 100 wagons. Scouts rode along the column to check for
danger. At night the traders formed the wagons into squares with their wheels
interlocked, forming a corral for horses, mules, and oxen.
Teamwork ended when Santa Fe came into view. Traders charged off on their
own as each tried to be the first to enter the Mexican province of New Mexico.
After a few days of trading, they loaded their wagons with silver, gold, and furs,
and headed back to the United States. These traders established the first visible
American presence in New Mexico and in the Mexican province of Arizona.
THE OREGON TRAIL In 1836, Marcus and Narcissa Whitman, Methodist mis-
sionaries, made their way into Oregon Territory where they set up mission schools
to convert Native Americans to Christianity and educate them. By driving their
wagon as far as Fort Boise, they proved that wagons could travel on the
“ Eastward I go Oregon Trail, which started in Independence, Missouri, and ended in
only by force, but Portland, Oregon, in the Willamette Valley. Their letters east praising
westward I go the fertile soil and abundant rainfall attracted hundreds of other
free.” Americans to the Oregon Trail. The route from Independence to
HENRY DAVID THOREAU Portland traced some of the same paths that Lewis and Clark had fol-
lowed several decades earlier.
Following the Whitmans’ lead, some of the Oregon pioneers bought wooden-
wheeled covered Conestoga wagons. But most walked, pushing handcarts loaded
with a few precious possessions. The trip took months. Fever, diarrhea, and
cholera killed many travelers, who were then buried alongside the trail.
Caravans provided protection against possible attack by Native Americans.
They also helped combat the loneliness of the difficult journey, as Catherine
Haun, who migrated from Iowa, explained.
A PERSONAL VOICE CATHERINE HAUN

“ We womenfolk visited from wagon to wagon or congenial friends spent an hour
walking, ever westward, and talking over our home life back in ‘the states’; telling
of the loved ones left behind; voicing our hopes for the future . . . and even whis-
pering a little friendly gossip of emigrant life.”
—quoted in Frontier Women MAIN IDEA
Analyzing
By 1844, about 5,000 American settlers had arrived in Oregon and were farm- Events
ing its green and fertile Willamette Valley. D D What
difficulties were
THE MORMON MIGRATION One group that migrated westward along the faced by families
Oregon Trail consisted of the Mormons, a religious community that would play like the Whitmans
a major role in the settling of the West. Mormon history began in western New and the Hauns?
York in 1827 when Joseph Smith and five associates established the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Fayette, New York, in 1830.
Smith and a growing band of followers decided to move west. They settled in
Nauvoo, Illinois, in 1839. Within five years, the community numbered 20,000.
When Smith’s angry neighbors printed protests against polygamy, the Mormons’
284 CHAPTER 9
practice of having more than one wife, Smith destroyed
their printing press. As a result, in 1844 he was jailed for Americans Headed West to...
treason. An anti-Mormon mob broke into the jail and
murdered Smith and his brother. • escape religious presecution
Smith’s successor, Brigham Young, decided to move
• find new markets for commerce
his followers beyond the boundaries of the United States.
MAIN IDEA Thousands of Mormons travelled by wagon north to • claim land for farming, ranching,
Analyzing Nebraska, across Wyoming to the Rockies, and then south- and mining
Motives west. In 1847, the Mormons stopped at the edge of the
E Why did the lonely desert near the Great Salt Lake. E • locate harbors on the Pacific
Mormons move The Mormons awarded plots of land to each family
farther west in • seek employment and avoid
their search for a according to its size but held common ownership of two creditors after the panic of 1837
new home? critical resources—water and timberland. Soon they had
coaxed settlements and farms from the bleak landscape by • spread the virtues of democracy
irrigating their fields. Salt Lake City blossomed out of the
land the Mormons called Deseret.
RESOLVING TERRITORIAL DISPUTES The Oregon Territory was only one point
of contention between the United States and Britain. In the early 1840s, Great Britain
still claimed areas in parts of what are now Maine and Minnesota. The Webster-
Ashburton Treaty of 1842 settled these disputes in the East and the Midwest, but
the two nations merely continued “joint occupation” of the Oregon Territory.
In 1844, Democrat James K. Polk’s presidential platform called for annexation
of the entire Oregon Territory. Reflecting widespread support for Polk’s views,
newspapers adopted the slogan “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” The slogan
referred to the latitude 54˚40’, the northern limit of the disputed Oregon
Territory. By the mid-1840s, however, the fur trade was in decline, and Britain’s
interest in the territory waned. On the American side, Polk’s advisors deemed the
land north of 49˚ latitude unsuited for agriculture. Consequently, the two coun-
tries peaceably agreed in 1846 to extend the mainland boundary with Canada
along the forty-ninth parallel westward from the Rocky Mountains to Puget
Sound, establishing the current U.S. boundary. Unfortunately, establishing the
boundary in the Southwest would not be so easy.
•manifest destiny •Santa Fe Trail • Mormons •Brigham Young
•Treaty of Fort Laramie •Oregon Trail •Joseph Smith •“Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!”

2. TAKING NOTES 3. EVALUATING 4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES
Use a chart like this one to compare What were the benefits and John L. O’Sullivan, editor of the
the motivations of travelers on the drawbacks of the belief in manifest United States Magazine and
Oregon, Santa Fe, and Mormon trails. destiny? Use specific references to Democratic Review, described
the section to support your manifest destiny as meaning that
Trail Motivations response. Think About: American settlers should possess
Oregon Trail • the various reasons for the move the “whole of the continent” that
westward “Providence” has given us for
Mormon Trail
• the settlers’ point of view the development of the great
Santa Fe Trail experiment of liberty and . . . self-
• the impact on Native Americans
government.” Do you think the same
Which do you think was the most • the impact on the nation as a attitudes exist today? Explain.
common motive? Explain. whole

GR APHY
G E O
T
SPOTLIG H
Mapping the Oregon Trail

In 1841, Congress appropriated $30,000 for a survey of the Oregon Trail. John C.
Frémont was named to head the expeditions. Frémont earned his nickname “the
Pathfinder” by leading four expeditions—which included artists, scientists, and car-
tographers, among them the German-born cartographer Charles Preuss—to explore
the American West between 1842 and 1848. When Frémont submitted the report of
his second expedition, Congress immediately ordered the printing of 10,000 copies,
which were widely distributed.
The “Topographical Map of the Road from Missouri to Oregon,” drawn by
Preuss, appeared in seven sheets. Though settlers first used this route in 1836, it was
not until 1846 that Preuss published his map to guide them. The long, narrow map
shown here is called a “strip” map, a map that shows a thin strip of the earth’s sur-
face—in this case, the last stretch of the trail before reaching Fort Wallah-Wallah.
5 THE WHITMAN MISSION

The explorers came upon the
Whitmans’ missionary station.
They found thriving families living
Washington primarily on potatoes of a
“remarkably good quality.”
October October 18-19
19-20
area of detail
October 20-21 October 17-1

Oregon
October 4
21-22
October
22-23
October
5 23-24
6 October
24-25 October
25-26
6 THE NEZ PERCE PRAIRIE

Chief Looking Glass (left, in 1871) and the Nez Perce had
“harmless” interactions with Frémont and his expedition.
286
1 FORT BOISÉE (BOISE)
This post became an important stopping point
for settlers along the trail. Though salmon were
plentiful in summer, Frémont noted that in the
winter Native Americans often were forced to
eat “every creeping thing, however loathsome
and repulsive,” to stay alive.
October
10-11, 1843
1
3
October 11-12 2 MAP NOTATION
October 12-13 Preuss recorded dates,
October 14-15 distances, tempera-
tures, and geographical
features as the expedi-
October 15-16
tion progressed along
the trail.
17-18 October 16-17 3 RECORDING NATURAL RESOURCES

On October 13, Frémont traveled through
a desolate valley of the Columbia River to
a region of “arable mountains,” where he
observed “nutritious grasses” and good soil
that would support future flocks and herds.
4 CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS

Pioneers on the trail cut paths
through the Blue Mountains, a
wooded range that Frémont
believed had been formed by
“violent and extensive igneous THINKING CRITICALLY
[volcanic] action.”
1. Analyzing Patterns Use the map to identify natural
obstacles that settlers faced on the Oregon Trail.
2. Creating a Thematic Map Do research to find out
more about early mapping efforts for other western
trails. Then create a settler’s map of a small section
of one trail. To help you decide what information you
should show, pose some questions that a settler
might have and that your map will answer. Then,
sketch and label your map.
SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R32.
IRESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM

Expansion in Texas
Mexico offered land grants to Today, the state of Texas •Stephen F. Austin •Alamo
American settlers, but conflict shares an important trading •land grant •Sam Houston
developed over religion and partnership with Mexico. •Antonio López de •Republic of Texas
other cultural differences, Santa Anna •annex
and the issue of slavery. •Texas Revolution
In 1821, Stephen F. Austin led the first of several groups of

American settlers to a fertile area “as good in every respect as
man could wish for, land first rate, plenty of timber, fine
water—beautifully rolling” along the Brazos River. However,
Austin’s plans didn’t work out as well as he had hoped; 12
years later, he found himself in a Mexican prison and his new
homeland in an uproar. After his release, Austin spoke about
the impending crisis between Texas and Mexico.
A PERSONAL VOICE STEPHEN F. AUSTIN

“ Texas needs peace, and a local government; its inhabitants are
farmers, and they need a calm and quiet life. . . . [But] my efforts to ▼
serve Texas involved me in the labyrinth of Mexican politics. I was arrested,
Stephen Austin
and have suffered a long persecution and imprisonment. . . . I fully hoped to have established a
found Texas at peace and in tranquillity, but regret to find it in commotion; all dis- colony of
organized, all in anarchy, and threatened with immediate hostilities. . . . Can this American settlers
state of things exist without precipitating the country into a war? I think it cannot.” in Tejas, or Texas,
—quoted in Texas: An Album of History then the northern-
most province of
Austin’s warning proved to be prophetic. The conflict between Texas and the Mexican
Mexico would soon escalate into a bloody struggle. state of Coahuila.
Americans Settle in the Southwest

During three centuries of Spanish rule of Mexico, only a few thousand Mexican
settlers had migrated to the vast landscape of what is now Texas. Despite the
region’s rich natural resources and a climate conducive to agriculture, a number
of problems scared off many potential Mexican settlers. One was the growing
friction between Native American and Mexican inhabitants of the area.
THE MISSION SYSTEM Since the earliest Spanish settlements, the Native
American and Mexican populations in the Southwest had come into close con-
tact. Before Mexico won its independence in 1821, Spain’s system of Roman
288 CHAPTER 9
Catholic missions in California, New Mexico, and Texas tried to convert Native
Americans to Catholicism and to settle them on mission lands. To protect the
missions, Spanish soldiers manned nearby presidios, or forts.
The mission system declined during the 1820s and 1830s, after Mexico had
won its independence. After wresting the missions from Spanish control, the
Mexican government offered the surrounding lands to government officials and
ranchers. While some Native Americans were forced to remain as unpaid laborers,
many others fled the missions, returning to traditional ways. When Mexicans
MAIN IDEA captured Native Americans for forced labor, groups of hostile Comanche and
Analyzing Apache retaliated by sweeping through Texas, terrorizing Mexican settlements
Effects and stealing livestock that supported many American settlers and Mexican set-
A How did tlers, or Tejanos. A
relations between
the Mexicans and THE IMPACT OF MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE Trade opportunities between
Native Americans Mexico’s northern provinces and the United States multiplied. Tejano livestock,
in the Southwest mostly longhorn cattle, provided tallow, hides, and other commercial goods to
change after
1821?
trade in Santa Fe, New Mexico, north and west of Texas.
Newly free, Mexico sought to improve its economy. Toward that end, the
country eased trade restrictions and made trade with the United States more
attractive than trade between northern Mexico and other sections of Mexico.
Gradually, the ties loosened between Mexico and the northern provinces, which
included present-day New Mexico, California, Texas, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah.
Mexico was beginning to discover what Spain had previously learned: own-
ing a vast territory did not necessarily mean controlling it. Mexico City—the seat
of Mexican government—lay far from the northern
provinces and often seemed indifferent to the problems of
settlers in Texas. Native American groups, such as the
N OW THEN
Apache and the Comanche, continued to threaten the thin-
ly scattered Mexican settlements in New Mexico and Texas.
Consequently, the Mexican government began to look for
ways to strengthen ties between Mexico City and the
northern provinces.
MEXICO INVITES U.S. SETTLERS To prevent border vio-
lations by horse thieves and to protect the territory from
Native American attacks, the Mexican government encour-
aged American farmers to settle in Texas. In 1821, and again
in 1823 and 1824, Mexico offered enormous land grants TEJANO CULTURE
to agents, who were called empresarios. The empresarios, in The Anglo and Mexican cultures
turn, attracted American settlers, who eagerly bought cheap of Texas have shaped one anoth-
land in return for a pledge to obey Mexican laws and er, especially in terms of music,
observe the official religion of Roman Catholicism. food, and language.
For example, Tejano music
Many Americans as well as Mexicans rushed at the reflects roots in Mexican mariachi
chance. The same restless determination that produced new as well as American country and
inventions and manufactured goods fed the American urge western music and is now a
to remove any barrier to settlement of the West. The popu- $100 million a year industry. As
MAIN IDEA lation of Anglo, or English-speaking, settlers from Europe for language, Tejanos often speak
a mixture of Spanish and English
Analyzing and the United States soon surpassed the population of
called Spanglish.
Motives Tejanos who lived in Texas. Until the 1830s, the Anglo set- As Enrique Madrid, who lives in
B What did tlers lived as naturalized Mexican citizens. B the border area between Texas
Mexico hope to and Mexico, says, “We have two
gain from Anglo AUSTIN IN TEXAS The most successful empresario,
very powerful cultures coming to
settlement in Stephen F. Austin, established a colony between the Brazos terms with each other every day
Texas? and Colorado rivers, where “no drunkard, no gambler, no on the banks of the Rio Grande
profane swearer, and no idler” would be allowed. By 1825, and creating a new culture.”
Austin had issued 297 land grants to the group that later

became known as Texas’s Old Three Hundred. Each family received 177 very inex-
pensive acres of farmland, or 4,428 acres for stock grazing, as well as a 10-year
exemption from paying taxes. “I am convinced,” Austin said, “that I could take
on fifteen hundred families as easily as three hundred.”
At the colony’s capital in San Felipe, a visiting blacksmith, Noah Smithwick,
described an established town, with “weddings and other social gatherings.” MAIN IDEA
Smithwick stayed in a simple home but learned that “in the course of time the Evaluating
pole cabin gave place to a handsome brick house and that the rude furnishings Leadership
were replaced by the best the country boasted.” C C Why was
Stephen Austin’s
In 1836, Mary Austin Holley, Stephen Austin’s cousin, wrote admiringly
colony so
about towns such as Galveston on the Gulf Coast and Bastrop. successful?
A PERSONAL VOICE MARY AUSTIN HOLLEY

“ Bastrop . . . continues to grow rapidly. It is a favorite spot for new settlers, and
is quite the rage at present. . . . It is situated on a bend of the [Colorado], sloping
beautifully down to the water, with ranges of timber—first oak, then pine, then
cedar, rising in regular succession behind it.”
—quoted in Texas: An Album of History
Word about Texas spread throughout the United States.

Posters boldly stated, “Go To Texas!” Confident that Texas
KEY PLAYER eventually would yield great wealth, Americans increasing-
ly discussed extending the U.S. boundaries to the river they
called the Rio Grande (known in Mexico as the Rio Bravo).
President John Quincy Adams had previously offered to buy
Texas for $1 million; President Andrew Jackson later upped
the bid to $5 million. Mexico not only refused to sell Texas
but also began to regret its hospitality to Anglo immigrants.
Texas Fights for Independence

As Texas’s Anglo population surged, tensions grew with
Mexico over cultural differences, as well as slavery. The
overwhelmingly Protestant settlers spoke English rather
SANTA ANNA than Spanish. Many of the settlers were Southern cotton or
1795–1876
sugar farmers who had brought slaves with them. Mexico,
Antonio López de Santa Anna
began his career fighting for
which had abolished slavery in 1824, insisted in vain that
Spain in the war over Mexican the Texans free their slaves.
independence. Later, he switched “COME TO TEXAS” In 1830, Mexico sealed its borders
sides to fight for Mexico.
and slapped a heavy tax on the importation of American
Declaring himself the “Napoleon
of the West,” Santa Anna took goods. Mexico, however, lacked sufficient troops to police
control of the government about its borders well. Despite restrictions, the Anglo population
ten years after Mexico won inde- of Texas doubled between 1830 and 1834. In 1834, Austin
pendence in 1821. He spent the won a repeal of the prohibition on immigration. By 1835,
next 34 years alternately serving
more than 1,000 Anglos each month streamed into Texas,
as president, leading troops into
battle, and living in exile. He scrawling the initials “G.T.T.” on their doors to indicate that
served as president 11 times. they had “Gone to Texas.” A year later, Texas’s population MAIN IDEA
Santa Anna was a complex man included only 3,500 Tejanos, 12,000 Native Americans, Contrasting
with much charm. He sacrificed 45,000 Anglos, and 5,000 African Americans. D D List some of
his considerable wealth to return the cultural
Meanwhile, Mexican politics became increasingly
again and again to the battlefield conflicts caused
and died in poverty and almost unstable. Austin had traveled to Mexico City late in 1833 to by the influx of
forgotten. present petitions for greater self-government for Texas to Anglo settlers into
Mexican president Antonio López de Santa Anna. Texas.
290 CHAPTER 9
While Austin was on his way home, Santa Anna suspended the 1824 Mexican
constitution and had Austin imprisoned for inciting revolution. After Santa Anna
revoked local powers in Texas and other Mexican states, several rebellions erupt-
ed, including what would eventually be known as the Texas Revolution.
“REMEMBER THE ALAMO!” Austin had argued with Santa Anna for self-gov-
ernment for Texas, but without success. Determined to force Texas to obey laws
he had established, Santa Anna marched toward San Antonio at the head of a
4,000-member army. At the same time, Austin and his followers issued a call for
Texans to arm themselves.
MAIN IDEA Late in 1835, the Texans attacked. They drove the Mexican forces from the
Comparing Alamo, an abandoned mission and fort. In response, Santa Anna swept north-
E Compare the ward and stormed and destroyed the small American garrison in the Alamo. All
reasons for the 187 U.S. defenders died, including the famous frontiersmen Jim Bowie, who had
Texas Revolution
designed the razor-sharp Bowie knife, and Davy Crockett, who sported a raccoon
with the reasons
for the American cap with a long tail hanging down his back. Hundreds of Mexicans also perished.
Revolution. Only a few women and children were spared. E
THE LONE STAR REPUBLIC Later in March of 1836, Santa Anna’s troops exe-
cuted 300 rebels at Goliad. The Alamo and Goliad victories would prove costly for
Santa Anna. Six weeks after the defeat of the Alamo, on April 21, the Texans
War for Texas Independence, 1835–1836
U NI T E D
ST AT E S
Red R i
ver
Land disputed
Texan forces by Texas
and Mexico
Mexican forces
Sab i n
Texan victory REPUBLIC Tr
e Riv
er
Mexican victory OF TEXAS
in i
ty R
N ec
Nacogdoches
B ra
Peco
i v er
Colorado
he
s
zos
Riv
sR
0 75 150 miles Rio er

Riv
iver
R iv
er
Gr
er
0 75 150 kilometers
a n de
Waterloo
Alamo, (Austin) Washington-on-the-Brazos
Feb. 23–Mar. 6, 1836 ston San Jacinto,
ou Apr. 21, 1836
San Antonio,
H
Dec. 10, 1835

nna
S anta A
na Galveston
An Goliad,
Mar. 20, 1836
G u lf o f Me xi co
a
Matagorda
nt
Nuec
Sa
e
sR
i v er
Refugio,
Mar. 12–15, 1836
Laredo 27
Corpus Christi N
ME X I C O
W E
Matamoros S
95°W 91°W
1. Place What geographical feature marked the
northern border of the Republic of Texas?
Henry Arthur McArdle conveys the brutality of the fighting 2. Region What does the map show as a major
in Dawn at the Alamo, painted between 1876 and 1883. disagreement left unresolved by the war?

struck back. Led by Sam Houston, they defeated Santa
KEY PLAYER
Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto. With shouts of “Remember
the Alamo!” the Texans killed 630 of Santa Anna’s soldiers in
18 minutes and captured Santa Anna. The victorious Texans
set Santa Anna free after he signed the Treaty of Velasco,
which granted independence to Texas. In September 1836,
Houston became president of the Republic of Texas. The
new “Lone Star Republic” set up an army and a navy and
proudly flew its new silk flag with the lone gold star.
TEXAS JOINS THE UNION On March 2, 1836, as the bat-
tle for the Alamo was raging, Texans had declared their
independence from Mexico. Believing that Mexico had
deprived them of their fundamental rights, the Texas rebels
had likened themselves to the American colonists who had
chafed under British rule 60 years earlier. On March 16,
SAM HOUSTON
1793–1863 they ratified a constitution based on that of the United
Sam Houston ran away from States. In 1838, Sam Houston invited the United States to
home at about age 15 and lived annex, or incorporate, the Texas republic into the United
for nearly three years with the States. Most people within Texas hoped this would happen.
Cherokee. He later fought in the
U.S. opinion, however, divided along sectional lines.
U.S. Army, studied law, was elect-
ed to Congress, and became gov- Southerners sought to extend slavery, already established in
Texas. Northerners feared that annexation of more slave MAIN IDEA
ernor of Tennessee.
In his memoirs, Houston told of territory would tip the uneasy balance in the Senate in Contrasting
listening in vain for the signal favor of slave states—and prompt war with Mexico. F F Explain the
guns indicating that the Alamo Then in 1844, the U.S. presidential election featured a differences
still stood. between the
debate on westward expansion. The man who would win Northern and
“I listened with an acuteness
the presidency, James K. Polk, a slaveholder, firmly favored Southern positions
of sense which no man can
annexation of Texas “at the earliest practicable period.” on the annexation
understand whose hearing has
On December 29, 1845, Texas became the 28th state in of Texas.
not been sharpened by the
teachings of the dwellers of the Union. A furious Mexican government recalled its
the forest.” ambassador from Washington. Events were moving quickly
toward war.
•Stephen F. Austin •Antonio López de •Alamo •Republic of Texas
•land grant Santa Anna •Sam Houston •annex
•Texas Revolution

2. TAKING NOTES 3. COMPARING 4. SYNTHESIZING
Use a diagram similar to this one to Compare and contrast Santa Anna Which group or country gained the
analyze the relationship between and Austin as leaders. Use details most from the entry of Texas into
Mexican authorities and Anglos from the section to explain your the United States? Who lost the
settling in Texas. answer. Think About: most? Support your opinion with
Mexico Settlers • Santa Anna’s role as president specific references to the section.
Goals of Mexico
• Santa Anna’s qualities as a mili-
Actions
tary leader
Outcomes
• Austin’s settlement in Texas
What other actions might Mexico or • Austin’s abilities as a negotiator
the settlers have taken to avoid
conflict?
292 CHAPTER 9
The War with Mexico
Tensions over the U.S. The United States has achieved •James K. Polk •Treaty of
annexation of Texas led to its goal of expanding across the •Zachary Taylor Guadalupe
war with Mexico, resulting in continent from east to west. •Stephen Kearny Hidalgo
huge territorial gains for the •Republic of •Gadsden
United States. California Purchase
•Winfield Scott •forty-niners
•gold rush
Robert E. Lee was born into a prominent Virginia family in

1807. His father had been a hero of the American Revolution.
In 1846, the war with Mexico provided the 39-year-old captain
with his first combat experience. Among the soldiers whom
Lee directed in battle was his younger brother, Sidney Smith
Lee. The elder Lee wrote about the battle.
A PERSONAL VOICE ROBERT E. LEE

“ No matter where I turned, my eyes reverted to [my brother],
and I stood by his gun whenever I was not wanted elsewhere.
Oh, I felt awfully, and am at a loss what I should have done
had he been cut down before me. I thank God that he was
saved. . . . [The service from the American battery] was terrif-
ic, and the shells thrown from our battery were constant and
regular discharges, so beautiful in their flight and so destruc-
tive in their fall. It was awful! My heart bled for the inhabi-
tants. The soldiers I did not care so much for, but it was terrible
▼
to think of the women and children.” Robert E. Lee
—a letter cited in R. E. Lee by Douglas Southall Freeman
followed his father
into a military
In recoiling at the ugliness of the war with Mexico, Lee hardly stood alone. career, graduating
from the new U.S.
From the start, Americans hotly debated whether the United States should pursue
Military Academy
the war.
at West Point.
Polk Urges War

Hostilities between the United States and Mexico, which had flared during the
Texas Revolution in 1836, reignited over the American annexation of Texas in
1845. The two countries might have solved these issues peaceably if not for the
continuing instability of the Mexican government and the territorial aspirations
of the U.S. president, James K. Polk.

Polk now believed that war with Mexico would bring not only Texas
but also New Mexico and California into the Union. The president
supported Texas’s claims in disputes with Mexico over the Texas-
Mexico border. While Texas insisted that its southern border extended
to the Rio Grande, Mexico insisted that Texas’s border stopped at the
Nueces River, 100 miles northeast of the Rio Grande.
SLIDELL’S REJECTION In 1844, Santa Anna was ousted as Mexico’s
president. The Mexican political situation was confusing and unpre-
dictable. In late 1845, “Polk the Purposeful” sent a Spanish-speaking
emissary, John Slidell, to Mexico to purchase California and New
Mexico and to gain approval of the Rio Grande as the Texas border.
When Slidell arrived, Mexican officials refused to receive him. Hoping
for Mexican aggression that would unify Americans behind a war, Polk
▼
James Polk, also then issued orders for General Zachary Taylor to march to the Rio Grande and
known as “Polk blockade the river. Mexicans viewed this action as a violation of their rights.
the Purposeful”
Many Americans shared Polk’s goals for expansion, but public opinion was
split over resorting to military action. Slavery would soon emerge as the key issue
complicating this debate.
SECTIONAL ATTITUDES TOWARD WAR The idea of war unleashed great pub-
lic celebrations. Volunteers swarmed recruiting stations, and the advent of daily
newspapers, printed on new rotary presses, gave the war a romantic appeal.
Not everyone cheered. The abolitionist James Russell Lowell considered the
war a “national crime committed in behoof of slavery, our common sin.” Even
proslavery spokesman John C. Calhoun saw the perils of expansionism. Mexico,
he said, was “the forbidden fruit; the penalty of eating it would be to subject our
institutions to political death.”
Many Southerners, however, saw the annexation of Texas as an opportunity
to extend slavery and increase Southern power in Congress. Furthermore, the
Wilmot Proviso, a proposed amendment to a military appropriations bill of 1846,
prohibited slavery in lands that might be gained from Mexico. This attack on
slavery solidified Southern support for war by transforming the debate on war
into a debate on slavery. MAIN IDEA
Northerners mainly opposed the war. Antislavery Whigs and abolitionists saw Analyzing
the war as a plot to expand slavery and ensure Southern domination of the Efects
Union. In a resolution adopted by the Massachusetts legislature, Charles Sumner A How did the
issue of slavery
proclaimed that “the lives of Mexicans are sacrificed in this cause; and a domes-
affect the debate
tic question, which should be reserved for bloodless debate in our own country, over the war with
is transferred to fields of battle in a foreign land.” A Mexico?
The War Begins

As Taylor positioned his forces at the Rio Grande in 1845–1846, John C. Frémont
led an exploration party through Mexico’s Alta California province, another vio-
lation of Mexico’s territorial rights. The Mexican government had had enough.
Mexico responded to Taylor’s invasion of the territory it claimed by sending
troops across the Rio Grande. In a skirmish near Matamoros, Mexican soldiers
killed 9 U.S. soldiers. Polk immediately sent a war message to Congress, declaring
that by shedding “American blood upon American soil,” Mexico had started the
war. Representative Abraham Lincoln questioned the truthfulness of the message,
asking “whether our citizens, whose blood was shed, as in his message declared,
were or were not, at that time, armed officers and soldiers, sent into that settle-
ment by the military order of the President.” Lincoln introduced a “Spot
Resolution,” asking Polk to certify the spot where the skirmish had occurred.
294 CHAPTER 9
Truthful or not, Polk’s message
persuaded the House to recognize a
state of war with Mexico by a vote of
174 to 14, and the Senate by a vote of
40 to 2, with numerous abstentions.
Some antislavery Whigs had tried to
oppose the war but were barely
allowed to gain the floor of Congress
to speak. Since Polk withheld key
facts, the full reality of what had hap-
pened on the distant Rio Grande was
MAIN IDEA not known. But the theory and prac-
Analyzing tice of manifest destiny had launched
Causes the United States into its first war on
B How did foreign territory. B
President Polk
provoke Mexico to KEARNY MARCHES WEST In 1846,
attack U.S. as part of his plan to seize New
forces? Mexico and California, Polk ordered
Colonel Stephen Kearny to march
from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, across
the desert to Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Kearny earned the nickname “the
Long Marcher” as he and his men
crossed 800 miles of barren ground.
They were met in Santa Fe by a New
Mexican contingent that included
upper-class Mexicans who wanted to
join the United States. New Mexico
fell to the United States without a
shot being fired. After dispatching
MAIN IDEA some of his troops south to Mexico,
Analyzing the Long Marcher led the rest on
Motives another long trek, this time to south- ▼
C How do ern California. C
Kearny’s actions This 19th-century
support the idea THE REPUBLIC OF CALIFORNIA By the turn of the 19th century, Spanish set- wood engraving
of manifest tlers had set up more than 20 missions along the California coast. After indepen- shows Colonel
destiny? dence, the Mexican government took over these missions, just as it had done in Stephen Kearny
Texas. By the late 1830s, about 12,000 Mexican settlers had migrated to California capturing Santa
Fe, New Mexico.
to set up cattle ranches, where they pressed Native Americans into service as
workers. By the mid-1840s, about 500 U.S. settlers also lived in California.
Polk’s offer to buy California in 1845 aroused the indignation of the
Mexican government. A group of American settlers, led by Frémont, seized the
town of Sonoma in June 1846. Hoisting a flag that featured a grizzly bear, the
rebels proudly declared their independence from Mexico and proclaimed the
nation of the Republic of California. Kearny arrived from New Mexico and
joined forces with Frémont and a U.S. naval expedition led by Commodore
John D. Sloat. The Mexican troops quickly gave way, leaving U.S. forces in con-
trol of California.
THE WAR IN MEXICO For American troops in Mexico, one military victory fol-
lowed another. Though Mexican soldiers gallantly defended their own soil, their
army labored under poor leadership. In contrast, U.S. soldiers served under some
of the nation’s best officers, such as Captain Robert E. Lee and Captain Ulysses S.
Grant, both West Point graduates.

R.
ec
en
wr
La
St.
War with Mexico, 1846–1848
U.S. victory
Mexican victory
U.S. forces
Mexican forces
San Francisco Fort Leavenworth Acquired by U.S. in Texas

annexation of 1845
arny
r
Monterey Bent's Fort Ke A
ve
Ri
rk Acquired by U.S. in Treaty of
July 7, 1846 do
o ra Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1848
an
C ol
arny
sas
Sto c k
R.
PAC I F I C Acquired by U.S. in Gadsden
Ke
to Santa Fe
n San Pasoual Purchase, 1853
OCEAN Dec. 6, 1846 Las Vegas
Los Angeles Albuquerque R e d R iver 0 200 400 miles
30°N Gila Riv
er
El Brazito 0 200 400 kilometers
Slo
Ke
arn Dec. 25, 1846
at
y
El Paso New
Orleans
UNITED STATES, 1830 Sacramento Doniphan Rio G San Antonio
Feb. 28, 1847
ra
ott
nd
Sc
e
Chihuahua
MEXICO l 90°W
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA oo Corpus
Mar. 1–Apr. 28,
W
OREGON Monterrey Christi Gulf of
TERRITORY 1847 Sept. 20–24, 1846
Taylor Mexico
110°W Matamoros
Buena Vista Saltillo
ce r
Taylor
UNITED STATES n
Tropic of Ca
Santa Anna
Feb. 22–23, 1847
Mazatlán
Tampico
MEXICO Nov. 15, 1846
Sc
San Luis Potosi
ott
20°N
N Mexico City Scott

Sept. 14, 1847
UNITED STATES, 1853 Veracruz
W E Churubusco, Mar. 9–29, 1847
Aug. 20, 1847
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA S
UNITED STATES 1. Location From which locations
in Texas did U.S. forces come to
Buena Vista?
2. Region In which country were
MEXICO
most of the battles fought?
The American invasion of Mexico lasted about a year and featured a pair of
colorful generals, Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott. Affectionately nicknamed
“Old Rough and Ready” because he sported a casual straw hat and plain brown
coat, Taylor attacked and captured Monterrey, Mexico, in September 1846, but
allowed the Mexican garrison to escape.
Meanwhile, Polk hatched a bizarre scheme with Santa Anna, who had been
living in exile in Cuba. If Polk would help him sneak back to Mexico, Santa Anna
promised he would end the war and mediate the border dispute. Polk agreed, but
when Santa Anna returned to Mexico, he resumed the presidency, took com-
mand of the army and, in February 1847, ordered an attack on Taylor’s forces at
Buena Vista. Though the Mexican army boasted superior numbers, its soldiers suf-
fered from exhaustion. Taylor’s more rested troops pushed Santa Anna into
Mexico’s interior.
Scott’s forces took advantage of Santa Anna’s failed strategy and captured
Veracruz in March. General Scott always wore a full-dress blue uniform with a yel-
low sash, which won him the nickname “Old Fuss and Feathers.” Scott supervised
an amphibious landing at Veracruz, in which an army of 10,000 landed on an
296 CHAPTER 9
island off Veracruz in 200 ships and ferried 67 boats in less
than 5 hours. Scott’s troops then set off for Mexico City, ANOTHER
which they captured on September 14, 1847. Covering 260
miles, Scott’s army had lost not a single battle. P E R S P EC T I V E
America Gains the Spoils of War
For Mexico, the war in which it lost at least 25,000 lives and
nearly half its land marked an ugly milestone in its rela-
tions with the United States. America’s victory came at the
cost of about 13,000 lives. Of these, nearly 2,000 died in
battle or from wounds and more than 11,000 perished from
diseases, such as yellow fever. However, the war enlarged LOS NIÑOS HÉROES
U.S. territory by approximately one-third. Though most Americans know
little about the war with Mexico,
THE TREATY OF GUADALUPE HIDALGO On February 2, Mexicans view the war as a
1848, the United States and Mexico signed the Treaty of crucial event in their history.
Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico agreed to the Rio Grande On September 14, 1847,
border for Texas and ceded New Mexico and California to General Winfield Scott captured
Mexico City after the hard-fought
the United States. The United States agreed to pay $15 mil-
Battle of Chapultepec, the site of
lion for the Mexican cession, which included present-day the Mexican military academy.
California, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, most of Arizona, There, six young cadets leaped
and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The treaty guaran- from Chapultepec Castle to com-
teed Mexicans living in these territories freedom of reli- mit suicide rather than surrender
to the U.S. Army. A monument
gion, protection of property, bilingual elections, and open
(shown above) that honors los
borders. Niños Héroes (the boy heroes)
Five years later, in 1853, President Franklin Pierce inspires pilgrimages every
would authorize his emissary James Gadsden to pay Mexico September.
an additional $10 million for another piece of territory
MAIN IDEA south of the Gila River. Along with the settlement of
Summarizing Oregon and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the Gadsden
D Explain the Purchase established the current borders of the lower 48 states. D
importance of
the Treaty of TAYLOR’S ELECTION IN 1848 In 1848 the Democrats nominated Lewis Cass
Guadalupe Hidalgo for president and hesitated about the extension of slavery into America’s vast new
and the Gadsden holdings. A small group of antislavery Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren
Purchase.
to lead the Free-Soil Party, which supported a congressional prohibition on the
extension of slavery into the territories. Van Buren captured 10 percent of the
popular vote and no electoral votes. The Whig nominee, war hero Zachary Taylor,
easily won the election. Taylor’s victory, however, was soon overshadowed by a
glittering discovery in one of America’s new territories.
The California Gold Rush

In January 1848, James Marshall, an American carpenter working on John Sutter’s
property in the California Sierra Nevadas, discovered gold at Sutter’s Mill. Word
of the chance discovery traveled east.
THE RUSH BEGINS Soon after the news reached San Francisco, residents trav-
eled to the Sacramento Valley in droves to pan for gold. Lacking staff and readers,
San Francisco’s newspaper, the Californian, suspended publication. An editorial
in the final issue, dated May 29, complained that the whole country “resounds
with the sordid cry of gold, GOLD, GOLD! while the field is left half-plowed, the
house half-built, and everything neglected but the manufacture of shovels and
pickaxes.”

Analyzing
“THE WAY THEY GO TO

CALIFORNIA”
This cartoon lithograph by Nathaniel
Currier (1813–1888) was inspired by
the California gold rush. Currier was a
founder of the Currier and Ives compa-
ny, which became famous for detailed
lithographs of 19th-century daily life.
Here Currier portrays some of the
hordes of prospectors who flocked from
all over the world to California in 1849.
The mob wields picks and shovels, des-
perate to find any means of transport to
the “Golden West.” While some miners
dive into the water, weighed down by
heavy tools, one clever prospector has
invented a new type of airship to speed
him to the treasure.
SKILLBUILDER
Analyzing Political Cartoons
1. How has the cartoonist added humor
to this portrayal of the gold seekers?
2. What clues tell you that this cartoon
is about the California gold rush?
SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK,

PAGE R24.
On June 6, 1848, Monterey’s Mayor Walter Colton sent a scout to report on

what was happening. After the scout returned on June 14, the mayor described
the scene that had taken place in the middle of the town’s main street.
A PERSONAL VOICE WALTER COLTON

“ The blacksmith dropped his hammer, the carpenter his plane, the mason his
trowel, the farmer his sickle, the baker his loaf, and the tapster his bottle. All
were off for the mines. . . . I have only a community of women left, and a gang of
prisoners, with here and there a soldier who will give his captain the slip at first
chance. I don’t blame the fellow a whit; seven dollars a month, while others are
making two or three hundred a day!”
—quoted in California: A Bicentennial History
As gold fever traveled eastward, overland migration to California skyrocketed,

from 400 in 1848 to 44,000 in 1850. The rest of the world soon caught the fever. MAIN IDEA
Among the so-called forty-niners, the prospectors who flocked to California in Comparing
1849 in the gold rush, were people from Asia, South America, and Europe. E E What common
dreams did people
IMPACT OF GOLD FEVER Because of its location as a supply center, San Francisco who sought gold in
became “a pandemonium of a city,” according to one traveler. Indeed, the city’s California share
population exploded from 1,000 in 1848 to 35,000 in 1850. Ferrying people and with those who
settled in Oregon?
supplies, ships clogged San Francisco’s harbor with a forest of masts.
Louisa Clapp and her husband, Fayette, left the comforts of a middle-class
family in New England to join the gold rush for adventure. After living in San
Francisco for more than a year, the Clapps settled in a log cabin in the interior
298 CHAPTER 9
mining town of Rich Bar. While her
husband practiced medicine, Louisa
tried her hand at mining and found it
hardly to her liking.
A PERSONAL VOICE
LOUISA CLAPP
“ I have become a mineress; that is, if
having washed a pan of dirt with my
own hands, and procured therefrom
three dollars and twenty-five cents in
gold dust . . . will entitle me to the
name. I can truly say, with the black-
smith’s apprentice at the close of his
first day’s work at the anvil, that ‘I am
sorry I learned the trade;’ for I wet my
feet, tore my dress, spoilt a pair of
new gloves, nearly froze my fingers,
got an awful headache, took cold and
lost a valuable breastpin, in this my
labor of love.”
—quoted in They Saw the Elephant ▼
These miners are
GOLD RUSH BRINGS DIVERSITY By 1849, California’s population exceeded prospecting in
100,000. The Chinese were the largest group to come from overseas. Free blacks Spanish Flat,
also came by the hundreds, and many struck it rich. By 1855, the wealthiest California, in
African Americans in the country were living in California. The fast-growing pop- 1852.
ulation included large numbers of Mexicans as well. The California demographic
mix also included slaves—that is until a constitutional convention in 1849 drew
up a state constitution that outlawed slavery.
California’s application for statehood provoked fiery protest in Congress and
became just one more sore point between irate Northerners and Southerners, each
intent on winning the sectional argument over slavery. Nevertheless, California
did win statehood in 1850.
•James K. Polk •Republic of California •Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo •forty-niners
•Zachary Taylor •Winfield Scott •Gadsden Purchase •gold rush
•Stephen Kearny

2. TAKING NOTES 3. EVALUATING 4. ANALYZING EFFECTS
Draw a chart showing how the How would you evaluate President What were some of the effects of
boundaries of the contiguous United Polk’s attitude and behavior toward the California gold rush?
States were formed. Mexico? Use specific references to
5. EVALUATING DECISIONS
the chapter to support your
Effect: Present-Day U.S. Borders Would you have supported the
response. Think About:
controversial war with Mexico? Why
• Polk’s position on expansion or why not? Explain your answer,
Causes: • his actions once in office including details from the chapter.
• his relationship with Santa Anna
How did the United States pursue
its goal of expanding in the 1840s?

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
TERMS & NAMES

For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining its
VISUAL SUMMARY connection to the expansion of the U.S. in the mid-19th century.
1. Samuel F. B. Morse 6. Alamo
EXPANDING MARKETS 2.
3.
manifest destiny
Oregon Trail
7.
8.
Sam Houston
Republic of Texas
AND MOVING WEST 4. Brigham Young 9. James K. Polk
5. Antonio López de 10. Treaty of Guadalupe
Santa Anna Hidalgo
UNITED
STATES UNITED STATES
MAIN IDEAS
IN 1830
Use your notes and the information in the chapter to answer
the following questions.
MARKET REVOLUTION The Market Revolution (pages 274–279)

• technological changes 1. What inventions and technological advancements changed
• economic interdependence lives as part of the market revolution?
2. How did the inventions and innovations of the mid-19th
• greater economic diversity among the century encourage various regions to specialize in certain
regions of the nation industries?
MANIFEST DESTINY Manifest Destiny (pages 280–285)

3. Why was the concept of manifest destiny of particular appeal
• the idea of manifest destiny used to
to Americans in the 1840s?
justify settling the land
4. What were the factors that drew settlers west during the first
• increasing westward migration half of the 19th century?
EXPANSION IN TEXAS Expansion in Texas (pages 288–292)

5. What made Americans want to settle in Texas?
• land grants offered by Mexico
6. What were the major events that led to Texas joining the
• American settlement of Texas Union?
• conflict over cultural differences, and
over slavery The War with Mexico (pages 293–299)
• American uprising 7. What developments caused the United States to go to war
with Mexico?
• Texas independence 8. What effect did the gold rush have on the growth of
• U.S. annexation of Texas California?
WAR WITH MEXICO CRITICAL THINKING

• tension over annexation of Texas
1. USING YOUR NOTES What were America’s goals and ideals
• war with Mexico
during this period of expansion and economic change? Draw a
• huge territorial gains for the U.S. chart in which you list goals from the period, how they were
• greater westward movement of settlers achieved, and in what ways their effects were positive or
negative.
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH
Goal How Achieved Positive/Negative Effects
• discovery of gold in California
• population and economic boom in
California
• California statehood (1850)
2. INTERPRETING MAPS Review the map on pages 286–287. In

what ways would this map have been helpful to settlers follow-
UNITED ing the Oregon Trail to a new home? Explain your answer.
STATES UNITED STATES
IN 1853 3. ANALYZING EFFECTS What was the impact of the new meth-
ods of communication during this period? Use details from the
text to support your response.
300 CHAPTER 9
Standardized Test Practice
Use the map and your knowledge of U.S. history to Use the quotation below and your knowledge of U.S.
answer questions 1 and 2. history to answer question 3.
“ [T]he right of our manifest destiny to over

A spread and to possess the whole of the continent
which Providence has given us for the develop-
ment of the great experiment of liberty and . . .
development of self government entrusted to us.
B
UNITED STATES It is [a] right such as that of the tree to the
IN 1819 space of air and the earth suitable for the full
C D expansion of its principle and destiny of growth.”
—John L. O’Sullivan,
United States Magazine and Democratic Review
3. In this passage, the writer uses the term “manifest

1. Which area on the map corresponds to the label
destiny” to mean that -—
“Mexican Cession, 1848”? A expansion is not only good but bound to happen.
A Area A B neighboring territories will resent U.S. expansion.
B Area B C America’s growth can be compared to a tree.
C Area C D self-government leads to expansion.
D Area D 4. All of the following were outcomes of the California
2. Which area on the map corresponds to the label
Gold Rush except —
“Oregon territory”? F increased diversity in the region.
F Area A G the rapid growth of San Francisco.
G Area B H an increase in overland migration.
H Area C J the expansion of slavery in California.
J Area D
ADDITIONAL TEST PRACTICE, pages S1–S33.
ITEST PRACTICE CLASSZONE.COM
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
1. INTERACT Recall your discussion of 2. IINTERNET ACTIVITY CLASSZONE.COM
the question on page 273:
W I T H H I S T O RY
Visit the links for Chapter Assessment to find out
more about the revolution in technology and
What are the ways that a nation communication in the first half of the 19th century.
increases its territory? What invention most appeals to you, and why?
Prepare an oral report that describes the
Suppose you are a journalist covering the War impact that your favorite invention had on society
with Mexico for an American newspaper. Write an at the time.
editorial that presents your point of view about
whether the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo are fair to Mexicans living in the territories
covered by the treaty. Use information from the
chapter to support your opinion.

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William Ranney’s 1853 painting Advice

on the Prairie is an idealistic image of a

1832 Chief Black

USA 1825 1830 1835

1828 Uruguay 1830 Revolutions 1833 Santa 1835 Ferdinand I

In the 1820s and 1830s the country

What are the

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1840 1845 1850

Expanding Markets and Moving West 273

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A PERSONAL VOICE SAMUEL F. B. MORSE

Congress granted Morse $30,000 to build a 40-mile tele-

U.S. Markets Expand

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1837 1876 1895

Expanding Markets and Moving West 277

A PERSONAL VOICE SAMUEL BRECK

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MAIN IDEA CRITICAL THINKING

Expanding Markets and Moving West 279

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A PERSONAL VOICE AMELIA STEWART KNIGHT

Knight’s situation was by no means unique; probably one in

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Expanding Markets and Moving West 281

N OW THEN Americans nor the settlers dominated, according to histori-

A PERSONAL VOICE AMELIA STEWART KNIGHT

The interior of a covered wagon may

Butterfield Overland Trail

0 100 200 kilometers

Expanding Markets and Moving West 283

A PERSONAL VOICE CATHERINE HAUN

MAIN IDEA CRITICAL THINKING

Expanding Markets and Moving West 285

Mapping the Oregon Trail

5 THE WHITMAN MISSION

October 20-21 October 17-1

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17-18 October 16-17 3 RECORDING NATURAL RESOURCES

4 CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS

IRESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM

Expanding Markets and Moving West 287

One American's Story

In 1821, Stephen F. Austin led the first of several groups of

A PERSONAL VOICE STEPHEN F. AUSTIN

Americans Settle in the Southwest

Expanding Markets and Moving West 289

A PERSONAL VOICE MARY AUSTIN HOLLEY

Word about Texas spread throughout the United States.

Texas Fights for Independence

War for Texas Independence, 1835–1836

0 75 150 miles Rio er

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Expanding Markets and Moving West 291

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