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Excavation at Nagardhan, Nagpur District, 2015-2016

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Excavation at Nagardhan, Nagpur District, Maharashtra (2015-2016) 43

Excavation at Nagardhan, Nagpur District,

Maharashtra (2015-2016)
Virag Sontakke*, Shrikant Ganvir**
Shantanu Vaidya** and P.P. Joglekar**

Nagardhan (21° 21′ N; 79° 19′′ E), a large village in present-day Nagardhan village as historical Nandivardhan
Ramtek taluka of Nagpur district is located 6 km south of due to structural remains of the Vakataka period, and
Ramtek, the Taluka headquarter (Fig. 1). This place has finding of inscription of Prabhavatigupta (daughter of
been associated with Nandivardhan, the capital of one the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II Vikramaditya) in the
of branches of the Vakatata dynasty that ruled between Keval Narsimha temple at Ramtek.
250-550 CE. Earlier Hiralal1 and later Mirashi2 identified

Fig. 1: Location of Nagardhan

*
Department of Archaeology, Nagpur Division, Nagpur 440001, Maharashtra.
**
A.I.H.C and Archaeology, Deccan College, Pune 411006.
44 History Today, No.17, 2016

Fig. 2: Localities at Nagardhan

Amerandra Nath of the Archaeological Survey of CE) shifted capital from Padmapura to Nandivardhan
India explored the area3. He found remains of the Early Nagardhan was already an existing town. Thus one of the
Historic period and traces of a fortification wall at a few objectives of this excavation was to locate and find out
places in Nagardhan. Maharashtra state department the extent of the pre-Vakataka cultural horizons. Since
archaeology during preservation work of the medieval no study of Vakataka structural remains was done earlier,
fort at Nagardhan during 1980s found archaeological the other objective of this excavation was to understand
remains of the Vakataka period such as sculptures of the nature and significance of Vakataka period public
Brahmanical deities. architecture. Though ample historical information is
available about the Vakataka dynasty it was thought
Lacey 4 surveyed the site and suggested that important to look at social and cultural dimensions of the
archaeological remains are spread over a larger area than Vakatakas from archaeological perspective.
previously thought. She and Bhaisare5 considered that
this site is a single culture site belonging to the Vakataka Site and cuttings
period in spite of obvious presence of medieval structural
remains in present Nagardhan village. Fresh field survey conducted by the present authors at the
site revealed that Nagardhan is a much larger site than
Thus, the initial association of Nagardhan with earlier reported. Archaeological remains were found on
ancient Nandivardhan was confirmed. However, the surface spread over an area of 1 km (east-west) and
intensive exploration and archaeological investigations 1.5 km (north-south). A small local stream flows on the
were not carried out at the site. On this background of western side from adjoining Dudhala area and merges in
archaeological and historical information the Nagpur a pond-like water body, a depression on the western edge
division of the Department of Archaeology, Maharashtra of the present day village. Interestingly running for about
State, and Department of A.I.H.C. and Archaeology, 200-300 m, the stream becomes invisible. However,
Deccan College, Pune jointly excavated the site of water table even after this portion is high indicating
Nagardhan in 2015-2016. that the stream once must have flowed further south.
This stream is just outside the extant portion of ancient
Objectives of the Excavation embankment, thus indicating that perhaps this stream was
actually flowing southwards and joining the Bhagi nalla
From the evidence of inscriptions and copper plates it 1.5 km further south of the village. At present there is the
is known that when Vakataka king Prithvisena (c. 350 Koteshwar temple of the15th-16th century CE on the bank
Excavation at Nagardhan, Nagpur District, Maharashtra (2015-2016) 45

of the stream. Like the western side, large water bodies are accumulation of ash and charcoal in the upper layers. This
seen on the northern and eastern side too. This suggests area perhaps was a dumping ground or an area of garbage
that perhaps during the Early Historic times, the streams pits. Evidence of the Early Medieval structural activity
around Nagardhan were diverted to make permanent was found in these two trenches (Pl. 2). The structures
water sources (Fig. 2). in the trench C were mostly have reused bricks of earlier
period. The ceramics of this period were different from
The entire present-day village is on top of the ancient the earlier Vakataka period. The structures below the Early
habitation. However, archaeological remains were Medieval level were a dilapidated condition. Two more
visible on the surface in several large areas that are not structural levels though destroyed have yielded ceramics
been occupied at present too. The Nagardhan fort is and antiquities of the Vakataka period. The lower levels
located on the southern side of present-day Nagardhan also yielded black-and-red ware attesting the dating of
village. This fort was constructed during the Gond Raja these levels to around 1st-2nd century CE.
period and later renovated and re-used by the Bhosales
of Nagpur during the late 18th century and 19th century. In trench D1 after removal of a huge dump and ashy
The area surrounding the fort is under cultivation and has deposit three structural phases were seen (Pl. 3). The
archaeological remains. youngest structural phase could be assigned to around
6th-7th century CE. The floors of this phase were composed
After initial surface survey of the whole site it was of rammed brickbats, sandy lateritic gravel and potsherds
decided to demarcate various localities for planning of tiny size. A brick wall of four courses was associated
of the excavation. Locality 1 included the area in front with the middle structural phase. Several bowls and pots
of the fort and the area within the fort (Pl. 1). The area were found in this area. It seemed to be a refuse area. In
behind the fort and immediately to its south was marked the lowermost structural level thick deposit was found
as Locality 2. The area to the south-east of the fort at a that was devoid of brick structure. This evidence suggests
distance of around 80 m was termed as Locality 3. The that before beginning of brick building activity, flimsy
area further east of Locality 3 and close to the present-day structures existed there.
canal was termed as Locality 4. An isolated mound on
the western side away from present village was named Trench H (Qd 1) was laid inside the fort to trace
as Locality 5. The embankment was named as Locality the cultural sequence over there. This trench provided
6. Trenches were laid on all six localities (Table 1). All evidence of several structural phases.
trenches were 10×10 m in dimension, and further divided
in four quadrants each of 5×5 m. A large structure of eight brick courses was found
that could not be exposed completely due to overlapping
Table 1: Trench lay-out at Nagardhan (2015-2016) upper structures. This the earliest structural phase
(Satavahana-Kshatrapa period) inside the fort though
Locality Trenches below this level earlier habitation deposit was found.
1 C, D1 and H (inside the fort) Ceramics of the 3rd-4th century BCE were also found just
below the brick structure. The earliest habitation deposit
2 I, I1 and J
showed presence of ceramics of the Early Iron Age affinity.
3 L and M
4 N and XN Above the Satavahana-Kshatrapa structural level a
5 Trial trench 1 large brick structure was found. Its eight extant courses
over a bed of pebbles. This structure perhaps had a large
6 ZA1, ZA2, ZA3 and ZA4
room with an adjoining smaller room. A clay sealing
bearing the name of Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta
was found over this structure. Other clay sealing having
Locality 1 the Srivatsa symbol was found in the late Vakataka period
deposit in this trench.
In the cuttings named C, D1 and H (the last was in the fort)
a thick deposit of the medieval period was encountered. The structural activity of post-Vakataka period (6th-
The trenches C (Qd 1) and D1 (Qd 3) seemed to be vacant 10 century CE) inside the fort could not be recorded
th

lands during the medieval period since there was a thick properly due to dilapidated structures mixed with thick
46 History Today, No.17, 2016

Fig. 3: Brick structures in Trench H

deposit of stones and brick rubble. The deposit also Locality 2

contained a huge dump of ash and broken potsherds.
A thick deposit of the around 10th- 12th century CE was The trenches I, I1 and J in the Locality 2 (south of fort)
found above. A brick well was found in the south-eastern also yielded good structural evidence. The lowest deposit
corner of the trench in this phase (Fig. 3; Pl. 4). The upper belonged to the Early Iron Age level above which remains
8 courses are made of bricks in header pattern. The well of the Mauryan period were recorded. Both these phases
wall up to 1.5 m depth is made of bricks. The shape of the had simple mud floors. Above the Mauryan period deposit,
well up this point is circular. The well section becomes a structure resembling a pavement was encountered. This
square due to a single stone course. The wall below this pavement had only a single course of bricks laid over a
stone course is somewhat disturbed. The wall construction rammed floor made by brick powder and lime and lateritic
using bricks continues down for 2.5 m. The disturbance granules. Based on ceramic evidence it is clear that this
and rubble deposit indicates that the original well was pavement belonged to the Satavahana-Kshatrapa period.
renovated and re-used in the period around 10th- 12th
century CE. A Vakataka period brick structure of eight extant
courses was exposed that got destroyed to some extent
Above the depth of 45-50 cm below datum point due to upper structural activities. This was only a single
stratified deposit of the medieval period was encountered. wall with a lime plastered floor. This structure seems to
A few structures of reused bricks and stones were present. be of public utility structure such as a courtyard. Several
The bricks were half-cut portions of Vakataka period beads (stone and glass) and glass bangles were recovered
bricks. Polychrome bangles which are characteristic of from this structural phase.
the 13th-16th century CE in the Deccan and Central India
were found associated with this phase. The uppermost level dated to around 7th to 10th
century CE yielded evidence of another pavement. This
Structures of the Bhosale period (18th- 19th century pavement has ‘Z’ shape (Pl. 5). The areas besides the
CE) are present on the surface. These structures are pavement were filled with murrum.
preserved by the State Department of Archaeology of
Maharashtra. The trench was found to be filled with the Locality 3
dumped material used during conservation along with
the Bhosale period deposit. Structures of the Vakataka and Late Satavahana phase
Excavation at Nagardhan, Nagpur District, Maharashtra (2015-2016) 47

were found in trenches L and M in Locality 3 (Pl. 6). The Stratigraphy

first and earliest phase had small but well-made brick
structures and only one long wall with perpendicular The stratigraphy of trench IQD4, I1QD3 (section facing
smaller walls, and a drain were found. These structural south), Locality 2 is illustrated here (Fig. 4). A total 10
remains were domestic in nature since antiquities layers were marked.
like religious images, coins, bangles, beads and were
recovered here. In the second phase one very long wall of Layer 1 (Early Medieval) was very thick composed
13 m and of six brick courses was found. A well-rammed of ashy, loose material that contains heavy concentration
floor made of crumbled bricks, lime and lateritic granules of pottery and brickbats. It is sloping towards west of
was associated with this phase structure. Seven walls, nine the trench. It was around 60 cm thick in the east and at
alignments, one pavement and two partition walls were a centre of the trench more than one meter thick. The
found in the upper phase. thickness on the western part was 2 m. On the slope
habitation deposit of layers 2-4 was found to be disturbed.
Locality 4
Layer 2 (Early Medieval) was filled with brickbats and
From this locality two full pots (Pl. 7) and three full pans rubble and cut by Layer 1 hence only 2.3 m of this layer
along with several artefacts. These include a fragmented is extant. Brickbats, pottery and very few stones were
votive shrine, votive tank, iron chisel, a stone tile depicting found in this layer.
a deer, and terracotta bangles. Also, antlers of the spotted
deer were found here. The pots were placed by deliberate Layer 3 (Early Medieval) was a horizontal layer
cutting of thick layer of murrum. A rectangular brick disturbed by above Layer 1 leaving only a few patches
structure was constructed around one of these pots where this layer was visible. Layer 3 has thickness of 20
specifically for protection. Artefacts mentioned above cm. It comprises lateritic murum mixed with quartz pieces
were found in a hole (1.5 m deep) below the pots. The and mica flakes. It is associated with the pavement of the
hole was cut in the murrum. The arrangement of the pots, uppermost phase structural activity.
the manner of placing these pots and the material found
there suggests that these were connected with some ritual Layer 4 (Vakataka), grey with some reddish patches
of the Vakataka period. in colour, was exposed in the western part of the section.
Its average thickness was 65 cm. This layer slopes gently
Locality 5 towards west. At the base, material similar to Layer 3 was
seen, however the layer contains semi-compact silty soil
Locality 5 is to the west of present-day village at a distance mixed with pottery, charcoal and brick-bats. This layer is
of 500 m. Scatter of brickbats and a few dressed sandstone associated structures of the Vakataka phase.
blocks were observed on this raised mound. A trial trench
on this mound was dug but no structural or habitational Layer 5 (Vakataka) was greyish in colour with an
evidence was found. average thickness of 53 cm. It contains pottery, charred
patches and silty soil. It is associated with the floor in
Locality 6 quadrant I1 belonging to the Late Satavahana phase.

This locality is embankment area. Four step trenches Layer 6 (Vakataka), comprises of brick-bats, charcoal
were laid here. Excavation revealed interesting clues and pottery. It was loose in nature and having thickness
to how the embankment was constructed (Pl. 8). The of 27 cm. This layer had greyish appearance. Burning
lowermost deposit was of murrum followed by clay. This activity was exposed in the northern part of the trench.
clay contained remains of the Early Iron Age habitation.
This clay was probably brought and deposited here Layer 7 (Satavahana-Kshatrapa) was a thick layer (70
perhaps during the Vakataka period. Outer side of the cm) of semi-compact silty soil. It appears reddish because
embankment showed presence of brick (two courses) of crumbled bricks in it. However, in the northern and
alignment. Above this, murrum followed by clay and eastern parts of the trench it is greyish in colour due to
again brick-bats were dumped. local burning activity.
48 History Today, No.17, 2016

Layer 8 (Pre-Satavahana and Mauryan) was found and hooded rims, bowls with straight sides and incurved
to be a dividing line between above and lowermost sides with simple featureless rims (Fig. 5).
occupational phases. The top portion of this layer had
6-7 cm thick murrum mixed with quartz, and mica flakes.
Below this silty soil with burnt patches (average thickness
of 60 cm) was seen. This greyish deposit also contains
charred bones. Ceramic assemblage of this layer was
different in texture, types and firing than of the above
layers. It is also noticed that, due to pit activity part of the
ceramic assemblage has got mixed characters.

Layer 9 (Early Iron Age) was horizontal layer (35 cm)

that was compact in nature. It comprised sticky clay of
greyish colour. This layer provided the base of earliest
occupation here.

Fig. 5: Pottery of Period I

Period II

The Mauryan - Pre-Satavahana period was characterized

by red slipped ware with a crinkled surface, black-and-red
ware with a shining surface and a slightly thicker section
than the early Iron Age counterparts. The pots with a
splayed-out rim and having a bulb on the exterior, pots
with rim making an external reflex angle and a sharp
undercut were seen in this period. Based on the presence
of mica pottery can be divided in two broad categories:
micaceous red ware and mica wash Red ware. The red

Fig. 4: Section of Trench I1

Layer 10 composed of lateritic murrum was the

natural soil. This non-habitational layer was dug up to
25 cm depth.

Ceramic Assemblage

Period I

The Early Iron Age period is represented by micaceous red

ware, black-and-red ware and red ware with matt surface.
Shapes are mostly pots with funnel mouth, flaring mouth
Fig. 6: Pottery of Period II
Excavation at Nagardhan, Nagpur District, Maharashtra (2015-2016) 49

slipped ware also has mica in it in a few cases (Fig. 6). pots with a slight flaring rim and a constricted neck with
a shallow bottom are a typical feature. Sprinklers of Red
Period III Polished Ware which appear in the previous phase also
increase in this phase. Black-and-red ware slowly starts
The pottery of the earlier phase continued but the types decreasing from this phase (Fig. 8).
differ. The pots with beaded rims, rounded rims, pots with
rims having an internal groove and a bulbous rim can be
seen in red slipped ware. Black-and-red ware however
is coarse in fabric and the section is thick. The surface is
bright but it crinkles out easily. The mica presence can
now be broadly categorized as: mica wash red ware with
mica, mica wash red ware without mica, red slipped ware
with mica, red slipped ware without mica, unslipped red
ware with mica and unslipped red ware without mica.
There are other types like the V-shaped bowl, pots with
clubbed rims, out-turned rims and triangular in section,
out-turned rims having a square tip or a ridged tip (Fig. 7).

Fig. 8: Pottery of Period IV

Period V

The early medieval period ceramics is dominated by the

black slipped ware and the red slipped ware with a very
coarse fabric. This phase also yielded the stone ware and
Fig. 7: Pottery of Period III
some pieces of torpedo jar.

Period IV Period VI

The Vakataka phase can be differentiated by the The medieval ceramics is dominated more by the black
increased presence of mica wash red ware with mica as ware, drab in variety. Red ware comprised of mica but is
well as without mica. The appearance of carinated handis, very coarse and dull.
50 History Today, No.17, 2016

Stone Objects of Ganapati (Pl. 13) and a partially preserved one of

the Naigmeshi. Ganapati worship was common during
Stone objects include religious images, tiles, beads, the Vakataka period in Vidarbha region. Stone images
household objects such pestles, mullers, saddle querns, of Ganapati are earlier reported from Bhadravati and
rotary querns, grinding stones, etc. Other objects include Nagardhan 6. The small figurine of Ganapati found
sling balls. Stone images of different deities have been from Locality 3 is well-preserved. The icon is devoid of
found in archaeological exploration and the excavations ornaments. It was perhaps meant for private worship.
at Nagardhan. These images are of Vishnu, Narasimha,
Ganapati, Lajja Gauri (Pl. 9) and a bust of a Jain deity. A terracotta image of Naigameshi head was found
Fragments of stone tiles were found in the Nagaradhan from Locality 4. The face is of ram shown with two
excavations. Fox example, a stone tile (Pl. 10) recovered raised ears and eyes. The image is well-made. Images
from Locality 4 shows a deer with a belt-like collar, of Naigameshi are rare at the Early Historic sites of
perhaps indicating a pet deer kept for royal amusement. Maharashtra. An image of Naigamesh was previously
reported from Mandhal 7, the site associated with the
Beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, Vakataka culture.
agate and quartz were found in the excavation in almost
all the localities. These beads are of common historical Figurines of animals, birds, reptiles and fishes are
shapes such as circular, tubular, spherical, bicone and commonly noticed at historical sites. These could be
globular shapes. serving the purpose of toys as well as related to rituals.
These figurines were used as a toy or for also religious
Coins and sealing rituals. At Nagardhan terracotta figurines of bull, horse,
elephant and fish were found. These figurines were made
The excavations carried out at the site of Nagardhan by both hand-made and moulding technique. Similar
yielded 30 coins of different periods. A Kardamaka to animal figurines, a few human figurines were also
coin, Vakataka coins, the Indo-Sassanian (Gadheya) recovered.
coins, Bahamani coins and coins of the Indian Princely
State were found. Thus the coins indicate a continuous Chronology
occupation from the 3rdcentury CE till the modern period.
Most of the coins were extremely corroded. Hence, it is Based on sequence of ceramics, stones and terracotta
difficult to decipher the legends. However, some of them objects, coin, sealing, nature of deposit in various trenches
after cleaning could be deciphered. and structures following tentative composite chronology
has been proposed.
An important antiquity is a clay sealing of the
Vakataka empress Prabhavatigupta. She was the chief Period I: Early Iron Age
queen of the Vakataka king Rudrasena II. The sealing Period II: Mauryan and Pre-Satavahana
found in the excavations confirms her authority as the
head of the state after death of Rudrasena II. It bears the Period III: Satavahana-Kshatrapa
name ‘Prabhavatigupta’ in Brahmi. It also has depiction Period IV: Vakataka
of a ‘Shankha’ above her name
Period V: Early Medieval
Terracotta objects Period VI: Medieval

A good number of terracotta objects were recovered. Biological Remains

These objects include religious images, human figurines,
animal figurines (Pls. 11,12), sealings, ear ornaments, During the excavation at Nagardhan remains of grains and
bangles, pendants, amulets, beads, pottery discs/ hop seeds were recovered by wet flotation technique. These
scotches, wheels, skin rubbers, spindle whorls, votive remains are being examined at BISP, Lucknow and the
tanks and gamesman. A small terracotta votive shrine is result is awaited. Almost all trenches revealed presence
one of the most significant findings from the Nagardhan of animal remains. These were collected in a standard
excavation. method of faunal collection set at the Archaeozoology
Laboratory, Deccan College.
There are two religious terracotta objects- figurine
Excavation at Nagardhan, Nagpur District, Maharashtra (2015-2016) 51

A random sample of faunal material (n =269) was Vakatakas and the Guptas that ruled over a vast area, the
examined to (1) to know the species that have been excavations conducted at Nagardhan provided important
present in archaeological material, and (2) to ascertain the window to look at material culture of the Gupta-Vakataka
potential of using standard archaeozoological methods period.
for advanced understanding of human-animal interactions
at Nagardhan. The excavation gave clear evidence of domestic,
public and administrative constructions such as the
The study revealed presence of seven domestic species embankment of the Vakataka period. The excavation
(cattle, goat, sheep, pig, cat, horse and fowl), nine wild also showed adequate material evidence confirming
mammals (wild buffalo, nilgai, spotted deer, blackbuck, identification of present-day Nagardhan with historical
wild pig, fox, jungle cat, porcupine and hare), a bird (black Nandivardhan, the capital of the Vakatakas. It is evident
partridge), a reptile (Indian mud turtle), a freshwater fish, from structural remains of the earlier period that a town
and four molluscan species. Bone modifications (both existed before this place was designated as capital of
anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic) were observed in Nandivardhana branch of the Vakataka dynasty.
a few cases. These include marks of charring, cut marks,
butchering marks (Pl. 14) and gnawing marks. Charring Apart from Gupta-Vakataka period at Nagardhan
of various degrees was observed in case of 13 fragments, evidence of settled life going back to the Early Iron
but none of the fragments were charred enough to get Age (dated to pre 6th century BCE) is interesting. Similar
vitrified. Some of the charred fragments include femur evidence at other urban sites in Vidarbha such as Pauni,
bones (spotted deer, porcupine and sheep/goat), humerus Adam, Paunar and Kaundinyapur has been reported.8
(sheep/goat), carpo-metacarpus and clavicle of domestic The excavation of the first season at Nagardhan indicated
fowl (Gallus domesticus), carapace fragments (Lissemys that at this site it would be possible to examine various
punctata) and a radius of blackbuck. aspects of urban settlement pattern such as town planning
and construction processes of domestic as well as public
Two cases of carnivore bone modifications were architecture at a seat of power.
noticed. A mandible of young sheep/goat (NGD020)
recovered from trench CQ3 had a mark of chewing. The The medieval phase was found only in the trench in
other case of an astragalus of cattle (NGD054) recovered the fort area (Trench H) whereas the deposit of the early
from trench LQ4 had a puncture mark typical of dogs Iron Age was mainly encountered in the filling below
modifying the fresh bones. One case of making an object the embankment. This suggests that though during the
was noticed. A shell of Lamellidens sp. was perforated, Vakataka Period occupation was spread over entire
perhaps to use as a pendant (Pl. 15). village, but during other periods only certain areas were
occupied. Thus early Iron Age habitation was confined
Discussion on the western side and the medieval habitation was
confined to the present-day fort area.
Though ample work has been done about history of the

References

1 Hiralal, R.B., Descriptive List of Inscriptions in the Central 5 Bhaisare, Kanchana, The Vakatakas: Cultural Study in
Provinces and Berar, The Government Press, Nagpur, 1916. Archaeological Perspective, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Deccan
College, Pune, 2012.
2 Mirashi, V.V., Vakaµaka Nripatpariani Tyancha Kal (in Marathi),
Nagpur University, Nagpur, 1957. 6 Bakker, Hans, The Vakatakas: An Essay in Hindu Iconography,
Egbert Forsten, Groningen, 1997.
3 Indian Archaeology - A Review, 1981-82.
7 Ibid.
4 Lacey, Harriet, Nandivardhan and Nagardhan: Preliminary Analysis
of the Surface Evidence from Nagardhan and Hamalapuri in the 8 Vaidya, Shantanu, Emergence of the Complex Society and
Eastern Vakaµaka Territory near Ramµek, South Asian Studies 30(2), Urbanisation during the Early Iron Age and the Early Historic
Maharashtra, 2014, pp.116-132. Period in Nagpur and Wardha districts of Vidarbha. Unpublished
PhD thesis, Deccan College, Pune, 2014.
12 History Today, No.17, 2016

Sontakke et al., Pl. 1: Locality 1 in front of the Nagardhan Sontakke et al., Pl. 2: Medieval brick structures in trench C
Fort (Locality 1)

Sontakke et al., Pl. 3: Medieval brick structures in trench Sontakke et al., Pl. 4: Brick well in trench H (Locality 1)
D1 (Locality 1)

Sontakke et al., Pl. 5: Brick structures in Trench No I1 and I

(Locality 2)
Plates 13

Sontakke et al., Pl. 6: Brick structures in Trench L and M Sontakke et al., Pl. 7: Pots in Trench XN (Locality 4)
(Locality 3)

Sontakke et al., Pl. 8: Section of embankment (Locality 6)

 14 History Today, No.17, 2016

Sontakke et al., Pl. 9: Lajjagauri: stone Sontakke et al., Pl. 10: Stone
image tile depicting a deer

Sontakke et al., Pl. 11: Terracotta

toy bull

Sontakke et al., Pl. 12: Terracotta toy Sontakke et al., Pl. 13: Terracotta
horse Ganesh image

Sontakke et al., Pl. 15: Shell pendant,

Sontakke et al., Pl. 14: Butchering
Early Medieval
mark, Early Medieval

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