Lecture Notes: 0N1 (MATH19861) Mathematics For Foundation Year

0N1 (MATH19861)
Mathematics for Foundation Year
Lecture Notes
01 Oct 2018
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0N1 • Mathematics • Course Arrangements • 01 Oct 2018 2
Contents
1 Arrangements for the Course 9
Arrangements for the Course 9

1.1 Aims and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Aims and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Tests and feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Rules for Tutorial Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Detailed minute-by-minute instructions for tests 13
1.6 Examinatios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7 E-mail policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Questions from students . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.9 Notation and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Acknowledgements 16
I Lecture Notes 17
1 Sets 17
1.1 Sets: Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Predicate and list form of definition of a set . 17
1.3 Equality of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4 The empty set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5 A set cannot be an element of itself! . . . . . 20
2 Subsets; Finite and Infinite Sets 22

2.1 Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 The set of subsets of a set . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.3 Proper subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Finite and infinite sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3 Operations on Sets 28
3.1 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 Universal set and complement . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4 Relative complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5 Symmetric difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6 Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7 Sample Test Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.8 Questions from Students . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4 Set theory 39
4.1 Proof of Laws of Boolean Algebra by Venn di-
agrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Proving inclusions of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 Proving equalities of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4 Proving equalities of sets by Boolean Algebra 43
4.5 Sample test questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.6 Additional Problems:
Some problems solved with the help of Venn
diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5 Propositional Logic 49
5.1 Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2 Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3 Disjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.4 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.5 Conditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6 Propositional Logic, Continued 56

6.1 Converse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.2 Biconditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.3 XOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4 Compound statements and truth tables . . . . 57
6.5 Tautologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.6 Contradictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.7 Matching brackets: a hard question . . . . . . 60
7 Logically equivalent statements 64

7.1 Logical equivalence: definitions and first exam-
ples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.2 Boolean algebra, revisited . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.3 “Either or” and “neither nor” . . . . . . . . . 67
7.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.5 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.6 Sample test question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8 Predicate Logic 70
8.1 Predicaes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.2 Compound predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9 Quantifiers 73
9.1 Universal quanifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.2 Existential quantifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

10 Logical equivalences 79
11 Inequalities 86
11.1 Basic properties of inequalities . . . . . . . . . 86
11.2 Intervals and segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
12 Operations over Inequalities 88

12.1 Formal properties of real numbers . . . . . . . 88
12.2 Properties of strict inequality . . . . . . . . . 89
12.3 Inequalities can be added . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
12.4 Proofs can be re-used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
13 Methods of Proof 92
13.1 Statements of the form (∀x)p(x) . . . . . . . 92
13.2 Change of sign in an inequality . . . . . . . . 93
13.3 Squares are non-negative . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13.4 Counterexamples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
13.5 Statements of the form
(∀x)(p(x) → q(x)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
14 Methods of Proof, Continued 99

14.1 Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
14.2 Converse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.3 Inequalities for square roots . . . . . . . . . . 101
(∀x)(p(x) ↔ q(x)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.5 Case-by-case proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.6 Absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

15 Proof by contradiction 105

15.1 An example: proof of an inequality . . . . . . 105
√
15.2 Three proofs of irrationality of 2 . . . . . . 106
15.3 Proof by contradiction: a discussion . . . . . . 109
15.4 A few words about abstraction . . . . . . . . . 112
15.5 Wonderland of Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . 114
15.6 Winning strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
15.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
15.8 Some more challenging problems . . . . . . . . 119
15.9 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
16 Harmonic, geometric, and

arithmetic means 120
16.1 Averaging and mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
16.2 Arithmetic mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
16.3 Harmonic mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
16.3.1 Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
16.3.2 A simpler example. . . . . . . . . . . . 123
16.4 Geometric mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
16.5 A basic quadratic inequality . . . . . . . . . . 126
16.6 Comparing the three means . . . . . . . . . . 127
16.7 Where are the three means used? . . . . . . . 129
16.8 Advanced problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
16.9 Solutions to advanced problems . . . . . . . . 138
17 Inequalities in single variable 140

17.1 Linear inequalities in single variable . . . . . . 140
17.2 Quadratic inequalities in single variable . . . . 141
17.2.1 Simplifying the quadratic function . . . 142

17.2.2 Completion of squares: examples . . . 143
17.2.3 Completion of square: general case . . 144
18 Linear inequalities in two variables 146

18.1 Two variables: equations of lines . . . . . . . 146
18.2 Linear inequalities in two variables . . . . . . 147
18.3 Systems of simultaneous linear
inequalities in two variables . . . . . . . . . . 149
18.4 Some quadratic inequalities in two variables . 151
18.4.1 Parabolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
18.4.2 Circles and disks . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
18.5 Questions from students and some more ad-
vanced problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19 Interval Arithmetic and Convexity 153

19.1 Interval arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
19.2 Convexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
19.3 Some more challenging problems . . . . . . . . 155
19.4 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
20 The idea of linear programming 156

20.1 A real life problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
20.2 A bit more sophisticated examples . . . . . . 157
21 Principle of
Mathematical Induction 158
21.1 Formulation of the Principle of Mathematical
Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
21.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
21.3 Is mathematical induction the most confusing
method ever taught? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
22 Mathematical Induction:
Examples with briefer solutions 162
22.1 The sum of arithmetic progression . . . . . . . 162
22.2 A historic remark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
22.3 Mathematical induction in proofs of inequalities 165
22.4 Comparing two sequences . . . . . . . . . . . 166
22.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
23 Review of the course 169
Appendix I: Laws of Boolean Algebra 170
Appendix II: Laws of Propositional Logic 171
Appendix III: Weekly Tests, 2015 173

1 Arrangements for the Course
1.1 Aims and description
Aims of 0N1
• A basic course in pure mathematical topics for members

of the foundation year.
• Key ingredient: language of Mathematics, including spe-
cific use of English in Mathematics.
Brief description
13 lectures: Sets. Definition, subsets, simple examples, union,

intersection and complement. De Morgan’s Laws. Ele-
mentary Logic; universal and existential qualifiers. Proof
by contradiction and by induction.
9 lectures: Methods of proof for inequalities. Solution of
inequalities containing unknown variables. Linear in-
equalities with one or two variables, systems of liner
inequalities with two variables. Some simple problems
of linear optimisation. Quadratic inequalities with one
variable.
2 review lectures at the end of the course, Week 12.
A brief very pragmatic description
The course contains all mathematics necessary for

writing standard commercial time-dependent spread-
sheets using the Excel (or a similar software pack-
age) macro language.
Textbooks:
• S Lipschutz, Set Theory and Related Topics. McGraw-

Hill.
• J Franklin and A Daoud, Proof in Mathematics: An In-

troduction. Kew Books (Jan 2011).
• R Steege and K Bailey, Intermediate Algebra. (Schaum’s

Outlines.) McGraw-Hill.
• R. Hammack, Book of Proof, http://www.people.vcu.

edu/~rhammack/BookOfProof/index.html
Detailed lecture notes will be provided as course progresses.
Course Webpage:
The webpage used in previous years
http://www.maths.manchester.ac.uk/~avb/math19861.html,
short URL bit.ly/2cgtpRx
will migrate, over September-October 2018, to
https://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/alexandre.
borovik/math19861.html,
short URL https://bit.ly/2O7X2KX
1.2 Arrangements
∗
Two lectures a week in weeks 1–12 : * As of 2018–19 academic year
Monday 13:00, Renold/C16
Thursday 10:00, Renold/C16
Learn to take lecture notes!
One tutorial (in small groups) in weeks 3–12,

Tuesday 13:00.
• Exercise sheets are posted on the Web/Blackboard

a week before tutorial.
• Work on your own, in the tutorial discuss your
solutions with an Instructor.
• Solutions to exercises are distributed after the tu-
torial.
Hours of private study: 68.

Homework assignments are available on the course webpage
/ BB9 space. Homework N is due in Week N + 1 –
students should be prepared to discuss it with the tu-
torial class teacher in the tutorial class in Week N + 1.
Homework is not marked, but a constructive discussion
is expected.
1.3 Tests and feedback

7-minute multiple choice tests 10 minutes at the end of
each of 10 tutorials in Weeks 3 to 12 are reserved for
the test (but experience shows that clearing the desks
from books, etc, and then collection of scripts takes
some time, so the actual test time is 7 minutes).
Tests are an important source of feedback Marked test
scripts are returned to students at the next tutorial
class, answers and solutions are made available on the
same day after the test.
Mock Tests give indication of the format of the test only –
do not expect the test have similar questions. Tutorial
class teachers are instructed not to discuss solutions to
mock tests.
Structure of the test • Two questions, each costing 2%,
so that together they make 4%.
• One problem is on material from the previous
week, another – from all previous weeks at ran-
dom.
• Marking scheme: 2 marks for a complete correct
answer, 1 mark for an incomplete correct answer,
0 for an incorrect or partially incorrect answer or
no answer. A correct answer might contain more
than one choice.
• Missed test = 0%
• The 10 test marks make up to
10 × 2 × 2% = 40% of the total mark for course.
• The actual formula for computation of the total

mark T for all tests excludes the worst result, so
10
T = × [the sume of 9 best marks] .
9
For example, if you missed 1 test, but got full 4
points in each of 9 tests that you had taken, your
total for tests is
10
× [4 × 9] = 40.
9
• Please notice that one of the tests will be on the
∗
last week of classes, Tuesday 11 December. * The date is for 2018–19 academic year
Going to holidays early will not be accepted as an
excuse for missing this test.
No Resits or Reworks
• All medical notes, honourable excuses, etc.: sub-

mit to Foundation Year Office. Their decision is
final.
• The Lecturer will not look into any detail.
• If Foundation Studies Office decides that you have
a valid reason to miss a test, the total for tests will
be adjusted in proportion to your marks for those
tests that you sat.
1.4 Rules for Tutorial Tests

1. Students will be admitted to the test only after showing
an official University ID card. No ID ⇒ No Test.
2. During the test, the ID card has to be positioned at the
corner of the student’s desk and ready for inspection.
3. After the test has started, the examiner checks the IDs.
4. Students who have been more than 5 minutes late to the
class may be allowed to take test, but their test scripts
will not be marked.
5. Students are not allowed to leave the room until the end
of the test. Examiners will not collect their scripts until
the test is over.
6. No books or any papers other than test paper are al-

lowed to be kept on the table. Use of calculators, lap-
tops, phones, or any other electronic devices is not al-
lowed, they have to be removed to bags on the floor.
7. Examiners should remove any remaining formulae from

the blackboard/whiteboard.
8. If a student breaches any of these rules, or behaves noisy,

etc., Examiners are instructed:
8.1 confiscate the offender’s test script;

8.2 write across the script: report to the Lecturer ;
8.3 make note of the offender’s name and ask him/her
to leave the room, quietly;
8.4 after the test, immediately report the incident to
the Lecturer.
The Lecturer will take care of further necessary actions.
1.5 Detailed minute-by-minute instructions

for tests
∗
1. At 13:40 the tutor makes a loud announcements in * Times are for 2018/19 academic year
class:
“Time is 13:40. Clear your desks for test.”
2. At 13:41 [0r at 13:42, if clearing desks, etc, took too

much time] the tutor makes another announcement:
“Time is 13:41 [or 13:42]. Start writing”
3. At 13:47 [or 13:48] the tutor announces:
“one minute to the end of test”
4. At 13:48 [or 13:49] the tutor announces:

“Stop writing and pass your test papers to

me.”
5. By 13:50 all test papers have to be collected.
1.6 Examinatios
2 hour examination (January):
• Weighting within course 60%.

• Eight problems, you choose and solve six of them. Each
problem costs 10%; notice 6 × 10% = 60%.
• Unlike tests, examination problems are not multiple
choice.
• You will have to give not only an answer, but justify it
by a detailed calculation and/or a complete proof.
• Past exam papers will be made available at the course
webpage:
bit.ly/2cgtpRx
or
http://www.maths.manchester.ac.uk/~avb/math19861.html.
1.7 E-mail policy

• Questions are welcome, e-mail them to
borovik at manchester.ac.uk
• When relevant, the Lecturer will send a response (with-

out naming the author of the original question) to all
the class.
• Ensure that the subject line of your message is meaning-
ful. Always include the name of the course e.g. “0N1
Tutorial”. Otherwise your message will be deleted as
spam.
• Use your university e-mail account. The Lecturer will

delete, without reading, e-mails from outside of the Uni-
versity.
1.8 Questions from students

These lecture notes include some questions asked
by students in the course. These parts of notes
contain no compulsory material but still may be
useful.
1.9 Notation and Terminology

Some textbooks use notation and terminology slightly
different from that used in the lectures. These
∗ ∗
notes make use of marginal comments like this * marginal = written on the margin,
one to give other words which are frequently used the empty space at the side of a
in English mathematical literature in the same page—like this one.
sense as the marked word. Outside of mathemat- margin = edge, border
ics, the usage of such words could be different.
Also, the choice of words very much depends on * comment = remark, commentary,
note
the sentence in which they are used.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks go to Dave Rudling for his comments on math-
ematical notation, to Alexander Watson for help with LATEX,
and to Dion Serrao for correction of numerous typos in this
text.
John Baldwin provided a solution to Problem 16.7. No-
tation for segments and intervals was suggested by Natasa
Strabic; she also made a number of useful comments on the
text.
Toby Ovod-Everett kindly allowed to use his answer on
Quora which became Section 21.3 of these Notes.
0N1 • Mathematics • Lecture 1 • Sets • 01 Oct 2018 17
Lecture Notes
Part I
Lecture Notes
1 Sets
1.1 Sets: Basic definitions

A set is any collection of objects, for example, set of numbers.
The objects of a set are called the elements of the set.
A set may be specified by listing its elements. For exam-
ple, {1, 3, 6} denotes the set with elements 1, 3 and 6. This
∗
is called the list form for the set. Note the curly brackets. * Typographical terms:
∗ { opening curly bracket
We usually use capital letters A, B, C, etc., to denote } closing curly bracket
sets.
∗ * capital letter =
The notation x ∈ A means “x is an element of A”. But upper case letter
x 6∈ A means “x is not an element of A”.
* Alternatively we may say “x belongs
to A” or “A contains x”.
Example 1.1.1
1 ∈ {1, 3, 6}, 3 ∈ {1, 3, 6}, 6 ∈ {1, 3, 6}
but
2 6∈ {1, 3, 6}.
1.2 Predicate and list form of definition of

a set
∗
A set can also be specified in predicate form , that is by giving * or descriptive form
a distinguished property of the elements of the set (or an
∗
explicit description of the elements in the set). For example, * explicit = specific, definite
18
we can define set B by
B = {x : x is a possitive integer less than 5}.
The way to read this notation is
“B is the set of all x such that x is a positive

integer less than 5”.
∗
The curly brackets indicate a set and the colon * Typographical terms:
: colon
0 0
:
is used to denote “such that”, and, not surprisingly, is read

“such that”.1
The same set B can be given by listing its elements, or in
list form:
B = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }.
1.3 Equality of sets

∗
Two sets are equal if they have exactly the same elements. * We also say: two sets coincide.
Thus
{1, 2, 3, 4} = {x : x is a possitive integer less than 5}.

1
I have received this delightful email from David Rudling:
I have been working through your lecture notes at home
now that I am retired and trying to catch up on not going
to university when younger.
I have noticed that when introducing : as the symbol for
“such that” in set theory you have not added an asterisk
commentary note mentioning the American usage of the
vertical bar | as an alternative which your students will
undoubtedly encounter.
Might I have the temerity to suggest that an asterisk com-
ment on this would be helpful?
Indeed, in some books you can find this notation for sets:
B = {x | x is a possitive integer less than 5}.

19
In list form the same set is denoted whatever order the el-
ements are listed and however many times each element is
listed. Thus
{2, 3, 5} = {5, 2, 3} = {5, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3}.
Note that {5, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3} is a set with only 3 elements: 2, 3

and 5.
Example 1.3.1
{x : x is a letter in the word GOOD } = {D, G, O}.
The set {2} is regarded as being different from the number

2. A set of numbers is not a number. {2} is a set with only one
element which happens to be the number 2. But a set is not
the same as the object it contains: {2} = 6 2. The statement
2 ∈ {2} is correct. The statement {2} ∈ {2} is wrong.
Example 1.3.2 The sets of letters in the words GOOD and

DOG are equal.
1.4 The empty set

The set
{x : x is an integer such that x2 = −1}

∗
has no elements. This is called an empty set . It was said * Some books call it null set.
earlier that two sets are equal if they have the same elements.
Thus if A and B are empty sets we have A = B. Mathemati-
cians have found that this is the correct viewpoint, and this
∗
makes our first theorem. * The word theorem means a statement
that has been proved and therefore be-
Theorem. If A and B are empty sets then A = B. came part of mathematics. We shall
also use words proposition and lemma:
∗ they are like theorem, but a proposition
Proof. The sets A and B are equal because they cannot be
is usually a theorem of less importance,
non-equal. Indeed, for A and B not to be equal we need an
while lemma has no value on its own and
element in one of them, say a ∈ A, that does not belong to is used as a step in a proof of a theorem.
B. But A contains no elements! Similarly, we cannot find
* The word proof indicates that an ar-
gument establishing a theorem or other
statement will follow.
20
an element b ∈ B that does not belong to A – because B

contains no elements at all.
∗ ∗
Corollary. There is only one empty set, THE empty set. * Corollary is something that easily fol-
lows from a theorem or a proposition.
The empty set is usually denoted by ∅.
* Notice the use of definite article THE.
Thus
{x : x is an integer such that x2 = −1} = ∅.
1.5 A set cannot be an element of itself !

We have complete freedom of forming sets, but one rule is of
absolute importance: you cannot form a set containing itself
as an element:
A 6∈ A
∗
for all sets A! * We shall revisit this principle later in
the lectures, when we shall consider the
This means that when we are forming a set, we assume so-called self-referential statements and
that its elements are somehow already given to us; but the set various paradoxes associated with them.
itself is not made yet, it is still in the process of construction.
In particular, there is no set of all sets – because this set
would contain itself as an element.

∗
* This section contains no compulsory
material but still may be useful.
1. My question is: Are all empty sets equal? No matter the condi-
tions. For example is
{x : x is positive integer less than zero}
equal to
{x : x is an integer between 9 and 10}
Answer. Yes, all empty sets are equal. To see that in your
example, let us denote
A = {x : x is positive integer less than zero}

21
and
B = {x : x is an integer between 9 and 10}
So, I claim that A = B. If you do not agree with me, you have to
show that A is different from B. To do so, you have to show me
an element in one set that does not belong to another set. Can
you do that? Can you point to an offending element if both sets
have no elements whatsoever?
Indeed, can you point to a “positive integer less than zero” which
is not an “integer between 9 and 10”? Of course, you cannot,
because there are no positive integers less than zero.
Can you point to an “integer between 9 and 10” which is not a
“positive integer less than zero”? Of course, you cannot, because
there are no integers between 9 and 10.
Hence you cannot prove that A is not equal to B. Therefore you
have to agree with me that A = B.
0N1 • Mathematics • Lecture 2 • Subsets • 01 Oct 2018 22
2 Subsets; Finite and Infinite Sets
2.1 Subsets
Consider the sets A and B where A = {2, 4} and B =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Every element of the set A is an element of
the set B. We say that A is a subset of B and write A ⊆ B,
∗
or B ⊇ A. We can also say that B contains A. * Also: A is contained in B,
A is included in B. The expression B ⊇
Notice that the word “contains” is used in set theory in A is read “B is a superset of A”, or B
two meanings, it can be applied to elements and to subsets: contains A.
the set { a, b, c } contains an element a and a subset {a}. Sym-
bols used are different:
a ∈ { a, b, c }, {a} ⊆ { a, b, c }, and a 6= {a}.
' $

A B

& %
Figure 1: A diagram of A ⊆ B (which is the same as B ⊇ A).
Figure 1 is a simple example of a Venn diagram for show-

ing relationships between sets. Figure 2 is an example of a
Venn diagram for three sets G, L, C of uppercase letters of
the Greek, Latin and Cyrillic alphabets, respectively.
Some basic facts:
• A ⊆ A for every set A. Every set is a subset of itself.

[Indeed every element of A is an element of A. Hence,
by definition of a subset, A is a subset of A.]
• The empty set is a subset of every set: ∅ ⊆ A for any

set A.
[Indeed every element of ∅ is an element of A because
there is no any elements in ∅.]
Figure 2: Venn diagram showing which uppercase letters are

shared by the Greek, Latin and Cyrillic alphabets (sets G, L,
C, respectively).
∗
• If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then A ⊆ C. * We say that ⊆ is a transitive relation
between sets. Notice that the relation ∈
• If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A then A = B. “being an element of” is not transitive.
relation = connection, bond
2.2 The set of subsets of a set

Example 2.2.1 Let A = { 1, 2 }. Denote by B the set of
subsets of A. Then
B = { ∅, {1}, {2}, {1, 2} }.
Notice that 1 ∈ {1} and 1 ∈ A, but it is not true that 1 ∈ B.

On the other hand, {1} ∈ B, but it is not true that {1} ∈
A.
Example 2.2.2 The subsets of {1, 2, 3} are
∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}.
Note: don’t forget the empty set ∅ and the whole set {1, 2, 3}.
Thus {1, 2, 3} has 8 subsets.
Theorem. If A is a set with n elements then A has 2n

subsets. Here,
2n = 2 × 2 × · · · × 2
with n factors.
Proof. Let A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }. How many are there ways

to choose a subset in A? When choosing a subset, we have
to decide, for each element, whether we include this elements
into our subset or not. We have two choices for the first
element: ‘include’ and ‘do not include’, two choices for the
second element, etc., and finally two choices for the nth ele-
ment:
2 × 2 × ··· × 2
choices overall.
Another proof. When revising for the examination, prove

this Theorem using the method of mathematical induction
from the last lectures.
Example 2.2.3 In some books, the set of subsets of a set A

∗
is denoted P(A). Stating with the empty set ∅, let us take * P(A) is called in some books the pow-
sets of subsets: erset of A.
P(∅) = {∅}
P(P(∅)) = P({∅}) = {∅, {∅}}
P(P(P(∅))) = P({∅, {∅}}) = {∅, {∅}, {{∅}}, {∅, {∅}}}
..
.
which have, correspondingly,
20 = 1, 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 24 = 16, . . . ,
elements. In particular, the four sets
∅, {∅}, {{∅}}, {∅, {∅}}
(the subsets of {∅, {∅}}) are all different!

2.3 Proper subsets

If A ⊆ B and A 6= B we call A a proper subset of B and write
∗
A ⊂ B to denote this. * If A ⊂ B, we also write B ⊃ A.
Similarly, A ⊆ B is the same as B ⊇ A
Example 2.3.1 Let A = {1, 3}, B = {3, 1}, C = {1, 3, 4}.
Then
A = B true
A ⊂ B false
C ⊆ A false
A ⊆ B true
A ⊆ C true
C ⊂ C false
B ⊆ A true
A ⊂ C true
Compare with inequalities for numbers:
2 6 2 true, 1 6 2 true, 2 < 2 false, 1 < 2 true.
A set with n elements contains 2n − 1 proper subsets.
2.4 Finite and infinite sets

A finite set is a set containing only finite number of elements.
For example, {1, 2, 3} is finite. If A is a finite set, we denote by
|A| the number of elements in A. For example, |{1, 2, 3}| = 3
and |∅| = 0.
A set with infinitely many elements is called an infinite set.
The set of all positive integers (also called natural numbers)
N = {1, 2, 3, . . . , }
is infinite; the dots indicate that the sequence 1, 2, 3 is to be

∗
continued indefinitely. * indefinitely = for ever, without end
∗
The set of all non-negative integers is also infinite: * There is no universal agreement about
whether to include zero in the set of
N0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , }. natural numbers: some define the nat-
ural numbers to be the positive inte-
gers {1, 2, 3, . . . }, while for others the
term designates the non-negative in-
tegers {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }. In this lecture
course, we shall stick to the first one
(and more traditional) convention: 0 is
not a natural number.
More examples of infinite sets:
Z = { . . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . } (the set of integers)

{ . . . , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, . . . } (the set of all even integers)
{ . . . , −3, −1, 1, 3, . . . } (the set of all odd integers)
Q denotes the set of all rational numbers (that is, the num-
bers of the form n/m where n and m are integers and
m 6= 0),
√
R the set of all real numbers (in particular, 2 ∈ R and
π ∈ R),
C the set of all complex numbers (that is, numbers of the

form x + yi, where x and y are real and i is a square
∗
root of −1, i2 = −1). * The letters
ABCDEFGHIJKLMOPRSTUVWXYZ
are called blackboard bold and were
They are all infinite sets. We have the following inclusions: invented by mathematicians for writing
on a blackboard instead of bold letters
N ⊂ N0 ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C. ABC . . . which are difficult to write
with chalk.

This section contains no compulsory ma-
1. > When considering sets terial but still may be useful.
> {1}, {{1}}, {{{1}}}, {{{{1}}}}, ...
> is it true that {1} is an element of {{1}},
> but not of {{{1}}}?
Answer. Yes, it is true.
2. > (c) Let U = {u, v,w, x, y, z}.
> (i) Find the number of subsets of U.
> (ii) Find the number of proper non-empty subsets of U.
>
> i think the answer of question (ii) should be 63,
> not 62 which is given by
> exam sample solution. how do u think about it
Answer. The answer is 62: there are 26 = 64 subsets in U alto-

gether. We exclude two: U itself (because is is not proper) and
the empty set (because it is not non-empty.
3. > My question
> relates to one of the mock exam questions,
> worded slightly differently.
>
> Question: List the 8 subsets of {a,b,c,d}
> containing {d}?
Answer. A very good question—how to list in a systematic way

all subsets of a given set? I emphasise the word systematic, this
means that if you do the same problem a week later, you get
exactly the same order of subsets in the list.
There are several possible approaches, one of them is to use the
principle of ordering words in a dictionary; I will illustrate it on
the problem
list all subsets in the set {a, b, c}.
In my answer to that problem, you will perhaps immediately
recognise the alphabetic order:
∗
{} ; {a}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, b, c}; {b}, {b, c}; {c}. * {} is the empty set ∅
Returning to the original question,
List the 8 subsets of {a, b, c, d} containing {d},
we have to add the element d to each of the sets:

{d}; {a, d}, {a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}; {b, d}, {b, c, d};
{c, d}.
0N1 Mathematics • Lecture 3 • Operations on Sets • 01 Oct 2018 28
3 Operations on Sets
A∩B A∪B
Figure 3: Sets A and B and their intersection A ∩ B and union

A ∪ B.
3.1 Intersection
Suppose A and B are sets. Then A ∩ B denotes the set of all
elements which belong to both A and B:
A ∩ B = { x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B }.
∗
A ∩ B is called the intersection of A and B. * The typographic symbol ∩ is some-
times called “cap”. Notice that the
name of a typographical symbol for an
Example 3.1.1 Let A = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7} and B = {3, 4, 5, 8}, operation is not necessary the same as
then A ∩ B = {3, 5}. the name of operation. For example,
symbol plus is used to denote addition
of numbers, like 2 + 3.
3.2 Union
A ∪ B denotes the set of all elements which belong to A or to
B:
A ∪ B = { x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B }.
∗
A ∪ B is called the union of A and B. * The typographic symbol ∪ is some-
times called “cup”.
Notice that, in mathematics, or is usually understood in
the inclusive sense: elements from A ∪ B belong to A or to
B or to both A and B; or, in brief, to A and/or B. In some

∗
human languages, the connective ‘or’ is understood in the * “Connective” is a word like ‘or’, ‘and’,
exclusive sense: to A or to B, but not both A and B. We ‘but’, ‘if’, . . .
will always understand ‘or’ as inclusive ‘and/or’. In
particular, this means that
A ∩ B ⊆ A ∪ B.
Example 3.2.1 Let A = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}, B = {3, 4, 5, 8}, then
A ∪ B = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
If A and B are sets such that A ∩ B = ∅, that is, A and B

have no elements in common, we say that A is disjoint from
∗
B, or that A and B are disjoint (from each other). * Or that A and B do not intersect.
Example 3.2.2 A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6}. Here A and B

are disjoint.
3.3 Universal set and complement

In any application of set theory all the sets under considera-
tion will be subsets of a background set, called the universal
set. For example, when working with real numbers the uni-
versal set is the set R of real numbers. We usually denote the
universal set by U .
U is conveniently shown as a “frame” when drawing a
Venn diagram.
All the sets under consideration are subsets of U and so
can be drawn inside the frame.
Let A be a set and U be the universal set. Then A0 (called

∗
the complement of A and pronounced “A prime”) denotes * Notice that the complement A0 is
the set of all elements in U which do not belong to A: sometimes denoted ¬A and pronounced
“not A”, or A (pronounced “A bar”), or
0
A = { x : x ∈ U and x 6∈ A }. Ac (“A compliment”)
' $
'
U
$

A B

& %
& %
Figure 4: The universal set U as a ‘background’ set for sets A

and B.
U
A0
Figure 5: The shaded area is the complement A0 of the set A.
Example 3.3.1 Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f }, A = {a, c}, B =

{b, c, f }, C = {b, d, e, f }. Then
B ∪ C = {b, c, d, e, f },
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {c},
A0 = {b, d, e, f }
= C,
0
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = C ∩ (B ∪ C)
= {b, d, e, f }
= C.
It will be convenient for us to modify predicate notation:

instead of writing
{ x : x ∈ U and x satisfies . . . }
we shall write
{ x ∈ U : x satisfies . . . }
Example 3.3.2
{ x ∈ Z : x2 = 4 } = { −2, 2 }.
3.4 Relative complement

If A and B are two sets, we define the relative complement of
B in A as
A r B = {a ∈ A : a ∈ / B }.
Example 3.4.1 If
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
and
B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }
then
A r B = { 1, 3 }.
This operation can be easily expressed in terms of intersection

and taking the complement:
A r B = A ∩ B0.
3.5 Symmetric difference

The symmetric difference of sets A and B is defined as
A4B = (A r B) ∪ (B r A).
Sets A, B, and A4B.

It can be seen (check!) that
A4B = { x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B, but x 6∈ A ∩ B }
and also that
A4B = (A ∪ B) r (A ∩ B).
Example 3.5.1 If A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } and B = { 4, 5, 6, 7 }

then
A4B = { 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 }.
Please notice that the symmetric difference of sets A and

B does not depend on the universal set U to which they be-
long; the same applies to conjunction A∧B, disjunction A∨B,
and relative complement ArB; it is the complement A0 where
we have to take care of the universal set.
3.6 Boolean Algebra

When dealing with sets, we have operations ∩, ∪ and 0 . The
manipulation of expressions involving these symbols is called
Boolean algebra (after George Boole, 1815–1864). The iden-
∗
tities of Boolean algebra are as follows. (A, B and C denote * Or “laws” of Boolean algebra.
arbitrary sets all of which are subsets of U .)

A∩B = B∩A
commutative laws (1)
A∪B = B∪A

A∩A = A
idempotent laws (2)
A∪A = A

A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
associative laws (3)
A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
distributive laws
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
(4)

A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A
absorbtion laws (5)
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
identity laws:
A∩U =A A∪U =U
(6)
A∪∅=A A∩∅=∅
complement laws:
(A0 )0 = A A ∩ A0 = ∅ U0 = ∅
(7)
A ∪ A0 = U ∅0 = U
(A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0

De Morgan’s laws (8)
(A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0
We shall prove these laws in the next lecture. Meanwhile,

notice similarities and differences with laws of usual arith-
metic. For example, multiplication is distributive with respect
to addition:
a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c),
but addition is not distributive with respect to multiplication:

it is not true that
a + (b × c) = (a + b) × (a + c).
Notice also that the idempotent laws are not so alien to

arithmetic as one may think: they hold for zero,
0 + 0 = 0, 0 × 0 = 0.
3.7 Sample Test Questions

∗
* Marking scheme: 2 marks for a cor-
rect answer, 0 for an incorrect answer or
1. Let X = {x ∈ R : x4 − 1 = 0}. Which of the following sets is
equal to X? no answer.
(A) {1} ∩ {−1} (B) {1} (C) {1} ∪ {−1}
Answer: (C), because the set X equals {−1, 1}.
2. Let X = {x ∈ R : x3 = x2 }. Which of the following sets is equal

to X?
(A) ∅ (B) {0, 1} (C) {0, 1, −1}
3. How many subsets of {a, b, c, d} contain {d}?
(A) 6 (B) 8 (C) 15
Answer: (B), because each of the subsets of {a, b, c, d} that con-

tain {d} can be obtained from a (unique!) subset of {a, b, c} by adding
element d. But the set of three elements {a, b, c} contains 23 = 8 subsets.
4. How many subsets of {a, b, c, d, e} contain {b, e}?
(A) 8 (B) 15 (C) 6

Answer: (A), because if X is a subset of {a, b, c, d, e} which con-
tains {b, e} then Y = X r {b, e} is a subset of {a, c, d}, and there are 8
possible subsets Y in {a, c, d}.
3.8 Questions from Students

∗
1. This question appear to refer to the following problem from a
test:
Which of the following sets is finite?
(A) {1, 2} ∩ R (B) {x ∈ R : x2 < 9} (C) [0, 1] ∩ [ 21 , 32 ]
A student wrote:
> what is the definition of finite and infinite sets?

> because the question that
> you gave us today confused me:
> I think all answers could be correct,
> for example, answer b is -3<x<3 and
> I think it is correct.
Answer. A finite set is a set containing only finite number of

elements. For example, 1,2,3 is finite. A set with infinitely many
elements is called an infinite set.
The set that you mentioned,
{x ∈ R : −3 < x < 3}
is infinite: there are infinitely many real numbers between −3 and
3.
For example, take a real number which has decimal expansion
1.2345 . . .
No matter how you continue write more digits after the decimal
point (and this can be done in infinitely many ways), you will have
a number which is bigger than −3 and smaller that 3. Therefore
the set
{x ∈ R : −3 < x < 3}
is not finite.
However, the set
{x ∈ Z : −3 < x < 3}
is finite, it equals {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} and therefore has 5 elements.
2. > sorry to disturb you I have got one more question
> Given that A and B are intersecting sets,
> show following on venn
> diagram:A’, AUB’, A’UB’, and A’nB’
>can you please do these in the lecture
Answer is the following sequence of Venn diagrams:

Sets A, B, U .
Sets A0 , A ∪ B 0 , A0 ∪ B 0 .
Set A0 ∩ B 0 .
3. > Dear Sir,
> Can you please help me with the following question?
[6 marks] Let
A = {x ∈ R : x4 + x > 2 }
B = {x ∈ R : x3 < 1}
and
C = {x ∈ R : x8 > 1}.
(i) Prove that A ∩ B ⊆ C.

> Can you say that A and B are disjoint as they

> do not meet?
> And therefore the Empty Set is a subset of C
Answer: It would be a valid argument if A and B were indeed

disjoint. But they are not; one can easily see that −2 belongs to
both A and B.
A correct solution: Assume x ∈ A ∩ B. Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B.
Since x ∈ A, it satisfies
x4 + x > 2.
Since x ∈ B, it satisfies
x3 < 1
which implies x < 1 which is the same as 1 > x. Adding the last
inequality to the inequality x4 + x > 2, one gets
x4 + x + 1 > 2 + x
which simplifies as
x4 > 1.
Both parts of this inequality are positive, therefore we can square
it and get
x8 > 1.
But this means that x ∈ C. Hence A ∩ B ⊆ C.
4.
> Say for eg you have a situation whereby you have
>
> A U A’U B
>
> Does this simply to A U U (which is U) or A U B?
> Because i no A U A’ is Union but i get confused
> when simplifying these when you have A’U B. is
> it Union or is it B?
Answer: You are mixing the union symbol ∪ and letter U used
to denote the universal set. The correct calculation is
A ∪ A0 ∪ B = (A ∪ A0 ) ∪ B = U ∪ B = U,
I set it in a large type to emphasise the difference between symbol
∪ and letter U . The answer is U , the universal set.
5.
> Was just wandering about a note I took in your
> lecture that doesn’t seem right.
> I might have copied it down wrong but I wrote:
>
> A = ’Any integer’ B = ’Any Real Number
>
> A union B = any integer
>
> Was just wandering wether that should be,
> A union B = any real number
Answer: Of course, you are right: if A = Z and B = R then
A ∪ B = B and A ∩ B = A.
I believe I gave in my lecture both equalities and also a general

statement:
If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B = B and A ∩ B = A.
0N1 Mathematics • Lecture 4 • Set Theory • 01 Oct 2018 39
4 Set theory
4.1 Proof of Laws of Boolean Algebra by

Venn diagrams
The identities in (1)–(8) of the previous lecture are called the
∗
laws of Boolean algebra. Several of them are obvious because * obvious = evident, self-evident
∗
of the definitions of ∩, ∪ and 0 . The others may be verified * to verify
by drawing Venn diagrams. For example, to verify that = to check, to confirm, to validate
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C),
we draw the following diagrams.
A B A B
C C
(a) A, B, C (b) B ∪ C
A B A B
C C
(c) A ∩ (B ∪ C) (d) A ∩ B
A B A B
C C
(e) A ∩ C (f) (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
∗
Equality holds because diagrams (c) and (f) are the same. * holds = is true
Because of the associative laws in (1) of the previous lec-
∗
ture, we can write A∩B∩C and A∪B∪C with unambiguous * unambiguous = unmistakable, defi-
meanings. But we must not write A ∩ B ∪ C or A ∪ B ∩ C nite, clear
∗ ambiguous = vague, unclear, uncertain
without brackets. This is because, in general
* A good example when the use of a
A ∩ (B ∪ C) 6= (A ∩ B) ∪ C, word in mathematics is different from its
use in ordinary speech. In the usual lan-
A ∪ (B ∩ C) 6= (A ∪ B) ∩ C. guage “in general” means “as a rule”,
“in most cases”. In mathematics “in
(Give your examples!) general” means “sometimes”. For exam-
ple, in mathematics the phrases “Some
people are more than 100 years old” and
4.2 Proving inclusions of sets “In general, people are more than 100
years old” are the same.
∗
To prove the property A ⊆ B for particular sets A and * particular = individual, specific
B we have to prove that every element of A is an element of
∗
B (see definition of ⊆). Sometimes this is clear. But if not * clear = obvious, self-evident
proceed as in the next examples.
Example 4.2.1 Let
A = {x ∈ R : x2 − 3x + 2 = 0}.
Prove that A ⊆ Z.
Solution. Let x ∈ A. Then
x2 − 3x + 2 = 0,
(x − 1)(x − 2) = 0,

1 or
x =
2
x ∈ Z.
4.3 Proving equalities of sets

To prove A = B for particular sets A and B we have to
prove A ⊆ B and then B ⊆ A.
Recall that a segment [a, b] of the real line R is defined as
∗
the set * Typographical symbols:
[a, b] = { x ∈ R : a 6 x 6 b }. [ opening square bracket
] closing square bracket
Example 4.3.1 Let A = [1, 2] and
B = [0, 2] ∩ [1, 3].

∗
Prove that A = B. * prove that . . .
= show that . . . , demonstrate that . . .
Solution. We first prove that
[1, 2] ⊆ [0, 2] ∩ [1, 3].
Let x ∈ [1, 2]. Then 1 6 x 6 2. Hence 0 6 x 6 2 and

1 6 x 6 3. Hence x ∈ [0, 2] and x ∈ [1, 3]. Hence
x ∈ [0, 2] ∩ [1, 3],

∗
and, since x is an arbitrary element of [1, 2], this means that * arbitrary = taken at random
[1, 2] ⊆ [0, 2] ∩ [1, 3].
Now we prove that
[0, 2] ∩ [1, 3] ⊆ [1, 2].

∗
Let x ∈ [0, 2] ∩ [1, 3]. Then x ∈ [0, 2] and x ∈ [1, 3]. Hence * hence
= therefore, for this reason, thus, conse-
quently, so
0 6 x 6 2 and 1 6 x 6 3. Therefore x ≥ 1 and x 6 2. For

this reason 1 6 x 6 2. Consequently, x ∈ [1, 2].
∗
Comment: In a lecture, an alternative method could be * alternative = other, another, different
used for solving a similar problem. It is based on a graphic
representation of segments [a, b] on the real line R.
0 2 R
r r r r -
1 3
∗
One can immediately see from this picture that * see = observe, notice
[0, 2] ∩ [1, 3] = [1, 2].
∗
Similarly, an interval ]a, b[ of the real line R is defined as * Many books use for intervals notation
the set (a, b); unfortunately, it could be easy
]a, b[ = { x ∈ R : a < x < b }. mixed with notation for coordinates in
the plane, where (a, b) denotes the point
with coordinates x = a and y = b.
Example 4.3.2 Notice that
[0, 1] ∩ [1, 2] = {1}
while
]0, 1[ ∩ ]1, 2[ = ∅.
Do not mix notation {a, b}, [a, b], ]a, b[ !
Example 4.3.3 Please notice that if a > b then
[a, b] = ]a, b[ = ∅.
Indeed, in that case there are no real numbers x which satisfy
a 6 x 6 b or a < x < b.
4.4 Proving equalities of sets by Boolean

Algebra
Inclusions of sets can be proven from Laws of Boolean Alge-
bra.
Indeed it is easy to prove by Venn Diagrams that
A ⊆ B iff A ∩ B = A iff A ∪ B = B
Example 4.4.1 Prove that if A ⊆ B then
A ∪ C ⊆ B ∪ C.
Solution. A ⊆ B is the same as
A ∪ B = B.
Now we compute:
(A ∪ C) ∪ (B ∪ C) = ((A ∪ C) ∪ B) ∪ C
(by associativity of ∪)
= (A ∪ (C ∪ B)) ∪ C
= (A ∪ (B ∪ C)) ∪ C
(by commutativity of ∪)
= ((A ∪ B) ∪ C) ∪ C
= (B ∪ C) ∪ C
(by the observation above)
= B ∪ (C ∪ C)
= B∪C
(by the idempotent law for ∪).
Hence
A ∪ C ⊆ B ∪ C.
4.5 Sample test questions

1. Which of the following sets is infinite?
4 3

(A) {0, 1} ∩ R (B) {x ∈ R : x2 < 4} (C) [0, 1] ∩ 3, 2
Answer. (B). Indeed, this set is
{−2 < x < 2} = ]− 2, 2[
and is infinite. The set A is finite because it is a subset of a finite set
{0, 1}. The set C is empty and therefore finite.
2. Which of the following sets is finite?
(A) {0, 1}∩R (B) [0, 1]∩[ 12 , 32 ] (C) {x ∈ R : x2 < 9}

Answer. (A). Indeed, {0, 1} ∩ R = {0, 1} and consists of two ele-
ments.
3. Let X, Y and Z be sets such that Y ⊆ X. Which of the following

must be true?
(A) X ∩Z ⊆Y ∩Z
(B) Y 0 ∩ Z0 ⊇ X0 ∩ Z0
(C) X ∩ (Y ∪ Z) = Y ∪ (X ∩ Z)
Answer. (B). Draw a Venn diagram. You may observer that (B)
is true also the following way:
Y ⊆ X
Y ∪Z ⊆ X ∪Z
0
(Y ∪ Z) ⊇ (X ∪ Z)0
Y 0 ∩ Z0 ⊇ X0 ∪ Z0
Of course you still have to figure out why (A) and (B) cannot always be
true.
4.6 Additional Problems:

Some problems solved with the help of
Venn diagrams
∗
Venn diagrams can be used to solve problems of the fol-
lowing type.
Example 1. 100 people are asked about three brands of

soft drinks called A, B and C.
(i) 18 like A only (not B and not C).
(ii) 23 like A but not B (and like C or don’t like C).
(iii) 26 like A (and like or don’t like other drinks).
(iv) 8 like B and C (and like A or don’t like A).
(v) 48 like C (and like or don’t like other drinks).
(vi) 8 like A and C (and like or don’t like B).
(vii) 54 like one and only one of the drinks.
Find how many people like B and find how many people don’t
like any of the drinks.
For solution, we draw a Venn diagram. Let
a be number of people liking A only
b be number of people liking B only
c be number of people liking C only
d be number of people liking A and B but not C
e be the number of people who like A and C, but not B.
f be the number of people who like B and C, but not A.
g be the number of people who like all tree products A,
B, and C.
h be number of people liking none of the drinks,
as shown on the Venn diagram below.
From (i)–(vii) we get
(i) a = 18
(ii) a + e = 23
(iii) a + d + e + g = 26
(iv) f + g = 8
(v) c + e + f + g = 48
(vi) e + g = 8
(vii) a + b + c = 54
We also have
(viii) a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h = 100
A B
b
d
a
g f
e
c h
∗
Now (i) gives a = 18, (ii) gives e = 5, (vi) gives g = 3, * gives = yields
(iii) gives d = 0, (iv) gives f = 5, (v) gives c = 35, (vii) gives
b = 1, (viii) gives h = 33.
Therefore the number of people who like B is
b + d + f + g = 9,
and the number of people who like none is h = 33.
Example 2. X and Y are sets with the following three

properties.
(i) X 0 has 12 elements.
(ii) Y 0 has 7 elements.
(iii) X ∩ Y 0 has 4 elements.
How many elements in X 0 ∩ Y ?
(A) 6 (B) 8 (C) 9

Answer. (C).
Brief solution. Denote x = |X ∩ Y 0 |, y = |X 0 ∩ Y |
(this is what we have to find), z = |X ∩ Y |, t = |(X ∪ Y )0 |
(make a Venn diagram!), then
|X 0 | = y + t = 12
|Y 0 | = x + t = 7
|X ∩ Y 0 | = x = 4
Excluding unknowns, we find t = 3 and y = 9.
Detailed solution. Recall that we use notation |A| for

the number of elements in a finite set A.
Denote x = |X ∩ Y 0 |, y = |X 0 ∩ Y | (this is what we have
to find), z = |X∩Y |, t = |(X∪Y )0 |, see a Venn diagram below.
' $
U ' $
t

x z
y
X & %
Y
& %
Then
|X 0 | = y + t = 12
|Y 0 | = x + t = 7
|X ∩ Y 0 | = x = 4
So we have a system of three equations:
y + t = 12
x+t = 7
x = 4
Excluding unknowns, we find t = 3 and y = 9.
This last step can be written in more detail. Substitut-
ing the value x = 3 from the third equation into the second
equations, we get
4 + t = 7,
which solves as t = 3. Now we substitute this value of t in

the first equation and get
y + 3 = 12;
solving it, we have y = 9.

∗
1. > A survey was made of 25 people to ask about
> their use of products A and B. The following infor-
> mation was recorded: 14 people used only one of the
> products; 9 people did not use B ; 11 people
> did not use A.
> (i) How many people used A?
> (ii) How many people used both products?
Answer. A solution is straightforward: denote
a number of people using A but not B
b number of people using B but not A
c number of people using both A and B
d number of people not using any product
(it is useful to draw a Venn diagram and see that a, b, c, d corre-
spond to its 4 regions).
Then
• “14 people used only one of the products” means a+b = 14
• “9 people did not use B” means a+d = 9
• “11 people did not use A” means b + d = 11
• Finally, a + b + c + d = 25.
Thus you have a system of 4 linear equations with 4 variables:
a+b = 14
a+d = 9
b+d = 11
a+b+c+d = 25
and it is easy to solve; I leave it you to work out details. Answer:

a = 6, b = 8, c = 8, d = 3.
0N1 Mathematics • Lecture 5 • Propositional Logic • 01 Oct 2018 49
5 Propositional Logic
5.1 Statements
A statement (or proposition) is a sentence which states or
∗
asserts something. It is either true or false. If true, we say * assert = state, claim
that the statement has truth value T . If false, it has truth
value F .
Example 5.1.1 • “London is the capital of England” has

truth value T .
• 2 × 2 = 5 has truth value F .
• “Are you asleep?” is not a statement.
Mathematically we do not distinguish between statements

which make the same assertion, expressed differently. For
example, “The capital of England is London” is regarded as
equal to “London is the capital of England”.
We use p, q, r, . . . to denote statements.
5.2 Conjunction
If p and q are statements then “p and q” is a new statement
called the conjunction of p and q and written p∧q. According
∗
to mathematical convention, p ∧ q has truth value T when * convention = custom, agreement
both p and q have truth value T , but p ∧ q has truth value
∗
F in all other cases. Here is the truth table: * The typographical symbol ∧ is called
wedge. It is used not only in logic, but in
p q p∧q some other areas of mathematics as well,
with a completely different meaning.
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 5.2.1 • Suppose p is “2 is even” and q is “5

is odd”. Then p ∧ q is “2 is even and 5 is odd”. Since
p has truth value T and q has truth value T , p ∧ q has
truth value T (1st row of the table).
• “3 is odd and 2 is odd” has truth value F (see 2nd row

of the truth table).
• If we know q is true but p ∧ q is false we can deduce that

p is false (the only possibility in the truth table).
p ∧ q is sometimes expressed without using “and”. For

example, “Harry is handsome, but George is rich” is the same,
mathematically, as “Harry is handsome and George is rich”.
5.3 Disjunction
“p or q” is called the disjunction of p and q and written p ∨ q.
Truth table:
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
In effect, this table tells us how “or” is used in mathemat-

ics: it has the meaning of “and/or” (“inclusive” meaning of
∗
“or”). * The typographical symbol ∨ is called
“vee”
Note that p ∨ q is true if at least one of p and q is true. It
∗
is only false when both p and q are false. * In Computer Science, the exclusive
version of “or” is also used, it is usually
called XOR (for eXclusive OR) and is
Example 5.3.1 • Suppose p is “4 is odd” and q is “5 is denoted p ⊕ q. Its truth table is
odd”. Then p ∨ q is “4 is odd or 5 is odd”. Since p has
truth value F and q has truth value T , p ∨ q has truth p q p⊕q
value T (3rd row of truth table). T T F
T F T
• “3 > 4 or 5 > 6” has truth value F (see 4th row of truth F T T
table). F F F
5.4 Negation
The statement obtained from p by use of the word “not” is
∗
called the negation of p and is written ∼ p. For example, if * Symbols sometimes used to denote
negation: ¬p, p.
∼ p is sometimes called “the opposite of
p”
p is “I like coffee” then ∼ p is “ I don’t like coffee”. The truth

value of ∼ p is the opposite of the truth value of p.
p ∼p
T F
F T
Example 5.4.1 “2 is odd” is false, but “2 is not odd” is true.

5.5 Conditional
Suppose p and q are statements. The statement “If p then q”,
∗
denoted p → q, is called a conditional statement. The truth * There is a huge number of ways to
values to be given to p → q are open to some debate but the express “if p then q”, for example
mathematical convention is as follows. • p implies q
• p leads to q
p q p→q
T T T • p yields q
T F F • q follows from p
F T T • q is a consequence of p
F F T
• q is a necessary condition for p
You must work according to this table whether • p is a sufficient condition for q
you like it or not! • q is true provided p is true
The convention is that p → q is true when p is false, • p entails q

regardless of the truth value of q. Rough explanation: when
p is false there is nothing wrong with p → q because it means
“if p then q” and so makes an assertion only when p is true.
Another explanation: some conditional statements can be
thought of as statements of promise. For example:
if I have no cold, I’ll come to class.
Here p is “I have no cold” and q is “I’ll come to class”. If p is

false, that is, if I have cold, you would agree that I have kept
my promise even if I have not come to class (in which case q
∗
is false). * This example is expanded at the end
of this lecture.
Perhaps the most surprising is the third row of the table.

You may think of it as the principle of the absolute priority of
Truth: Truth is Truth regardless of how we came to it or from
whom we heard it. This is because our statements are about
the world around us and are true if they describe the world
∗
correctly. For a statement to be true, it is not necessary to * This is why in the literature, our rule
receive it from a source of authority or trust. for implication is sometimes called ma-
terial implication: it is about material
Statements of promise also give a good explanation. Re- world.
turning to the phrase if I have no cold, I’ll come to class, you
would agree that if I have cold (p is F ) but nevertheless came
to class (q is T ), I have kept my promise and told the truth;
hence F → T is T .
Example 5.5.1 • Suppose p is “4 > 1” and q is “3 = 5”.

Then p → q is “If 4 > 1 then 3 = 5”. This is false
because p is true and q is false (see 2nd row of truth
table).
• “If 3 = 5 then 2 = 0” is true (see 4th row of truth table).
• “If 3 = 5 then 2 = 2” is true (see 3rd row of truth table).
• If p → q has truth value F we can deduce that p is true
and q is false (only the second row of the truth table
gives p → q false).
Statements of the form p → q usually arise only when

there is a “variable” or “unknown” involved.
Example 5.5.2 “If x > 2 then x2 > 4” is a true statement,

whatever the value of x. For example, when x = 3, x2 = 9 > 4
and when x = 4, x2 = 16 > 4. The statement is regarded as
true, by convention, for values of x which do not satisfy x > 2.
For numbers like x = −1 we do not care whether x2 > 4 is
true.
The following example illustrates different expression of

p → q in English. Let p be “x > 2 and q be “x2 > 4”. Then
all of the following expresses p → q.
• If x > 2 then x2 > 4.

• x2 > 4 if x > 2.
• x > 2 implies x2 > 4.
• x > 2 only if x2 > 4.
• x > 2 is sufficient condition for x2 > 4.
• x2 > 4 is necessary condition for x > 2.

∗
1. > I’m having a bit of trouble with the propositional
> logic conditional statement.
> Surely if p implies q and p is false but q is true,
> the statement that p implies q is false?
> I know you said we would have trouble with this but
> i’ve found it difficult to trust my own logical
> reasoning when working out subsequently more
> complex compound statements. Could you suggest a
> more logical way of approaching this concept?
Answer. I expand my example with interpretation of implication

as promise.I am using here a large fragment from Peter Suber’s
paper Paradoxes of Material Implication,
http://www.earlham.edu/∼peters/courses/log/mat-imp.htm.
It is important to note that material implication does conform to
some of our ordinary intuitions about implication. For example,
take the conditional statement,
“If I am healthy, I will come to class.”

We can symbolize it, H → C. The question is: when is this
statement false? When will I have broken my promise?
There are only four possibilities:
H C H→C
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
In case #1, I am healthy and I come to class. I have clearly kept

my promise; the conditional is true.
In case #2, I am healthy, but I have decided to stay home and

read magazines. I have broken my promise; the conditional is
false.
In case #3, I am not healthy, but I have come to class anyway.
I am sneezing all over you, and you’re not happy about it, but I
did not violate my promise; the conditional is true.
In case #4, I am not healthy, and I did not come to class. I did
not violate my promise; the conditional is true.
But this is exactly the outcome required by the material implica-
∗
tion. The compound is only false when the antecedent is true * In the conditional statement H → C ,
and the consequence is false (case #2); it is true every other time. the first term H is called antecedent, the
Many people complain about case #4, when a false antecedent second C consequent.
and a false consequent make a true compound. Why should this
be the case?
If the promise to come to class didn’t persuade you, here’s an
example from mathematics.
“If n is a perfect square, then n is not prime.”
I hope you’ll agree that this is a true statement for any n. Now
substitute 3 for n:
“If 3 is a perfect square, then 3 is not prime.”
As a compound, it is still true; yet its antecedent and consequent
are both false.
Even more fun is to substitute 6 for n:
“If 6 is a perfect square, then 6 is not prime.”
it is a true conditional, but its antecedent is false and consequent
is true.
> Unfortunately, case #4 seemed perfectly logical to me. It was case #3

> which I found illogical. If I told you that I would come to class IF I
> was not sick, and yet I came to class despite being sick, surely my
> promise was not honoured? If I had said I MAY not come to class if I am
> sick then I would always be honouring my promise so long as I came to
> class when I was well... Is this a more appropriate way to think about
> it? Would I have problems using the ’may’ component?
Answer. An excellent question. I wish to emphasise:
Propositional Logic is designed for communication with machines,

it gives only very crude description of the way how natural hu-
man language. Such constructions as “I MAY” are too subtle for
Propositional Logic to capture their meaning.
Therefore we have to live with rules of ma-

terial implication as they are: they present
a best possible compromise between language
for people and language for machines.
Logical constructions of the kind “I MAY” are studied in a more

sophisticated branch of logic, Modal Logic. I simply copy the
following description of Modal Logic from Wikipedia:
A modal logic is any system of formal logic that at-

tempts to deal with modalities. Traditionally, there
are three ‘modes’ or ‘moods’ or ‘modalities’ of the
copula to be, namely, possibility, probability, and ne-
cessity. Logics for dealing with a number of related
terms, such as eventually, formerly, can, could, might,
may, must, are by extension also called modal logics,
since it turns out that these can be treated in similar
ways.
But we are not studying Modal Logics in our course. However,

they are taught in Year 4 of School of Mathematics.
6 Propositional Logic, Continued
6.1 Converse
Notice that p → q and q → p are different; q → p is called
the converse of p → q.
Example 6.1.1 Let p = “x > 2” and q = “x2 > 4”. Then

p → q is “If x > 2 then x2 > 4” – TRUE. But q → p is
“If x2 > 4 then x > 2”. This is FALSE (for x = −3, for
example).
6.2 Biconditional
“p if and only if q” is denoted by p ↔ q and called the bicon-
∗
ditional of p and q. The truth table is as follows. * Notice that, in mathematical litera-
ture and blackboard writing, the expres-
sion “if and only if” is sometimes abbre-
p q p↔q viated “iff”.
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
So, if p and q are both true or both false then p ↔ q is

true: otherwise it is false.
The biconditional p ↔ q can be expressed as
“p if and only if q”
or
“p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q”.
Example 6.2.1
“x > 2 if and only if x + 1 > 3”
is the same as
“For x > 2 it is necessary and sufficient that x + 1 > 3”.
p ↔ q may be thought of as a combination of p → q and

q → p.
6.3 XOR
Excluded OR, or XOR p ⊕ q is defined by the truth table
p q p⊕q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
It is the exclusive version of “or” (as opposed to inclusive
“or” ∨). XOR is widely used in computer programming and
Computer Science. Its name is an abbreviation of eXclusive
OR.
Read more on XOR in Section 7.3.
6.4 Compound statements and truth tables

The symbols ∧, ∨, ∼, →, ↔, and ⊕ are called connectives.
∗
Compound statements may be built up from statements * compound = complex, composite
p, q, r, . . .
by means of connectives. We use brackets for punctuation as

in
(p → q) ↔ (∼ r ∧ q).
We take the convention that ∼ applies only to the part of

the expression which comes immediately after it. Thus ∼ r ∧q
means (∼ r) ∧ q, which is not the same as ∼ (r ∧ q).
The truth value of a compound statement involving state-
ments p, q, r, . . . can be calculated from the truth values of
p, q, r, . . . as follows.
∗
Example 6.4.1 Find the truth table of * Some typographic terminology: in the
expression
∼ (p → (q ∨ r)).
∼ (p → (q ∨ r))
Solution (We take 8 rows because there are 3 variables the first opening bracket and the last
closing bracket (they are underlined)
p, q, r, . . . each with two possible truth values.) match each other. This is another pair
of matching brackets:
∼ (p → (q ∨ r)).
See more in Section 6.7.

p q r q∨r p → (q ∨ r) ∼ (p → (q ∨ r))
T T T T T F
T T F T T F
T F T T T F
T F F F F T
F T T T T F
F T F T T F
F F T T T F
F F F F T F
Please always write the rows in this order, it will help you
to easier check your work for errors.
(We get each of the last 3 columns by use of the truth
tables for ∨, → and ∼.)
This can also be set out as follows.
∼ (p → (q ∨ r))
F T T T T T
F T T T T F
F T T F T T
T T F F F F
F F T T T T
F F T T T F
F F T F T T
F F T F F F
(The truth values for p, q, r (8 possibilities) are entered

first:
∼ (p → (q ∨ r))
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
Then the other columns are completed in order 5, 3, 1.)

Example 6.4.2 Find the truth table of p ∧ (∼ q → p).
Solution
p q ∼q ∼q → p p ∧ (∼ q → p)
T T F T T
T F T T T
F T F T F
F F T F F
or
p ∧ (∼ q → p)
T T F T T T
T T T F T T
F F F T T F
F F T F F F
6.5 Tautologies
The statements
p ∨ ∼ p and (p ∧ (p → q)) → q
have the following truth tables.
p ∼p p∨ ∼ p
T F T
F T T
p q p→q p ∧ (p → q) (p ∧ (p → q)) → q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
Only T occurs in the last column. In other words, the

truth value of the statement is always T , regardless of the
truth values of its components p, q, r, . . .. A statement with
this property is called a tautology.
Example 6.5.1 (i) Let p = “It is raining”. Then p ∨ ∼ p

is “Either it is raining or it is not raining”. This is true
regardless of whether it is raining or not.
(ii) Let p = “x > 2” and q = “y > 2”. Then
(p ∧ (p → q)) → q
is “If x > 2, and x > 2 implies y > 2, then y > 2”. This
is true because
(p ∧ (p → q)) → q
is a tautology: the meanings of p and q are not impor-

tant.
We can think of tautologies as statements which are true

for entirely logical reasons.
6.6 Contradictions
A statement which is always F regardless of the truth values
of its components p, q, r, . . . is called a contradiction. (Only
F occurs in the last column of the truth table.)
Example 6.6.1 p ∧ ∼ p. It is raining and it is not raining.
6.7 Matching brackets: a hard question

∗
This is a continuation of discussion in started in a marginal
comment on Page 57.
It is obvious that a sequence of brackets
( ( ) ( ( ( ) ) ) )
they properly match each other and correspond to a valid

algebraic expression, for example
((a + b) × (c + ((d ÷ e) + f )))
or
((a ∨ b) ∧ (c ∨ ((d =⇒ e) ∨ f ))),
while brackets
( ( ) ) ) ( ) ( ( )
do not match each other properly.
Problem (non-compulsory and hard). Formulate a sim-

ple and easy to use rule which allows to distinguish between
“correct” and “incorrect” combinations of brackets.

Do not expect that questions in the test will be exactly of the
same type!
1. Given that p ∨ q is T and q ∨ r is F , which of the following statements

is T ?
(A) (p → q) ∨ r (B) (p ∧ ∼ q) ↔ r
(C) (∼ p ∧ q) → r
2. Which of the following statements is a tautology?

(A) (p → q) ∨ (∼ p → q)
(B) (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
(C) (q → p) ∨ (∼ p → ∼ q)
Answers: 1C, 2A.

Hints: In Question 1, since q ∨ r ≡ F , we have q ≡ F and r ≡ F . Hence
p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ F ≡ T , which means q ≡ T . Now we know the truth values
of p, q, and r, and the rest is easy.
In Question 2, one can compose truth tables for propositions (A),
(B), and (C) (which takes time), or start asking questions. For example,
for (A), when (p → q) ∨ (∼ p → q) is F ? Obviously, only if both p → q
and ∼ p → q are F . But if p → q ≡ F then p ≡ T and q ≡ F . But

then ∼ p → q ≡ T . Hence the proposition (A) is never F , hence it is a
tautology.
One more approach to Question 2 is to rewrite the propositions using
Boolean Laws, For example, (C) can be rearranged as
(q → p) ∨ (∼ p → ∼ q) ≡ (∼ q ∨ p) ∨ (∼∼ p∨ ∼ q)
≡ ∼ q ∨ p∨ ∼∼ p∨ ∼ q
≡ p∨ ∼ q.
But p∨ ∼ q is not a tautology!

Or you can assess first the meaning of the statements. In (B), one
can easily see that the meaning of the statement is that p and q are both
true or both false; now take p ≡ T and q ≡ F , and you instantly see
that (B) becomes F . Hence (B) is not a tautology.
Also, for (C) you can observe that q → p and ∼ p → ∼ q are con-
ditional statements contrapositive to each other, and therefore logically
equivalent, and therefore their disjunction is logically equivalent to each
of them, say to q → p – which is not a tautology.
As you can see, there is a variety of methods for checking whether
a statement is a tautology or not. It is useful to learn to understand
which of this methods best suits a particular statement.

∗
1. When drawing truthtables, i found that there are
2 types of u can do, is the correct method putting
in T or F values underneath each of the symbols
or I have seen in our notes that the answer can
still be found without finding out each symbol
and by breaking up the particular question.
for example the question ~q --> ( p ---> q)

can a truth table be written in the exam as this:
p q ~q (p-->q) ~q-->(p-->q)
T T F F T
T F T T T
etc. Will you be given full marks for this method

or must u include values for each symbol?
My answer: either way of composing truth tables is valid, can be

used in the exam and be given full marks.
But please, try to write in a neat and comprehensible way, so
that table looks like a table and is not stretched diagonally all
over page.
2. > can I have a simple English sentence illustrates

> this statement p -> (q -> p)?
My answer: quite a number of English sentences built around an
expression “even without” or “even if” belong to this type. For
example, “the turkey is good, even without all the trimmings”:
p is “the turkey is good”
q is “without all the trimmings”.
The statement p → (q → p) becomes
“the turkey is good, and for that reason, even without all the
trimmings, the turkey is still good”.
3. There is an example in the note which is :
Given that p V q is T and q V r is F ,

2. Which of the following statements is a tautology?
(A) (P --> q) V (~ p --> q)
(B) (p ^ q) V (~ p ^ ~ q)
(C) (q --> p) V (~ p --> ~ q)
The mentioned answer is A
But when we apply the truth table we find C True as well.

My answer: Your question refers to Question 2 on Page 61, but
the sentence
Given that p V q is T and q V r is F ,
is from Question 1 and has no relation to Question 2 – perhaps

this is the reason for your misunderstanding.
7 Logically equivalent statements
7.1 Logical equivalence: definitions and first

examples
Let X and Y be two statements built up from the same com-
ponents p, q, r, . . . . If the truth value of X is the same as
the truth value of Y for every combination of truth values of
p, q, r, . . . then X and Y are said to be logically equivalent.
In other words X and Y are logically equivalent if the final
columns of their truth tables are the same.
Example 7.1.1
p q p∧q ∼ (p ∧ q) ∼p ∼q ∼ p∨ ∼ q
T T T F F F F
T F F T F T T
F T F T T F T
F F F T T T T
∗ ∗∗
∗
Columns ∗ and ∗∗ are the same, i.e. for every choice of * i.e. = that is,
truth values for p and q, ∼ (p ∧ q) and ∼ p ∨ ∼ q have the
same truth values. Thus ∼ (p ∧ q) and ∼ p ∨ ∼ q are logically
equivalent.
If X and Y are logically equivalent statements we write

X ≡Y.
Example 7.1.2 ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡∼ p ∨ ∼ q.
A particular case of this is shown by taking
p = “You are French” and
q = “You are a woman”.
Then
∼ (p ∧ q) = “You are not a French woman” and
∼ p ∨ ∼ q = “Either you are not French or you are not a
woman”.
7.2 Boolean algebra, revisited

The logical equivalence
∼ (p ∧ q) ≡∼ p∨ ∼ q
is analogous to the set theory identity
(A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0 .
In fact it is remarkable that if we replace ∩ by ∧, ∪ by ∨, 0
by ∼, U by T (to denote a tautology) and ∅ by F (to denote a
contradiction) then all the rules of Boolean algebra turn into
logical equivalences.

p∧q ≡ q∧p
p∨q ≡ q∨p

p∧p ≡ p
idempotent laws (2)
p∨p ≡ p

p ∧ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r

p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
distributive laws
p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
(4)

p ∧ p ∨ q) ≡ p
absorbtion laws (5)
p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p
p∧T ≡p p∨T ≡T
(6)
p∨F ≡p p∧F ≡F
∼ (∼ p) ≡ p p∧ ∼ p ≡ F ∼T ≡ F
(7)
p∨ ∼ p ≡ T ∼F ≡ T

∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p∨ ∼ q
∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p∧ ∼ q
They may all be proved by means of truth tables as we

did for
∼ (p ∧ q) ≡∼ p∨ ∼ q.
Similarly:
p → q ≡∼ p ∨ q (9)
(p ↔ q) ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p) (10)
p ⊕ q ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) (11)
We call (1)–(8) the fundamental logical equivalences.

Rules 9, 10, and 11 enable us to rewrite →, ↔, and ⊕ entirely
in terms of ∧, ∨ and ∼. Expressions involving ∧, ∨ and ∼
can be manipulated by means of rules (1)–(8).
Example 7.2.1 Simplify ∼ p ∨ (p ∧ q).

by (4)
∼ p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ (∼ p ∨ p) ∧ (∼ p ∨ q)
by (1)
≡ (p∨ ∼ p) ∧ (∼ p ∨ q)
by (7)
≡ T ∧ (∼ p ∨ q)
by (1)
≡ (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ T
by (6)
≡ ∼ p ∨ q.
To determine whether or not statements X and Y are logically

equivalent we use truth tables. If the final columns are the
same then X ≡ Y , otherwise X 6≡ Y .
If we are trying to prove X ≡ Y we can either use truth

tables or we can try to obtain Y from X by means of funda-
mental logical equivalences (1)–(10).
Example 7.2.2 Prove that ∼ q →∼ p ≡ p → q.

We could use truth tables or proceed as follows

by (9)
∼ q →∼ p ≡ ∼∼ q ∨ ∼ p
by (7)
≡ q ∨ ∼p
by (1)
≡ ∼p ∨ q
by (9)
≡ p → q.
7.3 “Either or” and “neither nor”

I am frequently asked by students whether an expression of
everyday language “either p or q” is expressed in Propositional
Logic by the “exclusive or” connective ⊕. My answer is yes,
it is so in most cases, but not always; you have to look at
the context where the expression “either or” is used. There
is an additional difficulty: if “either p or q” is understood
as p ⊕ q, that is “either p, or q, but not both”, then the
expression of everyday language “neither p nor q” is NOT
the negation of ”either p or q”. Sketch Venn diagrams and
see it for yourselves.
Example 7.3.1 Let p means “John lives in Peterborough”

and q means “John lives in Queensferry”.
Then p ⊕ q means
“John lives either in Peterborough, or in Queens-

ferry, but not in both”.
The negation ∼ (p ⊕ q) is
“John either does not live in Peterborough or in

Queensferry, or lives in both of them”,
while
“John lives neither in Petersborough nor in Queens-

ferry”
is ∼ (p ∨ q).
Notice that ∼ (p ⊕ q) is not logically equivalent to ∼ (p ∨ q).

7.4 Problems
Problem 7.1 Prove all Fundamental Logical Equivalences (1) –
(11) by computing truth tables.
Problem 7.2 Use Fundamental Logical Equivalences (1) – (11)

to prove logical equivalences involving XOR;
(i) p ⊕ F ≡ p
(ii) p ⊕ p ≡ F
(iii) p ⊕ q ≡ q ⊕ p (commutativity)
(iv) (p ⊕ q) ⊕ r ≡ p ⊕ (q ⊕ r) (associativity)
and logical equivalences involving XOR and the negation:
(v) p ⊕ ∼ p ≡ T
(vi) p ⊕ T ≡∼ p
Problem 7.3 Prove, by constructing truth table and by drawing

Venn diagrams, that ∼ (p⊕q)) is not logically equivalent to (p∨q).
(See Section 7.3 for discussion.)
7.5 Solutions
7.2(iv). This tautology deserves attention because its proof is long, while the Venn diagram is
highly symmetric.
(p ⊕ q) ⊕ r ≡ ((p ⊕ q)∧ ∼ r) ∨ (∼ (p ⊕ q) ∧ r)
| {z } | {z }
≡ (((p∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q))∧ ∼ r) ∨ (∼ ((p∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q)) ∧ r)
| {z } | {z }
we simplify this first
≡ [p∧ ∼ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ [∼ p ∧ q∧ ∼ r] ∨((∼ (p∧ ∼ q)∧ ∼ (∼ p ∧ q)) ∧ r)
| {z }
≡ [p∧ ∼ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ [∼ p ∧ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ (((∼ p∨ ∼∼ q) ∧ (∼∼ p∨ ∼ q)) ∧r)
| {z }
and now we work with that bit
≡ [p∧ ∼ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ [∼ p ∧ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ (((∼ p ∨ q) ∧ (p∨ ∼ q)) ∧r)
| {z }
and now we work here
≡ [p∧ ∼ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ [∼ p ∧ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ (((∼ p ∧ p) ∨ (∼ p∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ p) ∨ (q∧ ∼ q)) ∧r)
| {z }
≡ [p∧ ∼ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ [∼ p ∧ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ (F ∨ (∼ p∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ p) ∨ F ) ∧r)
| {z }
≡ [p∧ ∼ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ [∼ p ∧ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ ((∼ p∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ p)) ∧r)
| {z }
≡ [p∧ ∼ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ [∼ p ∧ q∧ ∼ r] ∨ [∼ p∧ ∼ q ∧ r] ∨ [p ∧ q ∧ r]
Please observe that we get a disjunction of four conjunctions (enclosed in square brackets) each
of which contains even number (zero or two) of negations. If you do a similar calculation with
p ⊕ (q ⊕ r), you will get the same expression. The Venn diagram for the both (p ⊕ q) ⊕ r and
p ⊕ (q ⊕ r) is very symmetric:
7.6 Sample test question

1. Which of the following statements is logically equivalent to
p ∧ ∼ (p → q)?
(A) q→p (B) p∧∼ q (C) F

1. > In the exam are we going to receive a formula
> sheet with rules of boolean algebra?
Answer. Yes, you are. AB
0N1 Mathematics • Lecture 8 • Predicate Logic • 01 Oct 2018 70
8 Predicate Logic
8.1 Predicaes
Many mathematical sentences involve “unknowns” or “vari-
ables”.
Example 8.1.1 (i) x > 2 (where x stands for an unknown

real number).
(ii) A ⊆ B (where A and B stand for unknown sets).
Such sentences are called predicates. They are not state-

ments because they do not have a definite truth value: the
truth value depends on the unknowns.
Example 8.1.2
(i) x > 2 is T for x = 3, 3 12 , etc., F for x = 2, −1, etc.
(ii) A ⊆ B is T for A = {1, 2}, B = R.

A ⊆ B is F for A = {1, 2}, B = {2, 3, 4}.
We can write p(x), q(x), . . . for predicates involving an

unknown x, p(x, y), q(x, y), . . . when there are unknowns x
and y, p(A, B), q(A, B), . . . when there are unknowns A and
B, etc.
Example 8.1.3 (i) Let p(x) denote the predicate x > 2.

Then p(1) denotes the statement 1 > 2 (truth value
F ) while p(3) denotes the statement 3 > 2 (truth value
T ).
(ii) Let p(x, y) denote x2 + y 2 = 1. Then p(0, 1) denotes

02 + 12 = 1 (true) while p(1, 1) denotes 12 + 12 = 1
(false).
8.2 Compound predicates

The logical connectives ∧, ∨, ∼, →, ↔, ⊕ can be used to
combine predicates to form compound predicates.
Example 8.2.1 (i) Let p(x) denote x2 > 5 and let q(x)
denote “x is positive”. Then p(x) ∧ q(x) denotes the
predicate “x2 > 5 and x is positive”.
(ii) Let p(x, y) denote x = y 2 . Then ∼ p(x, y) denotes x 6=

y2.
(iii) Let p(A, B) denote A ⊆ B and let q(A) denote A ∩

{1, 2} = ∅. Then q(A) → p(A, B) denotes the predicate
“If A ∩ {1, 2} = ∅ then A ⊆ B”.
We can calculate truth values as follows.
Example 8.2.2 Let p(x, y) denote x > y and let q(x) denote
x < 2. Find the truth value of the predicate
∼ (p(x, y) ∧ q(x))
when x = 3 and y = 1.
Solution. We need to find the truth value of the statement
∼ (p(3, 1) ∧ q(3)).
Now p(3, 1) is T and q(3) is F . Therefore p(3, 1) ∧ q(3) is F .

Therefore
∼ (p(3, 1) ∧ q(3))
is T .

Let p(x) denote the predicate x > −1 and let q(x) denote the
predicate x ∈ {0, 1, 2}. Which of the following statements is true?
(A) p(1) → q(−1)

(B) p(1) ∧ ∼ p(−1)

(C) ∼ (p(2) ∨ q(2))
Solution: Notice that

p(1) is T , q(−1) is F , p(−1) is F , p(2) is T , q(2) is T
Therefore statements (A), (B), (C) become
(A) T → F , (B) T ∧ ∼ F , (C) ∼ (T ∨ T ),
of which (B) is T .
0N1 Mathematics • Lecture 9 • Quantifiers • 01 Oct 2018 73
9 Quantifiers
9.1 Universal quanifier

Many statements in mathematics involve the phrase “for all”
or “for every” or “for each”: these all have the same meaning.
Examples.
(i) For every x, x2 > 0.
(ii) For all A and B, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
If p(x) is a predicate we write (∀x)p(x) to denote the state-

ment “For all x, p(x)”. Similarly, (∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) denotes
“For all x and all y, p(x, y)”.
Examples.
(i) Let p(x) denote x2 > 0. Then (∀x)p(x) denotes “For

every x, x2 > 0” or x, “For each x, x2 > 0”.
(ii) Let p(A, B) denote A ∩ B = B ∩ A. Then
(∀A)(∀B)p(A, B)
denotes “For all A and B, A ∩ B = B ∩ A”.
When we write (∀x)p(x) we have in mind that x belongs

to some universal set U . The truth of the statement (∀x)p(x)
may depend on U .
Example. Let p(x) denote x2 > 0. Then (∀x)p(x) is true

provided that the universal set is the set of all real numbers,
but (∀x)p(x) is false if U = C because i2 = −1.
Usually the universal set is understood from the context.
But if necessary we may specify it:
“For every real number x, x2 > 0”
may be denoted by (∀x ∈ R)p(x) instead of (∀x)p(x).

If p(x) is a PREDICATE then
(∀x)p(x) is a STATEMENT.
∗
(∀x)p(x) is true if p(x) is true for every x ∈ U , whereas * whereas = while
(∀x)p(x) is false if p(x) is false for at least one x ∈ U .
Similar remarks apply to (∀x)(∀y)p(x, y), etc.
Examples.
(i) Let p(x) denote x2 > 0 where U = R. Then (∀x)p(x) is

true.
(ii) The statement “For every integer x, x2 > 5” is false.

Here U = Z but there is at least one x ∈ Z for which
x2 > 5 is false, e.g. x = 1.
(iii) Let p(x, y) denote

“If x > y then x2 > y 2 ”,
where U = R. Then (∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) is false. Take, for
example, x = 1 and y = −2. Then p(x, y) becomes
“If 1 > −2 then 1 > 4”.
Here 1 > −2 is T but 1 > 4 is F . From the truth table
for → we see that “If 1 > −2 then 1 > 4” is F . Hence
(∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) is F .
(iv) “For all x and all y, if x > y then 2x > 2y” is T .
The symbol ∀ is called the universal quantifier : it has the

meaning “for all”, “for every” or “for each”.
9.2 Existential quantifier

We now also study ∃, the existential quantifier : it has the
meaning “there is (at least one)”, “there exists” or “for some”.
Examples.
(i) Let p(x) denote x2 > 5, where U = R. Then (∃x)p(x)

denotes
“There exists a real number x such that x2 > 5”.
This can also be expressed as
“x2 > 5 for some real number x”.
(ii) The statement

“There exist sets A and B for which (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 ”
may be denoted by
(∃A)(∃B)p(A, B)
where p(A, B) denotes the predicate (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 ,

or
(∃A)(∃B)((A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 ).
If p(x) is a PREDICATE then (∃x)p(x) is a STATE-

MENT.
(∃x)p(x) is true if p(x) is true for at least one x ∈ U ,
whereas
(∃x)p(x) is false if p(x) is false for all x ∈ U .
Examples.
(i) Let U = R. The statement (∃x)x2 > 5 is T because

x2 > 5 is T for at least one value of x, e.g. x = 3.
(ii) Let p(x) denote x2 < 0, where U = R. Then (∃x)p(x)

is F because p(x) is F for all x ∈ U .
(iii) (∃x)(∃y)(x + y)2 = x2 + y 2 (where U = R) is T : take

x = 0, y = 0 for example.
Statements may involve both ∀ and ∃.

Example. Consider the following statements.

(i) Everyone likes all of Beethoven’s symphonies.
(ii) Everyone likes at least one of Beethoven’s symphonies.
(iii) There is one Beethoven’s symphony which everyone
likes.
(iv) There is someone who likes all of Beethoven’s sym-
phonies.
(v) Every Beethoven’s symphony is liked by someone.
(vi) There is someone who likes at least one of Beethoven’s
symphonies.
If we let p(x, y) denote the predicate “x likes y” where x
belongs to the universal set of all University of Manchester
students and y belongs to the universal set of all Beethoven’s
symphonies then the statements become:
(i) (∀x)(∀y)p(x, y)
(ii) (∀x)(∃y)p(x, y)
(iii) (∃y)(∀x)p(x, y)
(iv) (∃x)(∀y)p(x, y)
(v) (∀y)(∃x)p(x, y)
(vi) (∃x)(∃y)p(x, y)
All have different meanings: in particular, (∀x)(∃y) is not
the same as (∃y)(∀x).
Example 9.2.1 Consider the statements

(i) (∀x)(∃y)x < y and
(ii) (∃y)(∀x)x < y
where U = R.
Statement (i) is true but statement (ii) is false. Note that
(i) states that whatever number x we choose we can find a
number y which is greater than x (e.g. y = x + 1). But (ii)
states that there is a number y which is simultaneously greater
than every number x: this is impossible because, with x = y,
x < y does not hold.

1. For real numbers x and y let p(x, y) denote the predicate x 6= y.
Which of the following statements is false?
(A) (∃x)(∃y)p(x, y)
(B) (∀x)(∃y)p(x, y)
(C) (∃x)(∀y)p(x, y)
Solution: (C) is false, because every number is equal to itself

and therefore the formula (∃x)(∀y)p(x, y) which means
“there us a number x such that every real number y
is not equal to x”
cannot be true.
Another solution: (C) is F because its negation ∼ (∃x)(∀y)p(x, y)
is T . This can be seen because
∼ (∃x)(∀y)p(x, y) ≡ (∀x)(∃y) ∼ p(x, y),
which means
“for every x there is y such that x = y”
which is obviously T .
Why are (A) and (B) true?
(A) is (∃x)(∃y)x 6= y is true because you can take x = 1 and
y = 2.
(B) is (∀x)(∃y)x 6= y, or
“for every x there exists y such that x 6= y”
this is true, because you may take for such y the value y = x + 1.

∗
1. > I can not differentiate the true from the false
> when it comes to different arrangements of
> quantifiers or variables after the quantifier.
>
> For example:
> Let the Universal set be Z.
>
> (i) For all x there exists an integer y such that y^2=x.
>
> (ii) For all y there exists an integer x such that y^2=x.
>
> Which one of those statements is true?
> which one is false?
> are they both false or true?
Answer: (ii) is true, (i) is false.

Why (i) is false? If it is true, then, since it is true for all x, it has
to be true for x = 2. So let us plug x = 2 into the statement:
For x = 2 there exists an integer y such that y 2 = x.
but this is the same as to say

there exists an integer y such that y 2 = 2.
But this obviously false – there is no such integer y.
Why is (ii) true? Because, for every y, we can set x = y 2 .
For example,
• for y = 1 there exists an integer x such that 12 = x (indeed,
take x = 1);
• for y = 2 there exists an integer x such that y 2 = x (indeed,
take x = 4);
take x = 9);
take x = 16);
take x = 25).
0N1 Mathematics • Lect. 10 • Logical equivalences • 01 Oct 2018 79
10 Logical equivalences
Statements can be formed from predicates by means of a mix-
ture of connectives and quantifiers.
Examples.
(i) Let p(x, y) denote x < y and let q(y) denote y 6= 2.

Then
(∀x)(∃y)(p(x, y) ∧ q(y))
denotes
“For all x there exists y such that x < y and

y 6= 2”.
(This is T ).
(ii) Let p(x) denote x > 2 and let q(x) denote x2 > 4. Then
(∀x)(p(x) → q(x))
denotes
“For all x, if x > 2 then x2 > 4”.
(True).
(iii) Let p(x) denote x > 2 and let q(x) denote x < 2. Then
we may form
((∃x)p(x) ∧ (∃x)q(x)) → (∃x)(p(x) ∧ q(x)).
This is F because
(∃x)p(x) ∧ (∃x)q(x)
is T but
(∃x)(p(x) ∧ q(x))
is F . T → F gives F .
As in propositional logic, we say that two statements X

and Y are logically equivalent, and write X ≡ Y , if X and
Y have the same truth value for purely logical reasons.
Example. ∼∼ (∃x)p(x) ≡ (∃x)p(x). We don’t need to

know the meaning of p(x).
Fundamental logical equivalence (6) of propositional logic

is
∼∼ p ≡ p.
This can be applied to predicate logic to show that
∼∼ (∃x)p(x) ≡ (∃x)p(x),
∼∼ (∀x)(∃y)p(x, y) ≡ (∀x)(∃y)p(x, y),
etc. We can use all of the fundamental logical equivalences
(1)–(10) in this way, plus two additional equivalences:
(11) ∼ (∀x)p(x) ≡ (∃x) ∼ p(x).

(12) ∼ (∃x)p(x) ≡ (∀x) ∼ p(x).
Example of (11). Let U be the set of all University of

Manchester students. Let p(x) denote “x is British”. Then
∼ (∀x)p(x) denotes
“It is not true that every University of Manchester

student is British”
and (∃x) ∼ p(x) denotes
“There is a University of Manchester student who

is not British”.
These are logically equivalent.
Example of (12). Let U = Z. Let p(x) denote x2 = 2.

Then ∼ (∃x)p(x) denotes
“It is false that there exists x ∈ Z such that x2 =

2”
and (∀x) ∼ p(x) denotes
“For all x ∈ Z, x2 6= 2”.
These are logically equivalent.

Example. Prove that
∼ (∀x)(∀y)(p(x, y) → q(x, y)) ≡ (∃x)(∃y)(p(x, y)∧ ∼ q(x, y)).
Solution.
by (11)
∼ (∀x)(∀y)(p(x, y) → q(x, y)) ≡ (∃x) ∼ (∀y)(p(x, y) → q(x, y))
by (11)
≡ (∃x)(∃y) ∼ (p(x, y) → q(x, y))
by (9)
≡ (∃x)(∃y) ∼ (∼ p(x, y) ∨ q(x, y))
by (8)
≡ (∃x)(∃y)(∼∼ p(x, y)∧ ∼ q(x, y))
by (7)
≡ ≡ (∃x)(∃y)(p(x, y)∧ ∼ q(x, y))

Perhaps, the very first line in this solution needs a com-
ment: we apply rule
(11) ∼ (∀x)p(x) ≡ (∃x) ∼ p(x)
with the formula
p(x) = (∀y)(p(x, y) → q(x, y))
highlighted by use of a boldface font.

1. One (or more) of the following statement(s) is (are) contradic-
tion(s) (that is, they are false no matter how we interpret the
predicate p(x, y)). Mark the statement(s) which is (are) not a
contradiction.
(A) (∀x)(∀y)(p(x, y) ↔ ∼ p(x, y))

(B) (∀x)(∃y)p(x, y) ↔ ∼ (∃y)(∀x)p(x, y)
(C) (∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) →∼ (∃y)(∃x)p(x, y)
Solution. Answer: (B) and (C).
(A) is always false because
p ↔∼ p
is always false, it says “‘p is true if and only if ∼ p is true”, or “p is

true if and only if “not p” is true”; the phrase can be even re-told
as “p is true and false simultaneously”. Of course, the sentence
“p is true and false simultaneously” is false no matter what is the
statement p. So (A) is a contradiction.
Meanwhile, the statement (B),
(∀x)(∃y)p(x, y) ↔ ∼ (∃y)(∀x)p(x, y)
is true if we take the set of real numbers R for the universal do-
main and and interpret the predicate p(x, y) as “x < y”. So (B)
is not a contradiction.
(C) happens to be true if (∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) is false (for example,

∗
take R for the universal set and define p(x, y) as x 6= y ), so (C) * Actually, (∀x)(∀y)(x 6= y) is false on
is not a contradiction. every non-empty set U because it im-
plies that for every x, x 6= x, that is,
that every element is not equal to itself.
2. Two of the following statements are tautologies (that is, they are
true no matter how we interpret the predicate p(x, y)). Mark the
statement which is not a tautology.
(A) (∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) → (∀y)(∀x)p(x, y)

(B) (∀x)(∃y)p(x, y) → (∃y)(∀x)p(x, y)
(C) (∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) → (∃x)(∃y)p(x, y)
Solution. Statements (A) and (C) are always true.
∗
Indeed, to see that (A) is true observe that both universal state- * I added a detailed explanation on a
ments request from a student; of course, you do
(∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) and (∀y)(∀x)p(x, y) not have to write it down in a multiple
choice test.
can be expressed by a phrase which does not mention names x
and y for variables:
all elements in U are in relation p.
For example, take for U the set of all people and for p(x, y) the
relation “x and y are friends”; then both
(∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) and (∀y)(∀x)p(x, y)
become
“all people are friends [to each other and themselves]”

and
(∀x)(∀y)p(x, y) → (∀y)(∀x)p(x, y)
becomes
“if all people are friends then all people are friends”,
which is obviously true. And notice that the actual meaning of
∗
the predicate p(x, y) does not matter here. *
If you think that “all people are
Similarly, (C) reads in our interpretation as friends” is too optimistic an assertion,
repeat the same argument with the fa-
“if all people are friends then there is someone who mous Latin proverb homo homini lupus
befriends someone”, est, “a man is a wolf to [his fellow] man
[and himself]”. I repeat: the actual
and again the actual meaning of predicate p(x, y) does not matter.
meaning of the predicate p(x, y) does not
Statement (B) is false when we take R for the universal domain mater.
and interpret the predicate p(x, y) as “x < y”.

∗
1. > Since I can not use symbols,
> A=for all and E=there exists.
>
> If there was a statement like this:
>
> ~((Ax)(Ey)(p(x,y)^(Ey)~q(y)))
>
> If I want to simplify this,
> I multiply the negation inside the brackets,
> but I am not sure of what would happen,
> will the negation be multiplied by both (Ax)(Ex) ?
> as it will be
> ~(Ax)~(Ey) ~((p(x,y)^(Ey)~q(y))??
Answer. I am afraid it works differently. Here is a sequence of

transformations:
∼ ((∀x)(∃y)(p(x, y) ∧ (∃y) ∼ q(y))) ≡ (∃x) ∼ (∃y)(p(x, y) ∧ (∃y) ∼ q(y))

≡ (∃x)(∀y) ∼ (p(x, y) ∧ (∃y) ∼ q(y))
≡ (∃x)(∀y)(∼ p(x, y)∨ ∼ (∃y) ∼ q(y))
≡ (∃x)(∀y)(∼ p(x, y) ∨ (∀y) ∼∼ q(y))
≡ (∃x)(∀y)(∼ p(x, y) ∨ (∀y)q(y)).
2. I refer to Example (iii) in this Lecture.
Let p(x) denote x > 2 and let q(x) denote x < 2.

Then we may form
((∃x)p(x) ∧ (∃x)q(x)) → (∃x)(p(x) ∧ q(x)).

This is F because
(∃x)p(x) ∧ (∃x)q(x)
is T but
(∃x)(p(x) ∧ q(x))
is F . T → F gives F .
MY PROBLEM. I entirely accept that
(∃x)(p(x) ∧ q(x))
is F . I can find no value of x for which p(x) i.e. x > 2 is true and
for which q(x) i.e. x < 2 is also true for that same value of x. If
we let x = 3 then x > 2 which is 3 > 2 is T but x < 2 which is
3 < 2 is F .
From the conjunction truth table for ∧ we see that T ∧ F gives
F.
If we let x = 1 then x > 2 which is 1 > 2 is F but x < 2 which is
1 < 2 is T . Again from the truth table for ∧ we see that F ∧ T
gives F .
So far so good but now we come to
(∃x)p(x) ∧ (∃x)q(x)
and the brackets appear to produce an unexpected result. I read

this as the logical statement that
“there exists some value of x for which x > 2 is true

and there exists some value of x for which x < 2 is
true”.
But the normal method of testing by giving x a value of, let us
say 1, gives us (∃x)p(x) which is 1 > 2 which is F and (∃x)q(x)
which is 1 < 2 which is T .
From the truth table for ∧ we see that F ∧ T gives F .
Testing by giving x a value of 3 gives us (∃x)p(x) which is 3 > 2
which is T and (∃x)q(x) which is 3 < 2 which is F .
From the truth table for ∧ we see that T ∧ F also gives F .
I am therefore unable to identify a value of x in the two predicates
p(x) and q(x) for which
(∃x)p(x) ∧ (∃x)q(x)
gives T as stated in example (iii).

The only possibility I can see is that, because of the brackets, I
should read the logical statement as being that
“there exists some value of x for which x > 2 is true

(it is true for the value x = 3) and separately there
exists some potentially different value of x for which
x < 2 is true (it is true for the value x = 1)”.
Only then can I get T ∧ T which is the required condition in the
∧ truth table to give a result of T .
Answer. Your problem disappears if
(∃x)p(x) ∧ (∃x)q(x)
is replaced by
(∃x)p(x) ∧ (∃y)q(y)
which says exactly the same.
3. For real numbers x and y, let p(x,y) denote the

predicate x < y. In the statement
(Ax)(Ay)(p(x,y) v p(y,x))
For answer B does this mean the predicate p(y,x)
is y < x because y and x have switched positions?
Answer. Yes, it does, p(y, x) means y < x.
4. I wanted to know if you could provide me with specific

examples for when (Ax)(Ey) p(x,y) is logically
equivalent to (Ey(Ax)p(x,y)?
Answer. I cannot provide you with specific, because these two

statements are not logical equivalent. It is like asking: “when are
you alive?” I am either alive or not, and the word “when” cannot
be used in a question.
By definition, two statements of Predicate Logic are logically
equivalent if they are simultaneously true of false for purely logical
reasons, regardless of their meaning, regardless of concrete inter-
pretation of predicates involved, regardless of choice of universal
sets to which they are applied. For example, if the universal set
is the set of real numbers and p(x, y) has meaning x = y, then
the both statements (∀x)(∃y)p(x, y) and (∃y)(∀x)p(x, y) are true;
if the universal set is the set of natural numbers and the predi-
cate p(x, y) has meaning x < y, then (∀x)(∃y)p(x, y) is T while
(∃y)(∀x)p(x, y) is F . This second example automatically makes
the two particular sentences NOT elementary equivalent.
0N1 Mathematics • Lect. 11 • Inequalities • 01 Oct 2018 86
11 Inequalities
In this and next lectures we shall study, in more detail, prop-
erties of inequality, or order relation, x 6 y on the set R of
real numbers.
x 6 y is read
“x is less or equal y”
or
“x is at most y.”
11.1 Basic properties of inequalities

Let x, yz ∈ R be arbitrary real numbers. Then
• x 6 x;
• x = y if and only if x 6 y and y 6 x;
• if x 6 y and y 6 z then x 6 z;
• x 6 y or y 6 x.
It is a useful exercise to rewrite these properties in formal

logical notation:
• (∀x)(x 6 x);
• (∀x)(∀y)(x = y ↔ (x 6 y ∧ y 6 x));
• (∀x)(∀y)(∀z)((x 6 y ∧ y 6 z) → x 6 z);
• (∀x)(∀y)(x 6 y ∨ y 6 x).
Some additional notation:
• If x 6 y, we write y ≥ x.
• if x 6 y and x 6= y, we write x < y
• if x ≥ y and x 6= y, we write x > y
0N1 Mathematics • Lect. 11 • Inequalities • 01 Oct 2018 87
11.2 Intervals and segments

Let a, b ∈ R with a 6 b.
By definition,
• interval ]a, b[ is the set
]a, b[= { x : a < x < b }.
• segment [a, b] is the set
[a, b] = { x : a 6 x 6 b }.
• semi-closed intervals are sets
[a, b[= { x : a 6 x < b }.
and
]a, b] = { x : a < x 6 b }.
The numbers a and b are called the endpoints of segments,

intervals, semi-closed intervals
]a, b[ , [a, b], [a, b[ , ]a, b],
and the number b − a is called their length.

We also define
• positive-directed ray [a, +∞[ is the set
[a, +∞[= { x : a 6 x }.
• negative directed ray ] − ∞, a] is the set
] − ∞, a] = { x : x 6 a }.
• half-lines ] − ∞, a[ and ]a, +∞[ are sets
] − ∞, a[= { x : x < a }.
and
]a, +∞[= { x : a < x }.
0N1 Maths • Lect. 12 • Operations over inequalities • 01 Oct 2018 88
12 Operations over Inequalities
12.1 Formal properties of real numbers

It is time for us to make list of some properties of real num-
bers. Let a, b, c be arbitrary real numbers.
Addition
R1 a + b is a unique real number (Closure Law)

R2 a + b = b + a (Commutative Law)
R3 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c (Associative Law)
R4 a + 0 = 0 + a = a (Identity Law)
R5 a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0 (Inverse Law)
Multiplication
R6 a · b is a unique real number (Closure Law)

R7 a · b = b · a (Commutative Law)
R8 a · (b · c) = (a · b)· (Associative Law)
R9 a · 1 = 1 · a = a (Identity Law)
1 1
R10 a · = · a = 1 for a 6= 0 (Inverse Law)
a a
R11 a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c (Distributive Law)
Inequality
R12 a 6 a (Reflexive Law)

∗
R13 a = b iff a 6 b and b 6 a; (Antisymmetric Law) * Recall “iff” = “if and only if”
R14 If a 6 b and b 6 c then a 6 c (Transitive Law)
R15 a 6 b or b 6 a (Total Order Law)
R16 If a 6 b then a + c 6 b + c
R17 If a 6 b and 0 6 c then a · c 6 b · c
12.2 Properties of strict inequality

We need two types of inequality, 6 and < because they allow
to express the negations of each other:
∼ (a 6 b) ↔ b < a
∼ (a < b) ↔ b 6 a
R∗ 12 It is never true that a < a (Anti-reflexive Law)
R∗ 13 One and only one of the following is true:
a<b a=b b<a
(Antisymmetric + Total Order Law)
R∗ 14 If a < b and b < c then a < c (Transitive Law)
R∗ 15 a < b or a = b or b < a (Total Order Law)
R∗ 16 If a < b then a + c < b + c
R∗ 17 If a < b and 0 < c then a · c < b · c
On a number of occasions I have been asked by students:
How can we claim that 2 6 3 if we already know

that 2 < 3?
Propositional Logic helps:
a 6 b ≡ (a < b) ∨ (a = b),
in particular,
2 6 3 ≡ (2 < 3) ∨ (2 = 3).
Obviously, 2 < 3 is T , 2 = 3 is F , therefore their disjunction

2 6 3 has truth value T ∨ F ≡ T .
12.3 Inequalities can be added

Theorem 12.1 If a 6 b and c 6 d then
a + c 6 b + d.
Proof.
1. a + c 6 b + c [R16]
2. c + b 6 d + b [R16]
3. b + c 6 b + d [R2]
4. a + c 6 b + d [R14 applied to 1. and 2.]
12.4 Proofs can be re-used

Theorem 12.2 If 0 6 a 6 b and 0 6 c 6 d then
a · c 6 b · d.
Proof.
1. a · c 6 b · c [R17]
2. c · b 6 d · b [R17]
3. b · c 6 b · d [R2]
4. a · c 6 b · d [R14 applied to 1. and 2.]
Corollary 12.3 For all 0 6 x 6 y,
x2 6 y 2 .
Proof. In the theorem above, set a = c = x and b = d = y.

Theorem 12.4 If a < b and c < d then
a + c < b + d.
Proof.
1. a + c < b + c [R∗ 16]
2. c + b < d + b [R∗ 16]
3. b + c < b + d [R2]
4. a + c < b + d [R∗ 14 applied to 1. and 2.]
More on proving inequalities (and on proof in mathematics

in general) is the next lecture.
0N1 Mathematics • Lecture 13 • Methods of Proof • 01 Oct 2018 92
13 Methods of Proof
∗
* Recommended additional (but not
compulsory) reading: Book of Proof by
Richard Hammack, Chapter 4.
13.1 Statements of the form (∀x)p(x)
To prove (∀x)p(x) is T we must prove that p(x) is T for all
x ∈ U . (The method will vary.)
Theorem 13.1 For all real numbers x,
0 6 x if and only if −x 6 0.
In formal logical notation, this theorem reads as

(∀x)(0 6 x ↔ −x 6 0)
Proof. We will prove first that if 0 6 x then −x 6 0
1. 0 6 x (given)
2. 0 + (−x) 6 x + (−x) (R16)
3. −x 6 0 (algebra)
Now we prove that if −x 6 0 then 0 6 x.
1. −x 6 0 (given)
2. −x + x 6 0 + x (R16)
3. 0 6 x (algebra)
So we proved both
0 ≤ x → −x 6 0
and
−x 6 0 → 0 6 x,
hence proved
0 6 x ↔ −x 6 0
for all real numbers x.
13.2 Change of sign in an inequality

Theorem 13.2 For all real numbers x and y,
x 6 y if and only if −y 6 −x.
In formal logical notation, this theorem reads as
(∀x)(x 6 y ↔ −y 6 −x)
Proof. We will prove first that if x ≤ y then −y 6 −x
1. x 6 y (given)
2. x + [−x − y] 6 y + [−x − y] (R16)
3. −y 6 −x (algebra)
The proof of the implication in other direction, from right

to left, is left as an exercise – use the previous theorem as a
hint.
The statement of this theorem is frequently written as
(∀x)(x 6 y ↔ −x ≤ −y)
and is read as
If we change the signs of the both sides of the in-

equality, we change its direction.
Recall that a real number a is called
positive if 0 < a,
negative if a < 0,
non-negative if 0 6 a,
non-positive if a 6 0.
13.3 Squares are non-negative
∗
Theorem 13.3 For all real numbers x, * In formal language: (∀x)(0 6 x2 ).
0 6 x2 .
∗
Proof. We shall write this proof in a less formal way. * We ar using here “case-by-case” proof,
which we will discuss in more detail in
If x is non-negative, then x2 is non-negative by Corollary Section 14.5.
12.3.
If x is negative, then x 6 0 and 0 6 −x by Theorem 13.1,
so −x is non-negative. Now, by Corollary 12.3 again, 0 6
(−x)2 = x2 .
Remark. Observe that if a statement (∀x)p(x) about real

numbers is true then it remains true if we substitute for x an
arbitrary function or expression x = f (y).
For example, since (∀x)(x2 ≥ 0) is T , the following state-
ments are also true for all x and y:
(y + 1)2 ≥ 0; (x + y)2 ≥ 0; sin2 x ≥ 0
and therefore
(∀y)((y + 1)2 ≥ 0);
(∀x)(∀y)((x + y)2 ≥ 0);
(∀x)(sin2 x ≥ 0).
Example 13.3.1 Prove that the statement
“For all real numbers y, y 2 + 2y + 3 > 0”
is true.
Proof. Let y be an arbitrary real number. We can rewrite
y 2 + 2y + 3 = (y 2 + 2y + 1) + 2
= (y + 1)2 + 2.
But we know from the previous remark that, for all y,
(y + 1)2 ≥ 0.
Therefore
(y + 1)2 + 2 ≥ 0 + 2 = 2 > 0.
Hence
y 2 + 2y + 3 = (y + 1)2 + 2 > 0,
and the statement is true.
“For all real numbers x and y, x2 + y 2 > 2xy”
is true.
Proof. We know that
(x − y)2 > 0;
after opening the bracket, we have
x2 − 2xy + y 2 > 0.
After we add 2xy to the both sides of this inequality, we get
x2 + y 2 > 2xy.
13.4 Counterexamples
∗
To prove (∀x)p(x) is F we must show that there exists at * We also say: “disprove” (∀x)p(x);
least one x ∈ U such that p(x) is F for this x. Such a value of “refute” (∀x)p(x).
x is called a counterexample to the statement (∀x)p(x).
Example 13.4.1 Prove that
“For all real numbers x, x2 − 3x + 2 ≥ 0”

is false.
Proof. Note that

x2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2).
If 1 < x < 2 then x − 1 is positive: x − 1 > 0, and x − 2 is
negative: x−2 < 0, so their product (x−1)(x−2) is negative:
(x − 1)(x − 2) < 0.
Thus any number x with 1 < x < 2 is a counterexample: the
∗
statement is false. For a concrete value of x, we can take * concrete = specific, “existing in real-
x = 1 21 . One counterexample is enough: we do not have to ity or in real experience; perceptible by
show that the senses”.
x2 − 3x + 2 ≥ 0
is false for all x.
“For all sets A, B and C,

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ C 00
is false.
Proof. We try to find a counterexample by experiment. Try

A = ∅, B = ∅, C = {1}. Then
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = ∅
but
(A ∩ B) ∪ C = {1}.
Thus A = ∅, B = ∅, C = {1} gives a counterexample: the
statement is false.

(∀x)(0 6 x3 )
is false.
Proof. For a counterexample, you can take x = −1.

Remark One counterexample is enough to prove that a

statement is false.

(∀x)(p(x) → q(x))
An example is
“For all x, if x > 2 then x2 > 4”.
In practice such a sentence is often expressed as
“If x > 2 then x2 > 4”
where the phrase “For all x” is taken as obvious. However, in

symbols, we should write
(∀x)(p(x) → q(x)).
Notice that an expression
“If A ⊆ B then A ∪ B = B”
∗
is shorthand for * shorthand = abbreviation
“For all A and all B, if A ⊆ B then A ∪ B = B”,
written as
(∀A)(∀B)(p(A, B) → q(A, B))
where p(A, B) denotes A ⊆ B and q(A, B) denotes A∪B = B.
To prove that (∀x)(p(x) → q(x)) is T we need to prove

that p(x) → q(x) is T for each element x of U . The truth
table for → shows that p(x) → q(x) is automatically T when
p(x) is F . Therefore we only need to prove that p(x) → q(x)
is T for elements x of U such that p(x) is T . We take an
arbitrary value of x for which p(x) is T and try to deduce
that q(x) is T . (The method will vary.) It then follows that
(∀x)(p(x) → q(x)) is T .
Example 13.5.1 Prove the statement
“If x ∈]1, 2[ then x2 − 3x + 2 < 0”.
Proof. Note that
x2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2).
If x ∈]1, 2[ then 1 < x < 2, hence x − 1 > 0 is positive and

x − 2 < 0 is negative, and their product (x − 1)(x − 2) is
negative.
To prove that (∀x)(p(x) → q(x)) is F we have to show

that there exists x ∈ U such that p(x) → q(x) is F . The
truth table of → shows that p(x) → q(x) can only be F when
p(x) is T and q(x) is F . Thus we have to show that there
exists x ∈ U such that p(x) is T and q(x) is F . This will be a
counterexample to (∀x)(p(x) → q(x)).
“If x is a real number such that x2 > 4 then x > 2”
is false.
Proof. Let x = −3. Then x2 > 4 is T but x > 2 is F . Thus

x = −3 is a counterexample: the statement is false.
14 Methods of Proof, Continued
14.1 Contrapositive
∗
* Recommended reading: Book of Proof
∗ by Richard Hammack, Chapter 5.
By the method of truth tables we can prove
* Do that as an exercise!
p → q ≡∼ q →∼ p.
Alternatively, we can prove this from Fundamental Logical

equivalences:
p→q ≡ ∼p ∨ q
≡ q∨ ∼ p
≡ ∼ (∼ q)∨ ∼ p
≡ ∼ q →∼ p.
∼ q →∼ p is called the contrapositive of p → q. It follows

that
(∀x)(p(x) → q(x)) ≡ (∀x)(∼ q(x) →∼ p(x)).
(∀x)(∼ q(x) →∼ p(x))

is called the contrapositive of
(∀x)(p(x) → q(x)).
To prove a statement p → q or (∀x)(p(x) → q(x)) it is

enough to prove the contrapositive. Sometimes this is easier.
Example 14.1.1 Prove the statement
“If x is an integer such that x2 is odd then x is

odd”.
The contrapositive is
“If x is an integer such that x is not odd then x2

is not odd”.
However “not odd” is the same as “even”. So the contrapos-

itive is
“If x is an even integer then x2 is even”.
This statement is much easier to prove: if x is even, x = 2u

for some integer u. but then
x2 = (2u)2 = 22 · u2 = 2 · (2u2 )
is also even.
14.2 Converse
A conditional statement q → p is called the converse of
p → q.
Similarly,
(∀x)(q(x) → p(x))
is called the converse of
(∀x)(p(x) → q(x)).
The converse is NOT equivalent to the original statement.
Example 14.2.1 Let p be “You got full marks” and let q be

“You passed the exam”.
p → q is “If you got full marks you passed the exam”.
The contrapositive ∼ q →∼ p is
“If you did not pass the exam you did not get full
marks”.
The converse q → p is
“If you passed the exam you got full marks”.
∼ q →∼ p is equivalent to p → q, but q → p is not.
Example 14.2.2 The statement

“If x > 2 then x2 > 4”
is true, but the converse
“If x2 > 4 then x > 2”

∗
is false. * Indeed, give a counterexample!
14.3 Inequalities for square roots

Theorem 14.1 If 0 6 x, 0 6 y and
x2 < y 2
then
x<y
Proof. The contrapositive to

x2 < y 2 → x < y
is
∼ (x < y) →∼ (x2 < y 2 )
or
(y 6 x) → (y 2 6 x2 )
But this is a theorem proved in Corollary 12.3.
By setting in Theorem 14.1 u = x2 and v = y 2 , we have
the following important inequality for square roots:
Corollary 14.2 If 0 6 u, 0 6 v and

u<v
then √ √
u< v.
I leave proving the following version of that result as an

exercise to the reader.
Theorem 14.3 If
06u6v
then √ √
u6 v.

(∀x)(p(x) ↔ q(x))
We make use of the logical equivalence
p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p).
Thus to prove that p ↔ q is T it is sufficient to prove two

things
(i) p → q is T
(ii) q → p is T .
To prove that p ↔ q is F it is sufficient to prove that either
p → q is F or q → p is F .
Similarly to prove that (∀x)(p(x) ↔ q(x)) is T we usually
proceed in TWO STEPS.
(i) We prove (∀x)(p(x) → q(x)).
(ii) We prove (the converse) (∀x)(q(x) → p(x)).
In order to prove (i) we follow the method described in II
above: we take an arbitrary x such that p(x) is T and try to
deduce that q(x) is T . Than to prove (ii) we take an arbitrary
x such that q(x) is T and try to deduce that p(x) is T .
To prove that (∀x)(p(x) ↔ q(x)) is F we prove that
(∀x)(p(x) → q(x)) is F
or
(∀x)(q(x) → p(x)) is F .
(∀x ∈ R)(x ≥ 0 ↔ x3 ≥ 0)
14.5 Case-by-case proofs

∗
* Compare with Section 13.3.
∗
It is easy to check that this is a tautology: * Check it!
((P → Q) ∧ (∼ P → Q)) → Q
Therefore, to prove (∀x)Q(x), it suffices to prove
(∀x)(P (x) → Q(x)) ∧ (∀x)(∼ P (x) → Q(x))
∗
More generally, we have a tautology * Check it!
((P 0 ∨ P 00 ) ∧ (P 0 → Q) ∧ (P 00 → Q)) → Q
Therefore, to prove (∀x)Q(x), it suffices to prove
(∀x)(P 0 (x)∨P 00 (x))∧(∀x)(P 0 (x) → Q(x))∧(∀x)(P 00 (x) → Q(x))
Example 14.5.1 Prove that, for all real numbers x,
if x 6= 0 then x2 > 0.
14.6 Absolute value

∗
For a real number x, we define its absolute value as * Another term used: module.

x if 0 6 x
|x| =
−x if x < 0
For example, | − 2| = 2, |3| = 3.

Observe that | − x| = |x|.
Geometric interpretation: |a−b| is the distance between

the points a and b on the real line.
Example 14.6.1 Prove that, for all real numbers x and y,
|x + y| 6 |x| + |y|.

Tick the correct box:
1. Of the following three statements, two are converse to each other;

mark the statement which is not converse to the other two.
(A) If a cat is black then its kittens are black.

(B) If the kittens of a cat are not black then the cat is not
black.
(C) If a cat is not black then its kittens are not black.
Answer: (A).
Solution: Let p means “cat is black”, q means “kittens are
black”. Then the statements can be written as
(A) p → q;
(B) ∼ q →∼ p;
(C) ∼ p →∼ q.
By definition, (B) and (C) are converse to each other.
0N1 Mathematics • Lecture 15 • By contradiction • 01 Oct 2018 105
15 Proof by contradiction
Suppose we want to prove some statement q. Assume that
q is false, i.e. assume ∼ q is true. Try to deduce from ∼ q
a statement which we know is definitely false. But a true
statement cannot imply a false one. Hence ∼ q must be
false, i.e. q must be true.
The same can be formulated differently: notice that
(∼ q → F ) → q
∗
is a tautology Therefore if we prove * I leave its proof to you as an exercise.
∼ q → F,
q will follow.
15.1 An example: proof of an inequality

I will illustrate a proof by contradiction by showing a proof
of an inequality which is perhaps hard to prove by any other
method.
Theorem 15.1 Suppose x is a positive real number. Then

1
x+ > 2.
x
Remark. In formal logical notation, it means proving

1
(∀x ∈ R) x > 0 → x + > 2 .
x
Proof. Consider some arbitrary positive real number x. Let

P (x) be statement
1
x + > 2.
x
We want to prove that P (x) is T . By the way of contradiction,
it suffices to prove that
∼ P (x) → F
is true.
So we assume that ∼ P (x) is T , that is,
1
x+ <2
x
is T . Since x is positive, we can multiply the both sides of
this inequality by x and get
x2 + 1 < 2x,
which can be rearranged as
x2 − 2x + 1 < 0
and then as
(x − 1)2 < 0.
But squares cannot be negative – a contradiction. Hence our
assumption that
1
x+ <2
x
was false, which means that
1
x+ >2
x
for all positive real numbers x.
Later, when we shall study inequalities in more detail,

we will frequently use proofs by contradiction; they are quite
useful in case of inequalities, and for a simple reason: the
negation of the inequality a 6 b is the inequality b < a.
√
15.2 Three proofs of irrationality of 2
Recall that a real number x is rational if it can be written as
a ratio of two integers
m
x=
n
with n 6= 0, and that the set of all rational numbers is de-
noted by Q. Real numbers which are not rational are called
irrational.
√
Here, we will consider three proofs of irrationality of 2,
a classical mathematical theorem, often seen as one of the
most important results in the history of mathematics. This
will help us to discuss general approaches to proofs by con-
tradiction, see Section 15.3 for more detail.
√
Theorem 15.2 2 is irrational.
√
Proof 1. Assume the contrary, that 2 is rational. It means
that it can be written as
√ a
2=
b
√
where a and b are integers. Since 2 is positive, we can also
assume that a and b are positive. By squaring both parts of
the equation, we get
a2
2= 2
b
and
2b2 = a2 .
Let us treat numbers a2 and b2 as areas of two squares in the
plane with integer sides respectively a and b, the first of which
has twice the area of the second. Now place two copies of the
∗
smaller square in the larger as shown in diagram below. * By Vaughan Pratt – Own work, CC
BY-SA 4.0, bit.ly/2hLZ99d
The square overlap region in the middle (2b − a)2 must

equal the sum of the two uncovered squares 2(a − b)2 . But
these squares on the diagonal have positive integer sides that
are smaller than the original squares. Repeating this process
we can find arbitrarily small squares one twice the area of
the other, yet both having positive integer sides, which is
impossible since positive integers cannot be less than 1.
The second proof is an algebraic version of the geometric
Proof 1.
√
√ a
2=
b
√
where a and b are integers. Since 2 is positive,
√ we can also
assume that a and b are positive. Perhaps 2 can be written
as a fraction of positive integers in many different ways; take
among them the one with the smallest positive numerator a.
Now look at the fraction
2b − a
a−b
and rearrange it first by dividing the numerator and denomi-
a √
nator by b and then simplifying by using the fact that = 2:
b
2b − a 2− a
= a b
a−b b
−1
√
2− 2
= √
2−1
√ √ √
2· 2− 2
= √
2−1
√ √
2 · ( 2 − 1)
= √
2−1
√
= 2
I leave it to the readers as an exercise to check that
2b − a < a, 2b − a > 0, and a − b > 0.
Denote a0 = 2b − a and b0 = a − b. Then

a0 √
= 2
b0
√
is another representation of 2 as a ratio of two positive in-
a
tegers, but with smaller denominator than that of . We
b
got a contradiction since we have chosen, at the beginning of
a
this proof, as the fraction with the smallest positive integer
b
which can be used for that purpose.
√
√ a
2=
b
√
where a and b are integers. Since 2 is positive, we can also
assume that a and b are positive. Also, we can assume that
a and b are not both even – otherwise we can cancel factor 2
a
from the numerator and denominator of and repeat it until
b
one of a or b becomes odd.
As we have seen in Proof 1, we have a2 = 2b2 . Hence a2 is
even. I leave to you as an exercise to prove that this implies
∗
that a is even and can be written as a = 2a1 . But now * Hint: use proof by contrapositive
a2 = (2a1 )2 = 4a21 ,
and
4a21 = 2b2 .
Cancelling factor 2 from the both sidess of this equality, we
have
2a21 = b2 ,
hence b2 is even, hence b is even. So both a and b are even
– a contradiction, because we made sure that a is odd or b is
odd.
15.3 Proof by contradiction: a discussion

∗
* Material of this section is not compul-
sory.
This may sound as a paradox, but proofs by contradiction

could be much easier than direct proofs. And here are reasons
for that:
• Students frequently complain that they do not know

where to start a proof. Here, you know where to start:
by assuming the contrary to what you wish to prove.
• You know where to go – to a contradiction of some sort;
• Moreover, it does not matter what kind of contradiction
you eventually get: as we already know, all contradic-
tions are logically equivalent.
This was√illustrated in Section 15.2: three proofs of irra-

tionality of 2 started exactly at the same point:
√
Assume the contrary, that 2 is rational. It means
√ a
2=
b
√
where a and b are integers. Since 2 is positive,
we can also assume that a and b are positive.
But then the proofs went three different ways: Geometry,

Algebra, and Number Theory, each one leading to a contra-
diction.
The famous conversation between Alice and the Cheshire
Cat in Alice in Wonderland is very relevant hear:
“Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to

go from here?”
“That depends a good deal on where you want to
get to,” said the Cat.
“I don’t much care where–” said Alice.
“Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,” said
the Cat.
“–so long as I get SOMEWHERE,” Alice added
as an explanation.
“Oh, you’re sure to do that,” said the Cat, “if you
only walk long enough.”
Lewis Carroll, the author of Alice in Wonderland, was

one of the first mathematical logicians at the time when this
branch of mathematics was still very young; his real name
was Charles Dodgson. The set theory was also non-existent
at his time, and in his book on logic he talks about classes
rather than sets, and in a very peculiar way:
‘Classification’, or the formation of Classes, is a

Mental Process, in which we imagine that we have
put together, in a group, certain things. Such a
group is called a ‘Class’.
As this Process is entirely Mental, we can perform

it whether there is, or is not, an existing Thing
[in that Class – AB]. If there is, the Class is said
to be ‘ Real’; if not, it is said to be ‘Unreal’, or
‘Imaginary’.
For us, all ‘Imaginary Classes’ are just the empty sets, and,
for us, all empty sets are equal; for Lewis Carroll (aka Charles
Dodgson), the class of real roots of the equation x2 = −1 and
the class of flying pigs would be different.
√However, what is disturbing about Proof 1 of irrationality

of 2 is that we are talking about, and analysing, a non-
existent object (‘Thing’): a square with the side of integer
length such that its area is twice the area of another square
with the side of integer length. In Proofs 2 and 3 we√ anal-
ysed non-existent fractions of integers which equal 2, and
manipulated them, replacing non-existent fractions by other
fractions, which were also non-existent, but had smaller de-
nominators.
It is like studying flying pigs, replacing, in the process,
one flying pig by another one – of smaller weight.
Proofs from contradiction are Wonderland of mathemat-
ics; doing them, you have to be prepared to meet creatures
no less strange than Cheshire Cat or Mad Hatter.
15.4 A few words about abstraction

∗
* Material in this section is not compul-
sory and can be skipped.
Mathematicians adore Alice in Wonderland because the
essence of mathematical abstraction is captured in another
famous episode:
‘All right,’ said the Cat; and this time it vanished

quite slowly, beginning with the end of the tail,
and ending with the grin, which remained some
time after the rest of it had gone.
‘Well! I’ve often seen a cat without a grin,’ thought
Alice; ‘but a grin without a cat! It’s the most cu-
rious thing I ever saw in my life!’
I have already had a chance to tell you that statements of

Propositional Logic have no meaning, they have only truth
values. This is why “2+2=5” implies “London is the capital
of Britain” – because the former is F , the latter is T . The
meaning of the statements is irrelevant. The truth value of a
statement is ‘a grin without a cat’ left after the meaning of
the statement vanished.
It is easy to check that the following statement of Propo-
∗
sitional Logic is a tautology : * I leave its proof as an exercise for the
reader.
(p → q) ∨ (q → p)
it takes truth value T regardless of the meaning of p and q.

For example, if we take
p is “there is life on Mars”
and
q is “today is Wednesday”,
the compound statement (p → q)∨(q → p) remains T regardless
of the day of the week.
There is nothing unusual in that, exactly the same is hap-
pening in arithmetic: numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . have no meaning,
but have ‘numerical values’, and can be compared by their
values and operated according to them. In arithmetic, the
sentence
‘The number of cats in London is larger than the

number of books in the town of Winesburg, Ohio’,
is fully legitimate, even if cats in London have no connection

whatsoever with books on the other side of Atlantic. Even
more: we can take the number of cats in London and multiply
it by the number of books in Winesburg, Ohio.
Or another example: I can claim that
‘The number of my children is less than the num-

ber of Jupiter’s moons’,
despite the fact that the two numbers have no relation to each
other whatsoever.
And notice that no-one would claim that arithmetic was
absurd or counter-intuitive; over the history, people got used,
and stopped paying attention, to the level of mathematical ab-
straction present in ordinary prime school arithmetic. Propo-
sitional logic (manipulation with truth values T and F ) is
arithmetic of formal logical thinking. It is much younger than
arithmetic of numbers, but we have to get used to it, too, be-
cause of its tremendous importance for all things electronic,
IT, computing in our lives.
15.5 Wonderland of Mathematics

∗
* Material in this section is not compul-
sory and can be skipped.
To illustrate the power of proofs from contradiction, I give
an example which shows that sometimes we can easily prove
by contradiction a statement which otherwise is very hard to
comprehend.
Example 15.5.1 log2 3 is an irrational number.
Proof Assume the contrary, that log2 3 is not irrational.

Then log2 3 is a rational number, that is,
m
log2 3 =
n
for integers m and n, with n 6= 0. By definition of logarithm,
it means that
m
2 n = 3.
m
Since 2 < 3, we conclude that > 0. Now we may assume
n
that m > 0 and n > 0 are natural numbers. But then
2m = 3n
for m, n ∈ N, and 2m and 3n are also natural numbers. But

one of them is even, the other one is odd. We reached an
obvious contradiction which completes our proof.
You would perhaps agree that this proof is very simple

and very natural – but it also is a wonder.
And now is something completely different: a proof by

contradiction which leads to a very paradoxical situation. In-
deed, look for yourself:
Example 15.5.2 The game of “double chess” follows all the

usual rules of chess, with one exception: both players are
allowed to make two moves in a row.
Prove that White has a strategy which ensures a draw or
a win.
Proof A proof is deceptively simple: assume that White

has no such strategy.
Then Black has a winning strategy.
But White may use the property that Knight can jump
over other pieces, in the first two moves of the game, move a
Knight forth and back, returns the chessboard into the pre-
game state:
That way, White yields the first move to Black, in effect,

changing his own color to Black.
But Black has a winning strategy, hence White, which has
become Black, also has a winning strategy – a contradiction.
This is what mathematicians call “a pure proof of exis-

tence”: it says nothing whatsoever about the actual strategy!
We have forced White into the ridiculous situation that he
must to react to the whole optimal strategy of Black – with-
out even knowing whether Black’s strategy brings victory or
just a draw.
And here is another slightly paradoxical situation when a

proof by contradiction provides some insight by not a total
knowledge:
Example 15.5.3 There are two irrational real numbers r

and s such that rs is rational.
√
Proof We now definitely know that 2 is irrational, so√con-
√ √ 2
sider the pair of numbers r = s = 2. If rs = 2 is
rational, we are done.
√ √2
But if 2 is irrational, take
√
√ 2 √
r= 2 and s = 2,
then, by properties of exponentiation, we have

√ √2 √ √
√ √ √ 2

s 2 2· 2
r = 2 = 2 = 2 =2
which is rational.
As simple as that.
In this proof, we got two options for irrational numbers r

and s – we know that in one of them rs is irrational, but we
do not know in which one.
15.6 Winning strategy

∗
sory.
Notice that in solution of Example 15.5.2, we used the
term “strategy”: it is a rule which, given any possible position
in a game, prescribes which move the player has to make
(of course, this move has to be allowed by the rules of the
game). A strategy is winning it the player who follows this
rule, always wins, no matter what the moves of the other
player are. Similarly, we can talk about a strategy which
ensures a win or draw. So, a strategy is subset in the set of
all imaginable pairs (position, move).
It is interesting to compare the solution of the “double
chess” game with other “yield the first move in a symmetric
situation” strategies, as in the following game:
Example 15.6.1 Two players take turns to place equal round

coins on a rectangular table. Coins should not touch each
other; the player who places the last coin wins (and takes the
money). Describe the winning strategy for the first player.
Solution It is a simple game, and the solution is simple:

the first player has to place his first coin exactly at the center
of the table, and then mirror the moves of the second player
(under 180◦ rotation with respect to the center of the table).

Example 15.6.1 is a good example of a strategy as a simple
rule which prescribes how one has to react to the moves of
another player.
Returning to chess, it is remarkable that it was only a
century ago (in 1923) that Ernst Zermelo, one of the founders
of the Set Theory, proved that in chess, one of the players has
a strategy which ensures a win or draw. Before Zermelo,
it was difficult even formulate the problem because of the
absence of the necessary set theoretic concepts. But now you
have almost all the necessary ingredients for Zermelo’s proof:
• basic set-theoretic concepts;
• understanding that the set of positions and the sets of

moves are finite, and therefore the set of all strategies
is finite;
• the rule of 50 moves means repeated occurrence of the

same position for too long forces draw.
One more ingredient is the principle of mathematical in-

duction that we shall study in the last two lecture of the
course.
Still, a proof still requires some work (we may revisit it
armed with mathematical induction) – but Zermelo’s theorem
somehow becomes self-evident.
15.7 Problems
Problem 15.1 Fill in details in Proof 2 of Theorem 15.2: prove
that, in the notation of the Proof 2,
2b − a < a, 2b − a > 0, and a − b > 0.
Problem 15.2 Fill in details in Proof 3 of Theorem 15.2: prove

that if b is an integers and b2 is even than b is even (Hint: use a
contrapositive and prove instead that if b is odd (and hence can
be written as b = 2k+ for an integer k) then b2 is also odd.
√
Problem 15.3 Using the fact that
√ 2 is irrational, prove that
if r is a rational number then r + 2 is irrational.
√
Problem 15.4 Using the fact that√ 2 is√irrational, prove that,
for every integer k 6= 2, the number k− 2 is also irrational.
Problem 15.5 Prove the tautology
(p → q) ∨ (q → p).
Problem 15.6 Prove that a chessboard with two opposite squares

cut off,
cannot be cut in “dominoes” of size 1 × 2:

Problem 15.7 In a certain English city, two local football clubs,

∗
A and B, face each other in a derby . The sum of salaries of * Derby: a sports event between two
players in team A is bigger than the sum of salaries of team B, rival teams in the same area
and the sum of salaries of foreign players (in both teams taken
together) is bigger than the sum of salaries of British players.
Could it happen that there are no foreign players in team A?
15.8 Some more challenging problems

Problem 15.8 Prove that the product of three consecutive pos-
itive integers is never a cube of an integer. (You may need some
results about inequalities from later lectures.)
Problem 15.9 Investigate this question: can the product of 4

∗
th
consecutive integers be a 4 power of an integer? * I do not know the answer, but the
problem appears to be accessible.
∗
Problem 15.10 Prove that the point of the form (cos θ, sin θ) * You may wish to return to this ques-
cannot lie strictly inside (that is, inside, but not on the sides) of tion after learning more about inequali-
the triangle with the vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), and (0, 1). ties.
15.9 Solutions
0N1 Mathematics • Lecture 16 • Some inequalities • 01 Oct 2018 120
16 Harmonic, geometric, and

arithmetic means
16.1 Averaging and mixing

A few examples of how “mixing” leads to “averaging”.
Example 16.1.1 A rectangular sheet of paper of dimensions

a by b, where a < b, is cut and rearranged, without holes and
overlaps, as a square of side c. Then a < c < b.
Proof The area of the square, c2 , is the same as the area ab

of the rectangle. If c 6 a then c < b and
c2 = c · c < ab,
a contradiction.
Similarly, if b 6 c the a < c
ab < c2 = c · c,
again a contradiction.
Example 16.1.2 Two jars with salt solutions of concentra-

tions p% and q%, with p < q, are emptied into a third jar. We
assume that both jars were not empty, that is, both contained
some amount of solution. Then the concentration of salt in
the third jar, r%, satisfies the same inequality, p 6 r < q.
Proof Let the volumes of solutions in the first and in the

second jar be U and V . Then the amount of salt in both solu-
tions is pU + qV , and amount of salt after mixing of solutions
is r(U + v). Obviously,
pU + qV = r(U + V ).
If q 6 r, then
pU + qV < qU + qV = q(U + V ) 6 r(U + V ),

a contradiction.
If r 6 p, then
r(U + V ) 6 p(U + V ) = pU + P V < pU + qV.
also a contradiction.
Hence p 6 r < q.
Example 16.1.3 Two cisterns of different shape and sizes

are positioned at different levels above the ground and con-
nected by a pipe with a valve, initially closed. The cisterns are
filled with water to levels h1 < h2 above the ground and then
valve is opened. The water now is at the shared level h above
the ground in the both cisterns. Of course, h1 < h < h2 .
Example 16.1.4 Two cyclist started at the same time on a

route from A to B and back. The first cyclist was cycling
from A to B with average speed u km/h, and on way from B
to A with average speed v km/h, where u < v. The second
cyclist had average speed w km/h over the whole route, A to
B to A. They returned to A simultaneously. In that case,
u < w < v.
Why? Because if w < u, then w < u < v, then the second

cyclist is always behind the first one.
If v < w, then u < v < w, and the second cyclist is always
ahead of the first one.
Hence u 6 w and w 6 v, and u 6 w 6 v.
16.2 Arithmetic mean

Example 16.2.1 John and Mary are married. This tax year,
John’s income tax increased by £40, and Mary’s income tax
increased by £60. Between them, what is the average increase
in income tax?
Solution.
£40 + £60
= £50.
2
This is an example of an arithmetic mean. For real num-
bers a and b, their arithmetic mean is
a+b
.
2
More generally, the arithmetic mean of n numbers
a1 , a2 , . . . , an
is
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
.
n
16.3 Harmonic mean

16.3.1 Example.
A car traveled from city A to city B with speed

40 miles per hour, and back with speed 60 miles
per hour. What was the average speed of the car
on the round trip?
Many students give an almost instant answer: 50 mikes per

hour, that is, the arithmetic men of the two speeds:
60 + 40
50 = .
2
But this answer immediately collapses into absurdity if we
slightly change the problem: what would happen if the speed
of the car on its way back from B to A was 0 miles per hour?
Will the average speed be
60 + 0
= 30 mph?
2
But the car will never return!
This suggests that the arithmetic mean is not a solution
to this problem.
16.3.2 A simpler example.
Let us make a problem a bit more concrete by assuming that

we know the distance from A to B.
Example 16.3.1 The distance between A and B is 120 miles.

A car traveled from A to B with speed 40 miles per hour, and
back with speed 60 miles per hour. What was the average
speed of the car on the round trip?
Solution. It took
120
= 3 hours
40
for a truck to get from A to B and
120
= 2 hours
60
to get back. Therefore the average speed on the round trip of
240 miles was
240 miles
= 48m/h
5 hours

This result shows that speeds are averaging not by the law
of arithmetic mean! So let us look at this example in more
detail.
Example 16.3.2 The distance between A and B is d miles.

A track traveled from A to B with speed u miles per hour,
and back with speed v miles per hour. What was the average
speed of the car on the round trip?
Solution. It took
d
hours
u
for a truck to get from A to B and
d
hours
v
to get back. Therefore it took

d d
+
u v
hours to make the round trip of 2d miles. Hence the average
speed on the entire round trip was
2d 2
d
= 1 1
u
+ vd u
+ v
miles per hour. Please observe:
• The result does not depend on the distance d.

• the expression
2
1
+ v1u
does not look at all as the arithmetic mean of u and v.
What we get is the harmonic mean: it is defined for positive

real numbers a, b > 0 as
2
1 .
a
+ 1b
A simple algebraic rearrangement allow to write the harmonic
mean in a bit more compact form:
2 2ab
1 1 = .
a
+ b
a+b
This form is more preferable because it allows one of a or b
be non-negative: if a > o and b = 0
2a · 0
= 0,
a+0
thus resolving the paradox with the zero speed on the way
back.
16.4 Geometric mean

Example. In an epidemics, the daily number of new cases
had grow up by factor of 4 over November and by factor of
9 over December. What was the average monthly growth in
the daily number in new cases over the two months?
Solution. Assume that daily number of new cases was equal

R at the beginning of November, then at the beginning of
December it was 4 · R, and at the end of December it became
equal 9 · 4 · R = 36R.
The average monthly growth is the coefficient k such that,
it it were equally applied to November and to December, it
would produce the same outcome: that is, R at the beginning
of November, k · R at the beginning of December and k · k · R
at the end of December, which means that
k · k · R = 36R,
k 2 = 36
and √
k= 36 = 6.
Observe that the result is different from the arithmetic mean
of 4 and 9 (which equals 6 21 ). To see why this is happening we
need to take a look at the same problem in “general notation”:
In an epidemics, the daily number of new cases

had grow up by factor of a over November and by
factor of b over December. What was the average
monthly growth in the daily number in new cases
over the two months?
The same argument gives us
k · k · R = a · b · R,
k 2 = ab
and √
k= ab.
√
For positive real numbers a and b, the quantity ab is called
the geometric mean of a and b.
More generally, the geometric mean of n positive numbers
a1 , a2 , . . . , an
is
√
n
a1 a2 · · · an .
16.5 A basic quadratic inequality

To analyse harmonic and geometric means, we shall need a
basic inequality about quadratic expressions.
Theorem 16.1 Assume that a, b > 0 are positive real num-

bers. Then
4ab 6 (a + b)2 .
If, in addition, a 6= b, we have a strict inequality:
4ab < (a + b)2 .
Proof. Assume the contrary, that the negation of the de-

sired inequality
4ab 6 (a + b)2
is true, that is,
(a + b)2 < 4ab.
Open brackets:
a2 + 2ab + b2 < 4ab
and add −4ab to the the both parts of the inequality:
a2 + 2ab + b2 − 4ab < 4ab − 4ab.
Simplify:
a2 − 2ab + b2 < 0
and rearrange:
(a − b)2 < 0.
This is a contradiction because squares are non-negative by
Theorem 13.3.
We still have to do the “in addition” part of the theorem
and prove the strict inequality
4ab < (a + b)2 .
in the case of a 6= b. But we have proved
4ab 6 (a + b)2 ;
if the strict inequality does not hold, then
4ab = (a + b)2 ,
which can be easily rearranged as
4ab = a2 + 2ab + b2 ,
0 = a2 − 2ab + b2 ,
0 = (a − b)2 ,
and we get a = b in contradiction to our assumption a 6= b.
16.6 Comparing the three means

Theorem 16.2 For all positive real numbers a and b,
2ab √ a+b
6 ab 6 .
a+b 2
Our proof of this theorem will be based on a simpler in-

equality of Theorem 16.1.
Proof. We shall prove the two inequalities

2ab √
6 ab
a+b
and
√ a+b
ab 6
2
separately but by the same method, in both cases starting
from the inequality of Theorem 16.1:
4ab 6 (a + b)2 .
(A) Proof of
2ab √
6 ab.
a+b
We start with
4ab 6 (a + b)2 .
divide the both sides of the inequality by the positive number
(a + b)2 :
4ab
6 1,
(a + b)2
then multiply the both sides by ab > 0:
4a2 b2
6 ab,
(a + b)2
and extract the square roots from the both (positive!) sides
of the inequality (Theorem 14.3 on Page 101):
2ab √
6 ab.
a+b
(B) Proof of
√ a+b
ab 6
2
is even simpler. Again, we start with Theorem 16.1
4ab 6 (a + b)2
and, using the same Theorem 13.3, take the square roots of
both parts: √
2 ab 6 a + b,
and divide by 2:
√ a+b
ab 6 .
2

∗
(C) An alternative proof of * Not compulsory.
√ a+b
ab 6
2
is one of many example of inequalities having a geometric interpretation.
Assume
√ that
√ a > b. Look at these two pictures, both involving a
rectangle a × b:
The ares of two coloured triangles on the left are

√ √ √ √
a· a a b· b b
= and = ,
2 2 2 2
while the area of the coloured rectangle on the right is
√ √ √
a = b = ab.
Obviously, the area on the left is larger,

a b √
+ > ab,
2 2
and therefore
√ a+b
ab < .
2

16.7 Where are the three means used?

∗
* This section uses bits from several
anonymous Internet sources, in partic-
This section is written in response to a question from a ular, postings on http://mathforum.
student: org: I would love being able to attribute
them to particular authors. The images
Could you elaborate a good way to know when to are from Wikipedia.
use which type of mean?
This is the basic principle: in every particular situation a

mean is a number that can be used in place of each number
in a set, for which the net effect will be the same as that of
the original set of numbers. What determines which mean to
use is the way in which the numbers act together to produce
that net effect.
For example, if you were self-employed and had, over year
2017, monthly incomes I1 , I2 , . . . , I12 , then you note that your
total income over the year is found by adding the monthly
numbers; so if you add them up and divide by the number of
months, the resulting arithmetic mean
I1 + · · · + I12
Imean =
12
is the amount of income you could have had on each of those
months, to get the same total.
If you have several successive price markups, say by 5%
(or, which is the same, by factor 1.05) and then by 6% (that
is, by factor 1.06), and want to know the mean markup, you
note that the net effect is to first multiply by 1.05 and then
by 1.06, equivalent to a single markup of√ 1.05 × 1.06 = 1.113;
taking the square root of this, you get 1.113 = 1.055. This
means that if you had two markups of 5.5% each, you would
get the same result. This is the geometric mean. In general,
you use it where the product is an appropriate “total”.
Another example is when you combine several enlarge-
ments of a picture: the average of two enlargements, of 125%
and 175% of the original, is the enlargement by factor
√
1.25 × 1.75 = 1.48,
that is of 148% of the original. Notice a difference in termi-

nology with price markups – it is traditional; the terminology
for computer graphics was created by computer programmers,
who knew mathematics better, and were more honest to their
customers, than traders; of the latter, many would love to
have their customers to believe that two consecutive markups
of 10% make a markup of 20%, and not 21% (which it is,
because 1.1 × 1.1 = 1.21.
If you want the mean speed of a car that goes the same
distance (not time! – for example, doing several runs on the
same circuit) at each of several speeds v1 , . . . , vn , then the
net effect of all the driving (the total time taken) is found by
dividing the common distance l by each speed vi to get the
time for that leg of the trip, and then adding up those times:
l l
+ ··· + .
v1 vn
The constant speed v that would take the same total time for
the whole trip of total length nl is the harmonic mean of the
speeds.
nl l l
= + ··· + ,
v v1 vn
or, after simplification,
n
v= 1 1 ,
v1
+ ··· + vn
or
l l
1 v1
+ ··· + vn
= :
v n
∗
the reciprocal of the mean speed is the arithmetic mean of * The reciprocal of a positive real num-
reciprocals of speeds on each leg. ber v is v1 .
However, if traveled on n consecutive days for fixed time

T each day, with average speeds v1 , . . . , vn , what is added
are distances lk = vk T , travelled at k-th day, for each k =
1, 2, . . . , n, and the total distance travelled is
l = v1 T + · · · ln T,
and the mean speed is

l
vmean =
nT
v1 T + · · · + vn T
=
nT
v1 + · · · + vn
=
n
is the arithmetic mean of the speeds.
Another example is combining resistances in a parallel

electrical circuit: what is added are currents Ik through k-th
resistor, which are proportional to reciprocals of this resis-
tances Rk because voltage V on each resistance is the same:
by Ohm’s Law,
V
Ik = .
Rk
Therefore the total current I can be found as

V V
I= + ··· +
R1 Rn
and then the total resistance R can be found from
V V V
=I= + ··· + ,
R R1 Rn
or, after cancelling V from the both parts of the equation.
1 1 1
= + ··· +
R R1 Rn
and the mean resistance Rmean equals
n
Rmean = 1 1 .
R1
+ ··· + Rn
If resistors are connected consecutively (a series circuit),

it is voltages are added up, while the current is constant,

and I leave you as an exercise to check that in that case the
mean resistance (that is, the resistance of the same number
of identical resistors that you would have used to achieve the
same effect) is the arithmetic mean.
In summary, you use the
• arithmetic mean when numbers just add up;

• geometric mean when numbers multiply together;
• harmonic mean when the reciprocals of the numbers add
up.
16.8 Advanced problems

The material in this section is not compulsory. The
reason for its existence is a request from students: some stu-
dents ask for more advanced, or harder, problems. Here are
some of such problems.
The first problems, 16.1 to 16.9, require only basic arith-
metic and some understanding of inequalities.
Problem 16.1 A hiker walked for 3.5 hours covering, in each

one hour long interval of time, exactly 2 miles. Does it necessarily
follow that his average speed over his hike was 3 miles per hour?
Problem 16.2 The front tyres of a car get worn out after 15, 000
miles, the back ones after 25, 000 miles. When they have to be
swapped to achieve the longest possible run?
Problem 16.3 A paddle-steamer takes five days to travel from

St Louis to New Orleans, and seven days for the return journey.
Assuming that the rate of flow of the current is constant, calculate
how long it takes for a raft to drift from St Louis to New Orleans.
Problem 16.4 A train carriage is called overcrowded if there

are more than 60 passengers in it. On a Friday 19:00 train from
London Euston to Manchester Piccadilly, what is higher: the per-
centage of overcrowded carriages or the percentage of passengers
travelling in overcrowded carriages?
Problem 16.5 The average age of 11 players in a football team

on the field is 22 years. During the game, one player got a red
card. The average age of his teammates left of the field is 21 years.
What is the age of the player who got the red card?
Problem 16.6 20 people sit around a big table. The age of

each of them is the arithmetic mean of the ages of his/her two
neighbours. Prove that all of them have the same age.
Problem 16.7 Gulnar has an average score of 87 after 6 tests.

What does Gulnar need to get on the next test to finish with an
average of 78 on all 7 tests?
Problem 16.8 Ms Fontaine, a teacher of French at a school,

teaches two groups of students. In the following table you can see
the lists of groups with the end of term marks. Can Ms Fontaine
transfer students from one group to another in such a way that
the mean marks in both groups will increase?
The Headmaster expects the mean marks to grow from one

year to another. Ms Fontaine cannot change marks, but she can
transfer students from one group to another. Can she make the
mean marks in the both groups higher than they were last year?
Problem 16.9 Place these numbers in increasing order:
2222 , 2222 , 2222 .

The following problems involve a bit of school level alge-

bra.
Problem 16.10 Prove that if

0 < a1 < a2 < · · · < a8 < a9
then
a1 + a2 + · · · + a9
< 3.
a3 + a6 + a9
Problem 16.11 Without using Theorem 16.2, give a direct proof

of an inequality for harmonic and arithmetic means:
2ab a+b
6
a+b 2
for all a > 0 and b > 0.
Problem 16.12 Prove the inequality between the quadratic mean

and the arithmetic mean:
r
a+b a2 + b2
6 .
2 2
Problem 16.13 Prove that, for all x > 0,

√
1 + x > 2 x.
Problem 16.14 Prove that,for all x > 0 and y > 0,

1 1 4
+ > .
x y x+y
Problem 16.15 Prove that if the product of two positive num-

∗
bers is bigger than their sum, then the sum is bigger than 4. * Hint: Use Problem 16.14 or Theorem 15.1.
Problem 16.16 If you ask junior school children: what is big-

ger,
2 4
or ,
3 5
they perhaps will not be able to answer. But if you ask them:
what is better, 2 bags of sweets for 3 kids of 3 bags for 4 kids,
they will immediately give you the correct answer.
Indeed there is an easy line of reasoning which leads to this

conclusion. Let us treat fractions not as numbers but descriptions
of certain situations: 32 means 2 bags, 3 kids, 34 means 3 bags,
4 kids. How to get situation 43 from 23 ? The fourth kid comes,
bringing with him a bag. He has more for him compared with
his three friends, who have 2 bags for 3, and of course 3 kids will
benefit if the fourth one shares with them his bag.
This argument amounts to claiming (correctly) that
2 2+1 1
< <
3 3+1 1
What we see here is a version of the Mediant Inequality:
if a, b, c, d > 0 and
a c
<
b d
then
a a+c c
< <
b b+d d
Prove it.
The expression
a+c
b+d
a c
is called the mediant of and ; it makes sense and is used
b d
only for positive numbers a, b, c, d.
Problem 16.17 How you have to choose point X on the hy-

pothenuse BC of a rightangled triangle 4ABC so that the area
of the inscribed rectangle AX 0 XX 00 is maximal possible?
And a problem on means in electrical engineering – for

those students who know school level physics.
Problem 16.18 In each of the following circuits, find the mean

inductance or capacity, that, is, inductance or capacities of n iden-
tical inductors (respectively, capacitors) which produce the same
effect.
(a) The mean inductance of non-coupled inductors in series:
(b) The mean capacitance of capacitors in series:
(c) The mean inductance of non-coupled inductors in parallel:
(b) The mean capacitance of capacitors in parallel:

16.9 Solutions to advanced problems

16.1 Assume that the hiker walks for half an hour with speed 4 m/h, then rests for half an hour,
etc. Then in any given hour he will advance by exactly 2 miles, and, since he walks for 4 half an
hour intervals, he will cover 8 miles. Hence his average speed is 8 ÷ 3.5 > 2 m/h.
16.2 Answer: After 9, 375 miles – it will ensure ensure the run of 18, 750 miles, the harmonic
mean of 15, 000 and 25, 000.
16.3 Answer: 35 days.

16.4 Let us paint overcrowded carriages red. In each carriage, increase or decrease the number of
passengers so it becomes exactly 60. Now each carriage has the same number of passengers, and
the percentage of red carriages equals the percentage of passengers in red carriages. But in order
to achieve that, we removed some passengers from red carriages and added passengers to other
carriages. Hence, prior to this change, the percentage of passengers in red carriages was higher
then the percentage of red carriages.
16.5 Answer: 22.
16.6 Consider an oldest person: his two neighbours have to have the same age as him/her.
Continue applying the same arguments around the table.
16.7 Solution 1. What follows are hints provided, one after another, by the Khan Academy
website2
Hint 1: Since the average score of the first 6 tests is 87, the sum of the scores of the first 6 tests
is 6 × 87 = 522.
Hint 2: If Gulnar gets a score of x on the 7th test, then the average score on all 7 tests will be:
522+x
7
.
Hint 3: This average needs to be equal to 78 so: 522+x

7
= 78.
Hint 4: x = 24.
Solution 2. And here is how the same problem would be solved by the “steps” or “questions”
method as it was taught in schools half a century ago, in 1950–60s.
Question 1: How many points in total did Gulnar get in 6 tests? Answer: 6 × 87 = 522.
Question 2: How many points in total does Gulnar need to get in 7 tests? Answer: 7 × 78 = 546.
Question 3: How many points does Gulnar need to get in the 7th test? Answer: 546 − 522 = 24.
Solution 3. There is a quicker solution which requires a bit better understanding of averages.3
Question 1: How many “extra” – that is, above the requirement – points did Gulnar get, on
average, in 6 tests? Answer: 87 − 78 = 9.
Question 2: How many “extra” points does Gulnar have? Answer: 9 × 6 = 54.
Question 3: How many points does Gulnar need to get in the last test? Answer: 78 − 54 = 24.
16.8 To increase the mean mark in both groups, it is necessary to move from Group A to Group
B students with marks which are higher than the mean mark in Group B but lower than the mean
mark in Group A; these students are Fryer and Marsh. If they are moved from from Group A to
Group B, the mean mark in Group A becomes
44.2 × 10 − 41 − 44
= 44.625 > 44.4,
8
and in Group B
38, 8 × 10 + 41 + 44 473
= = 39.4166 · · · > 39.2,
12 12
that is, higher than the last year mean marks.
16.9 They are already in the increasing order:
2 22 222
222 < 22 <2 .
Indeed 2222 < 10002 contains at most 9 digits, while 2222 > 1022 contains at least 22 digits.
Similarly, 2222 < 10022 contains at most 44 digits, while
222 220 4×55 4 55 55 55

2 >2 =2 = (2 ) = 16 > 10
2
Khan Academy. http://www.khanacademy.org/about. Last Accessed 14 Apr 2011.
3
Proposed by John Baldwin.
contains at least 55 digits. As you can see, the problem can me solved by mental arithmetic. And
where would you place 22222 ?
16.10
16.11
16.12
16.13 Substitute x = u2 .
16.14
1 + 1 >
16.15 Solution 1. By Problem 16.14, x 4 , which is equivalent to x+y > 4 . But
y x+y xy x+y
since xy > x + y, we have 1 > x+y
xy
> 4 , hence x + y > 4.
x+y

Solution 2. The inequality xy > x + y can be rearranged as xy − x − y > 0, and,after adding 1 to

the both sides becomes xy − x − y + 1 > 1. The left-hand side can be factorised: (x − 1)(y − 1) > 1.
Now replace the variables: set u = x − 1 and v = y − 1 (check that u > 0 and v > 0!). We have a
new problem equivalent to our original problem: given positive numbers u and v such that uv > 1,
prove that u + v > 2. Notice now that uv > 1 is equivalent to v > u 1 and u + v > u + 1 > 2 by
u
Theorem 15.1.
16.16 Since all a, b, c, d are positive, the inequality a
b
c is equivalent to ad < bc.
< d
To prove ab
< a+c
b+d
, we can replace it by an equivalent inequality a(b + d) < b(a + c) (that
is, the two inequalities are true or false simultaneously), which is equivalent to ab + ad < ab + bc,
which is equivalent to the one we already know: ad < bc.
The other inequality, a+c

b+d
c , can be done in a similar way.
< d
16.17 Answer: X should be the midpoint of the hypothenuse.

0N1 Maths • Lect. 17 • Linear Inequalities • 01 Oct 2018 140
17 Inequalities in single variable
17.1 Linear inequalities in single variable

We shall look at inequalities of the form
ax + b > cx + d
ax + b > cx + d
ax + b 6 cx + d
ax + b < cx + d
where x is are unknown (variable) and a, b, c, d are real coef-
ficients. This inequalities are called linear inequality in single
variable because they involve only linear functions of the same
variable.
The solution set of an inequality with the unknown x is
the set of all real numbers x for which it is true.
Two inequalities are called equivalent if they have the
same solution set.
Theorem 17.1 The solution sets of an inequality

ax + b 6 cx + d
is either empty, or equal to the set of all real numbers R, or
a ray.
Similarly, the solution set of an inequality
ax + b < cx + d
is either empty, or equal to the set of all real numbers R, or
a half-line.
Example 17.1.1
• The inequality
x+16x−1
has no solution.
• Every real number is a solution of the inequality
x − 1 6 x + 1.
• The inequality
2x − 1 6 x + 1
can be rearranged, by adding −x to the both sides, as
x−161
and then, by adding 1 to the both sides, as
x 6 2.
Hence the solution set is the ray
{ x : x 6 2 } = ] −∞, 2].
• Similarly, the inequality
x − 1 6 2x + 1
has the solution set [−2, +∞ [ , a ray of another direc-

tion.
• The same examples remain valid if we replace 6 by <

and the rays by half-lines.
17.2 Quadratic inequalities in single vari-

able
In this lecture, we consider inequalities involving quadratic
functions such as
ax2 + bx + c > 0,
ax2 + bx + c > 0,
ax2 + bx + c 6 0,
ax2 + bx + c < 0.
17.2.1 Simplifying the quadratic function
We assume that a 6= 0 (for otherwise we would have just a

linear inequalities of the kind bx + c ≥ 0, etc.). We can divide
the inequalities by a – of course, taking into account the sign
of a and changing the directions of inequalities appropriately,
so that
if a > 0,
b c
ax2 + bx + c > 0 becomes x2 + + >0
a a
b c
ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 becomes x2 + + ≥0
a a
b c
ax2 + bx + c 6 0 becomes x2 + + 6 0
a a
b c
ax2 + bx + c < 0 becomes x2 + + < 0
a a
if a < 0,
b c
ax2 + bx + c > 0 becomes x2 + + <0
a a
b c
ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 becomes x2 + + 60
a a
b c
ax2 + bx + c 6 0 becomes x2 + + ≥ 0
a a
b c
ax2 + bx + c < 0 becomes x2 + + > 0,
a a
so we can assume, after changing notation
b c
back to b and back to c,
a a
and without loss of generality, that we are dealing with one
of the inequalities
x2 + bx + c > 0,
x2 + bx + c ≥ 0,
x2 + bx + c 6 0,
x2 + bx + c < 0.
17.2.2 Completion of squares: examples
Example 17.2.1 Now consider two quadratic functions
f (x) = x2 + 4x + 3
and
g(x) = x2 + 4x + 5.
Obviously,
f (x) = x2 + 4x + 3 = x2 + 4x + 4 − 1 = (x + 2)2 − 1
and
g(x) = x2 + 4x + 5x2 + 4x + 4 + 1 = (x + 2)2 + 1.
Now it becomes obvious that the function
g(x) = (x + 2)2 + 1
takes only positive values (because, for all real x, (x + 2)2 ≥ 0

and (x + 2)2 + 1 ≥ 1 > 0), hence inequalities
x2 + 4x + 5 6 0
and
x2 + 4x + 5 < 0
have no solution, while
x2 + 4x + 5 > 0
and
x2 + 4x + 5 ≥ 0
have the whole real line R as solution sets.
The behaviour of the quadratic function
f (x) = (x + 2)2 − 1
is different. We can use the formula
u2 − v 2 = (u + v)(u − v)
and factorise
f (x) = (x + 2)2 − 1
= [(x + 2) + 1] · [(x + 2) − 1]
= (x + 3)(x + 1).
We can see now that
if x < −3 then (x + 3)(x + 1) > 0

if x = −3 then (x + 3)(x + 1) = 0
if −3 < x < −1 then (x + 3)(x + 1) < 0
if −1 < x then (x + 3)(x + 1) > 0
This allows us to solve every inequality
x2 + 4x + 3 > 0 : x ∈ ]− ∞, −3[ ∪ ]− 1, +∞[

x2 + 4x + 3 ≥ 0 : x ∈ ]− ∞, −3] ∪ [−1, +∞[
x2 + 4x + 3 6 0 : x ∈ [−3, −1]
x2 + 4x + 3 < 0 : x ∈ ]− 3, −1[
17.2.3 Completion of square: general case
As we can see, the crucial step of the previous examples is

completion of square, rewriting a quadratic function x2 +bx+c
as
x2 + bx + c = (x + e)2 + d
where(x + e)2 is always non-negative for all real x, while d is
a constant that can be negative, zero, or positive.
We can easily get a formula expressing e and d in terms
of b and c. For that purpose, open brackets in the previous
formula:
x2 + bx + c = x2 + 2ex + e2 + d.
We can cancel x2 from the both sides of the equation and get
an equality of linear functions:
bx + c = 2ex + (e2 + d).
Hence
b = 2e and c = e2 + d.
b
Substituting e = 2
into c = e2 + d, we see that
b b2
e= and d = c − .
2 4
Hence
2
b2

2 b
x + bx + c = x+ + c−
2 4
which is traditionally written as
2 2
b b
= x+ − −c
2 4
As we discovered, the behaviour of solutions sets of in-

equalities
x2 + bx + c > 0,
x2 + bx + c ≥ 0,
x2 + bx + c 6 0,
x2 + bx + c < 0
on which of the following is true:
b2
−c>0
4
b2
−c=0
4
b2
−c<0
4
In the literature, usually a slightly different form of this ex-
pression is used, which, however, has the same sign:
2
2 b
∆ = b − 4c = 4 · −c ;
4
∆ is called the discriminant of the quadratic function
y = x2 + bx + c.
0N1 Maths • Lect. 18 • Inequalities in two variables • 01 Oct 2018146
18 Linear inequalities in two vari-

ables
18.1 Two variables: equations of lines

Every line in the plane with coordinates x and y has an equa-
tion of the form
ax + by + c = 0.
This equation can be rearranged to one of the forms
x=C
(vertical lines),
y=C
(horizontal lines),
y = Cx
(lines passing through the origin O(0, 0)), or
x y
+ =1
A B
(the so-called intercept equations). In the latter case, the
points (A, 0) and (0, B) are intersection points of the line
with the x-axis and y-axis, respectively, (and are called in-
tercepts), and the line given by an intercept equation is easy
to plot.
Intercepts
Example 18.1.1 Equation of a straight line
2x + 3y = 6
rewritten in terms of intercepts becomes

x y
+ = 6.
3 2
18.2 Linear inequalities in two variables

We shall look at inequalities of the form
ax + by > c
ax + by ≥ c
ax + by 6 c
ax + by < c
where x and y are unknowns (variables) and a, b, c are real
coefficients.
Notice that linear inequalities in single variable are special
cases of linear inequalities in two variables: if b = 0, we have
ax > c, ax ≥ c, ax 6 c, ax < c.
The solution set of a linear inequality in two variables x

and y is the set of all pairs (x, y) of real numbers which satisfy
the inequality. It is natural to represent (x, y) as a point with
coordinates x and y in the plane R2 .
The line
ax + by = c
divides the plane in two halfplanes: the one is the solution
set of the inequality
ax + by > c
another one is the solution set of the inequality

ax + by < c
The line ax + by = c itself is the border line between the two
halflines, it separates them.
Here is a sample of some more common linear inequalities.
x>a
x<a
y>a
y<a
y−x>0
x−y >0
x y
+ >1
a b
x y
+ <1
a b
18.3 Systems of simultaneous linear

inequalities in two variables
The solution set of a system of inequalities in two variables
ax + by > c
dx + ey > f
is the inter section of two halfplanes, the solution set of the
inequality
ax + by > c
and of the inequality
dx + ey > f
The solution set of the system of inequalities x > a and

x + y > c.
Solution sets of systems of several simultaneous inequali-

ties are intersections of halfplanes. In the examples above in
this section halfplanes were open, they corresponded to strict
inequalities
ax + by > c
or
ax + by < c;
and did not contained the border line
ax + by + c = 0.
Non-strict inequality
ax + by > c
or
ax + by 6 c;
correspond to closed halfplanes which contain the border line
ax + by + c = 0.
A system of simultaneous inequalities could combine strict

and non-strict inequalities, and the the correspondent solu-
tion sets contain some parts of their borders but not others.
Try to sketch the solution set of the system
x > 1
x+y > 2
and you will see it for yourselves.

18.4 Some quadratic inequalities in two vari-

ables
18.4.1 Parabolas
18.4.2 Circles and disks
The solution set of the inequality
x2 + y 2 6 R 2
is the circle of radius R centered at the origin O(0, 0).
18.5 Questions from students and some more

advanced problems
One of the students asked me:
> Are we allowed to take a plain sheet

> of graph paper into the 0N1 exam in January?
The answer is NO. But ruled paper of examination note-

books suffices for crude sketches. Below is an example of such
sketch. As you can see, nothing difficult. Actually, it illus-

trates a problem: the triangle ABC is formed by lines
x = 1
x+y = 4
x + 2y = 4
and therefore points inside of the triangle are solutions of the
system of simultaneous inequalities
x ≶ 1
x+y ≶ 4
x + 2y ≶ 4
where, in each case, ≶ stands for one of the symbols < and
>.
Determine which of the signs < or > have to be put in the
inequalities.
0N1 Maths • Lect. 19 • Interval arithmetic • 01 Oct 2018 153
19 Interval Arithmetic and Convex-

ity
19.1 Interval arithmetic

Example. The length L and width W of a rectangular sheet
of plastic can be measured only approximately and are, in
centimeters,
195 6 L 6 205 and 95 6 W 6 105
What are possible values of the area of the sheet?
These typical practical problem motivates the following

definitions.
For any two sets A, B ⊆ R we define
A + B = { a + b : a ∈ A, b ∈ B }
and
A × B = { ab : a ∈ A, b ∈ B }.
Notice that
∅+B =∅ and ∅ × B = ∅.
Theorem 19.1 For all a, b, c, d ∈ R
[a, b] + [c, d] = [a + c, b + d or ∅
]a, b[ + [c, d] = ]a + c, b + d[ or ∅.
Similar statements hold for sums of all kinds of segments,

intervals and semi-open intervals (such as ]a, b] and [c, d[).
Derivation of the corresponding formulae is left to the reader
as an exercise – there are 24 = 16 of them (why?), and it does
not make sense to list them all.
Theorem 19.2 For all non-negative real numbers a, b, c, d
[a, b] × [c, d] = [ac, bd] or ∅

]a, b[ × [c, d] = ]ac, bd[ or ∅.
Again, similar statements hold for sums of all kinds of seg-

ments, intervals and semi-open intervals, and derivation of the
corresponding formulae is left to the reader as an exercise.
In the example above, the area S of the sheet is approxi-
mated (in cm2 ) as
S ∈ [ 195 × 95, 205 × 105 ].
It is essential that in the statement of Theorem 19.2 the

numbers a, b, c, d are all non-negative, as the following exam-
ple shows:
[−2, 3] × [5, 7] = [−14, 21],
and is not equal
[−2 × 5, 3 × 7]
as would follow from the blind application of a formula from
Theorem 19.2.
19.2 Convexity
A set S in the plane is called convex if, with any two points
A, B ∈ S, it contains the segment [A, B] connecting the
points.
Theorem 19.3 Intersection of convex sets is convex.
Theorem 19.4 Half planes are convex.
Theorem 19.5 The solution set of a system of homogeneous

linear inequalities is convex.
This is no longer true if inequalities are not linear (for

example, quadratic): the solution set of
y > x2
is convex, but of
y < x2
is not (check!).
Corollary 19.6 If a system of homogeneous linear inequali-

ties has two distinct solution then it has infinitely many solu-
tions.
19.3 Some more challenging problems

Problem 19.1 Solve the following equations in interval arith-
metic, that is, find all real numbers x and y so that the following
equations and inequalities are satisfied:
1. [x, y] + [0, 1] = [2, 3]
2. [x, y] + [0, 1] = [0, 1]
3. [x, y] + [x, y] = [x, y]
4. [x, y] × [x, y] = [1, 4]
5. [x, y] × [0, 1] = [0, 1]
6. [x, y] × [x, y] = [x, y]
7. [x, y] × [x, y] = [0, 1]
19.4 Solutions
19.1 Hint: Remember that [x, y] = ∅ if x > y. Pay attention to zeroes and signs of x and y.
Answers:
1. [x, y] = [0, 2]
2. [x, y] = [0, 0]
3. [x, y] = [0, 0] or ∅
4. [x, y] = [1, 2] or −2, −1
5. [x, y] = [0, 1]
6. [x, y] = [0, 1], or −1, 1, or ∅
7. [x, y] = [0, 1] or [−1, 0]

0N1 Maths • Lect. 20 • Quadratic inequalities • 01 Oct 2018 156
20 The idea of linear programming
20.1 A real life problem

Consider the following problem:
Example 20.1.1 A factory has a dual fuel heating system,

it could interchangeably use coal or heavy oil. It needs to
store some fuel, x tonnes of coal and y tonnes of oil, for use
in Winter. There a natural restrictions:
• The cost of a tonne of coal is a pounds, a tonne of oil is

b pounds, and the heating budget of M pounds cannot
be exceeded;
• The factory cannot store more than V tonnes of oil.
• Because of El Niño previous year, the long term weather

forecast is very alarming, and the manager wants to
ensure the highest possible heat output from fuel; the
thermal output of a tonne of coal is c Joules, of a tonne
of oil is b Joules.
In mathematical terms, we have to find values of x and y

which satisfy restrictions
x > 0
y > 0
ax + by 6 M
y 6 V
such that the thermal output function
T (x, y) = cx + dy
takes the maximal possible value subject to these restrictions.

This a typical problem of Linear Programming.
Let us do it with concrete values of parameters involved.
0N1 Maths • Lect. 20 • Linear programming • 01 Oct 2018 157
Example 20.1.2 Maximise T (x, y) = x + y subject to re-

strictions
x > 0
y > 0
2x + y 6 6
y 6 4
20.2 A bit more sophisticated examples
Example 20.2.1 In the same problem with the dual fuel

heating system, assume that we also have the environmen-
tal pollution limit,
px + qy 6 E,
so we have to maximise the thermal output function
T (x, y) = cx + dy
subject to more restrictions
x > 0
y > 0
ax + by 6 M
px + qy 6 E
y 6 V
For ease of drawing, I pick numbers
x > 0
y > 0
x + 2y 6 10 cost restriction
3x + 2y 6 18 pollution limit
y 6 4 liquid fuel storage restriction
0N1 Maths • Lect. 21 • Mathematical Induction • 01 Oct 2018 158
21 Principle of
Mathematical Induction
21.1 Formulation of the Principle of Math-

ematical Induction
∗
* Recommended additional (but not
compulsory) reading: Richard Ham-
Let p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . be an infinite sequence of statements, one mack, Book of Proof, Chapter 10.
statement pn for each positive integer n. For example,
p1 is “ 91 − 1 is divisible by 8”
so for each positive integer n, pn is the statement
pn is “ 9n − 1 is divisible by 8”.
Suppose that we have the following information
(1) p1 is true.
(2) The statements
p1 → p2 , p2 → p3 , p3 → p4 , p4 → p5 . . .
are all true, i.e.

pk → pk+1
is true for each positive integer k.
Then we can deduce

p1 is true and p1 → p2 is true implies p2 is true,
that is,
p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . are all true i.e.
pn is true for all n.
21.2 Examples
Example 21.2.1 Prove, by induction on n, that
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
for every positive integer n.
Solution. For each positive integer n, pn denotes the state-

ment
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
In particular,
p1 is 1 = 12 T
p2 is 1 + 3 = 22 T
.. ..
. .
pk is 1 + 3 + · · · + (2k − 1) = k 2
pk+1 is 1 + 3 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2
• (1) p1 is the statement “1 = 12 ” which is clearly true.
• (1) Suppose the statement pn is true for n = k, i.e.
1 + 3 + · · · + (2k − 1) = k 2 .
Add (2(k + 1) − 1) = 2k + 1 to both sides:
1 + 3 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) = k 2 + (2k + 1)

= k 2 + 2k + 1
= (k + 1)2 .
But this is the statement pn for n = k as required.
Hence, by mathematical induction, pn is true for all n.
Example 21.2.2 (Examination of January 2007). Let

p1 denote the statement
1 1
=1− ;
2 2
furthermore, for each positive integer n, let pn denote the

statement
1 1 1 1
+ 2 + ··· + n = 1 − n .
2 2 2 2
Prove, by induction, that pn is true for all n.
Solution. Basis of induction is the statement p1 ,

1 1
=1− ;
2 2
it is obviously true.
Inductive step: We need to prove that pk → pk+1 for

all k. To do that, assume that pk is true, that is,
1 1 1 1
+ 2 + ··· + k = 1 − k .
2 2 2 2
Form this identity, we need to get pk+1 . This is achieved by
adding
1
2k+1
to the both sides of the equality pk :

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 2 + · · · + k + k+1 = 1 − k + k+1 .
2 2 2 2 2 2
But the righthand side simplifies as
1 1 2 1
1 − k + k+1 = 1 − +
2 2 2 · 2k 2k+1
2 1
= 1 − k+1 + k+1
2 2
2 1
= 1− −
2k+1 2k+1
2−1
= 1 − k+1
2
1
= 1 − k+1
2
and the result of this rearrangement is
1 1 1 1 1
+ 2 + · · · + k + k+1 = 1 − k+1 ,
2 2 2 2 2
which is exactly the statement pk+1 . This completes the proof
of the inductive step.
21.3 Is mathematical induction the most

confusing method ever taught?
∗
sory
If you think so and see the question above as well jus-
tified then read this answer given by Toby Ovod-Everett at
∗
Quora : * reproduced with kind permission from
Toby Ovod-Everett
My Mother [Carol Everett] taught me induction
when I was seven. We were driving down the high-
way one morning (this was when kids could ride
in the front seat). She looked at my shirt, no-
ticed it was dirty, and said I should have changed
it. I replied that it had been clean enough
the day before, implying that meant it was
clean enough today.
She recognized the perfect moment to introduce
induction. If given that the shirt was clean
enough the day before meant it was clean
enough today, then if it was clean enough on
one day it would be clean enough forever!
Maybe we just fail to teach induction at an early
enough age. Come to think of it, I think she
taught me proof by contradiction at the same time.
The principle of mathematical induction as we know it

now was first published by the British mathematician Augus-
tus De Morgan (the one of the De Morgan laws in Boolean
Algebra) in 1838 in The Penny Cyclopedia of the Society for
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. The title of this encyclo-
pedia clearly tells that it was produced for the general pub-
lic. You can find the text of De Morgan’s original article at
http://bit.ly/2iD9jsi.
0N1 Maths • Lect. 22 • Mathematical Induction 162
22 Mathematical Induction:
Examples with briefer solutions
22.1 The sum of arithmetic progression

Example 22.1.1 Prove by induction on n that
1
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)
2
for every positive integer n.
Solution.
Let pn be the statement “1 + 2 + · · · + n = 21 n(n + 1)”.
1
p1 is the statement “1 = 2
× 1 × 2”. This is clearly true.
Suppose pn is true for n = k, i.e. 1+2+· · ·+k = 12 k(k+1).
Then
1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = (1 + 2 + · · · + k) + (k + 1)
1
= k(k + 1) + (k + 1)
2
1 1
= k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
2 2
1
= (k + 1)(k + 2).
2
Thus
1
1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = (k + 1)((k + 1) + 1).
2
Therefore pn is true for n = k + 1. By induction, pn is

true for all n.
22.2 A historic remark

∗
sory
There is a famous legend about Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–
1855), one of the greatest mathematicians of all time.
The story goes that, in school, at the age of 8, his teacher

set up a task to his class: add up the first 100 natural num-
bers,
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + 9 + 100.
It is frequently claimed that the teacher used this trick many
times to keep the class busy for long periods while he took a
snooze.
Unfortunately for the teacher, young Gauss instantly pro-
duced the answer: 5050. He observed that if the same sum is
written in direct and reversed orders:
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + 99 + 100
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + · · · + 2 + 1
then each of 100 columns at the RHS sums up to 101:
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + 99 + 100
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + · · · + 2 + 1
2S = 101 + 101 + 101 + · · · + 101 + 101
and therefore
2S = 100 × 101
and
S = 50 × 101 = 5050.
Of course, we can repeat the same for arbitrary positive inte-
ger n:
S= 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n−1 + n
S = n + n − 1 + n − 2 + ··· + 2 + 1
Then each of 1n columns at the RHS sums up to n + 1, and

therefore
2S = n · (n + 1)
and
n(n + 1)
S= ,
2
thus proving the formula
1
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)
2
for every positive integer n – without the use of mathematical

induction.
Many problems which can be solved by mathematical in-
duction can also be solved by beautiful tricks like that, each
trick specifically invented for a particular problem. But math-
ematical induction has the advantage of being a general method,
applicable, with some slight modification, to a vast number
of problems.
Figure 6: German 10-Deutsche Mark Banknote (1993; dis-

continued). Source: Wikipedia.
If this clever summation was the only mathematical achieve-

ment of little Carl, he would not be known to us, the unit for
measurement of a magnetic field (in the centimeter / gram
/ second system) would not be called gauss, and his portrait
would not be on banknotes—see Figure 6. But Gauss did
much more in mathematics, statistics, astronomy, physics.
Remarkably, Wikipedia gives the names of Gauss’ teacher,
J. G . Büttner, and the teaching assistant, Martin Bartels.
Perhaps Carl’s teachers were not so bad after all – especially
after taking into consideration that Bartels (1769–1836) later
became a teacher of another universally acknowledged genius
of mathematics, Nikolai Lobachevsky (1792–1856).
If you find this story interesting, please con-

sider a career in teaching of mathematics.
The humanity needs you.
The story about Gauss was reminded to me by Nataša

Strabić, who for a few years was a tutorial class teacher in
this course, after she told it to her students in the class. She
is a good teacher.
22.3 Mathematical induction in proofs of

inequalities
Example 22.3.1 Prove, by induction on n, that n < 2n for
every positive integer n.
Solution. Basis of induction, n = 1:
1 < 21
is obviously true.
Inductive step. Assume that, for some k > 1,
k < 2k
is true. Since 1 < k by assumption, we also have
1 < 2k .
Add the two inequalities together:
k + 1 < 2k + 2k = 2k+1 .
This proves the inductive step.
Example 22.3.2 Let x > −1 and n a natural number. Prove

that
(1 + x)n > 1 + nx.
Solution. Basis of induction, n = 1:
1+x>1+x
is true.
Inductive step. Assume that, for some k > 1,
(1 + x)k > 1 + nx
is true. Since x > −1, we have 1 + x > 0 and we can multiply

the both sides of the inequality by 1 + x:
(1 + x)k )(1 + x) > (1 + nx)(1 + x).
But
(1 + x)k )(1 + x) = (1 + x)k+1 ,
while
(1 + nx)(1 + x) = 1 + x + nx + nx2
= [1 + (n + 1)x] + nx2
> 1 + (n + 1)x (since nx2 > 0).
Combining these equality and inequality together, we get
(1 + x)k+1 > 1 + (n + 1)x,
which proves the inductive step.
22.4 Comparing two sequences

The following result is frequently useful in prove of inequali-
ties by induction.
First we need some notation.
Assume that we have a sequences of real numbers { an }n∈N ,
that is, a set of numbers
{ an }n∈N = { a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . }
indexed (labelled) by natural numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . .We shall call

the differences
a2 − a1 , a3 − a2 , a4 − a3 , . . . , ak+1 − ak , . . .
increments of the sequence and denote them
∆a1 = a2 − a1 , ∆a2 = a3 , . . . , ∆ak = ak+1 − ak , . . . .

For example, if an = n2 , the increments are
∆a1 = a2 − a1 = 21 − 12 = 3
∆a2 = a3 − a2 = 31 − 22 = 5
∆a3 = a4 − a3 = 41 − 32 = 7
..
.
and the sequence of increments looks like
{ ∆an }n∈N = { 3, 5, 7, 11, . . . }.
{ an }n∈N and { bn }n∈N , and
{ bn }n∈N = { b1 , b2 , b3 , . . . }
Theorem 22.1 Let { an }n∈N and { bn }n∈N , be two sequences

and assume that, for some k,
ak < bk
and
∆an < ∆bn
for all n > k. Then. for al n > k,
an < bn .
22.5 Problems
Problem 22.1 Prove that, for all natural numbers n,
1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + · · · + n × n! = (n + 1)! − 1.
Problem 22.2 Prove that for every integer n > 1
11 · 22 · 33 · · · nn < nn(n+1)/2 .
Problem 22.3 For which natural numbers n we have this in-

equality:
2n > n3 ?
3n > n · 2n .

1 1 1 √
1 + √ + √ + · · · + √ < 2 n.
2 3 n
Problem 22.6 Prove that, for all integers n,

2n
X n
X
k=3 k,
k=n k=1
that is,
n + (n + 1) + · · · + (2n − 1) + 2n = 3 · (1 + 2 + · · · + n).
0N1 Maths • Lect. 24 • Review of the course • 01 Oct 2018 169
23 Review of the course

The review of the course will focus on students’ questions,
and for that reason lecture notes are not prepared in advance.
Hopefully, the captured video stream from the visualiser will
suffice. It will be available at the usual place,
https://video.manchester.ac.uk/lectures
0N1 Mathematics • Appendices • 01 Oct 2018 170
Appendix I: Laws of Boolean Algebra

A∩B = B∩A
A∪B = B∪A

A∩A = A
idempotent laws (2)
A∪A = A

A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
associative laws
A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
(3)

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
distributive laws
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
(4)

A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A
absorbtion laws (5)
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
A∩U =A A∪U =U
(6)
A∪∅=A A∩∅=∅
(A0 )0 = A A ∩ A0 = ∅ U0 = ∅
(7)
A ∪ A0 = U ∅0 = U
(A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0

(A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0
Additional operations
A r B = A ∩ B0 A4B = (A ∩ B 0 ) ∪ (B ∩ A0 )
Appendix II: Laws of Propositional

Logic

p∧q ≡ q∧p
p∨q ≡ q∨p

p∧p ≡ p
idempotent laws (2)
p∨p ≡ p

p ∧ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r

p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
distributive laws
p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
(4)

p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p
absorbtion laws (5)
p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p
p∧T ≡p p∨T ≡T
(6)
p∨F ≡p p∧F ≡F
∼ (∼ p) ≡ p p∧ ∼ p ≡ F ∼T ≡ F
(7)
p∨ ∼ p ≡ T ∼F ≡ T

∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p∨ ∼ q
∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p∧ ∼ q
p → q ≡∼ p ∨ q (9)
(p ↔ q) ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p) (10)
p ⊕ q ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) (11)
Equivalences relating ∀ and ∃:
∼ (∀x)p(x) ≡ (∃x) ∼ p(x) (12)
∼ (∃x)p(x) ≡ (∀x) ∼ p(x) (13)

Appendix III: Weekly Tests, 2015
General arrangements
• Each test counts costs 4 points, 10 best tests make up
to 4 × 10 = 40% of the course mark (another 60% are
∗
from the examination). * Rules could change in later years,
check the current arrangements in the
∗
• Time allowed: 10 minutes from 11 : 40 to 11 : 50. Introduction, page 11.
* Time is for 2015
This includes all the preparatory manipulations: clear-
ing desks from books and papers, distribution of test
papers, collection of scripts, etc. The actual writing
time is about 7 minutes.
• Marking scheme:
– 2 marks for a complete correct answer

– 1 mark for an incomplete correct answer,
– 0 for an incorrect or partially incorrect answer or
no answer.
– A correct answer might contain more than one
choice.
In practice it means that if in a particular test the op-

tions are A, B, and C, and the correct answers are A
and B, then
– AB = 2 marks
– A = 1 mark
– B = 1 mark
– C, AC, BC, ABC are equal 0 marks.
Answers
Test 01: 1BC, 2A
Test 02: 1AC, 2BC
Test 03: 1BC, 2BC
Test 04: 1BC, 2C

Test 05: 1A, 2BCD
∗
Test 06: 1D , 2AB * This question is “The following state-
Test 07: 1AB, 2BC ments are about subsets of the universal
set U . Which of them are false?”
Test 08: 1C, 2A
Option (D) says: All of the above.
Test 09: 1CD, 2C (D) is false, because (A), (B), (C) are
Test 10: 1B, 2C true.
Test 11: 1AB, 2B
1. Friday 9 October 2015

Tick the correct box (or boxes):
1. Let X = {1, 22 , 2, 26 }. Which of the following sets is a subset

of X?
(A) {0}
(B) {1, 2, 3}
(C) ∅
(D) None of the above.
2. How many subsets of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} contain no odd

numbers?
(A) 8 (B) 4 (C) 16

1. Let X and Y be sets and Z is the set of all elements which

belong to exactly one of the two sets X or Y . Which of the
following sets equals Z?
(A) (X ∪ Y ) ∩ (X ∪ Y )
0 0
(B) (X ∩ Y ) ∪ (X ∩ Y )
0 0
(C) (X ∪ Y ) ∩ (X ∩ Y ) 0
(D) None of the above
2. Some of the sets listed below are equal to other sets on the
list. Which ones?
A = [1, 2] ∩ (2, 3) B = [1, 2] ∩ [2, 3]

C = {1, 2} ∩ {2, 3} D = {1, 3} ∩ [2, 3]
1. Given that p → q is F , which of the following statements

is definitely T ?
(A) ∼ q → (p ∧ q)
(B) (q → p) ∨ q
(C) (q ∧ q) → p
2. Which of the following sets is finite?
(A) [0, 1] ∪ [2, 3]

(B) [0, 1] ∩ Z
(C) {0, 1} ∪ {1, 2}

1. Which of the following statement is a tautology?
(A) (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
(B) (p → q) ∨ (q → p)
(C) (p → p) ∧ (q → q)
2. Which of the following statements is a contradiction?
(A) p → ∼ p
(B) p ∨ ∼ p
(C) p ∧ ∼ p
5. Friday 6 November 2015
1. For real numbers x and y, let p(x, y) denote the predicate

x < y. Which of the following statements are true?
(A) (∃x)p(x, 0)
(B) (∀x)(∀y)(p(x, y) ∨ p(y, x))
(C) (∃x)(∃y)(p(x, y) ∧ p(y, x))
2. For real numbers x and y, let q(x, y) denote the predicate

xy = 0. Which of the following statements are true?
(A) (∀x)(∀y)q(x, y) (B) (∀x)(∃y)q(x, y)

(C) (∃x)(∀y)q(x, y) (D) (∃x)(∃y)q(x, y)

1. The following statements are about subsets of the univer-

sal set U . Which of them are false?
(A) (∃X)(∀Y )(X ∩ Y = Y )

(B) (∃X)(∀Y )(X ∪ Y = Y )
(C) (∀X)(∃Y )(X ∩ Y = Y )
(D) All of the above
2. In the following statements, the universal set is the set Z
of integers with usual operations. Which of the statements
are true?
(A) (∀x)(∀y)(x + y = 0 → x = y )
2 2
(B) (∀x)(∃y)(x + y = 2x)

(C) (∃x)(∃y)(x + y = 0 ∧ xy = 1)
1. Which of the following sets are finite?
(A) The set of all dogs in Britain.

(B) [0, 1] ∩ [1, 2]
(C) [0, 3] ∩ [1, 2]
(D) None of the above sets is finite.
2. Which of the following sets are subsets of the segment

[0, 1]?
(A) [0, 1] ∪ [1, 2]

(B) [0, 1] ∩ ]− 1, 2]
(C) { 1, 0 }
(D) None of the above sets is a subset of [0, 1].
1. Which of the following sets is the solution set of the in-

equality
3x + 2 ≥ 2x + 3?
(A) The set { x : x > 1 }

(B) The segment [2, 3]
(C) The ray [1, +∞[
2. Which of the following sets is the solution set of the system

of simultaneous inequalities
3x + 2 ≥ 2x + 3
2x + 2 ≥ 3x + 1
(A) { 1 }
(B) ]− 1, 1[
(C) [−1, 1]
9. Friday 4 December 2015

1. Which of the following four points lie(s) on the same side

of the line
x + 2y = 5,
but not on the line itself?
(A) A(1, 2)
(B) B(−2, 4)
(C) C(−2, 2)
(D) D(−2, 3)
2. The solution set(s) of which of the following systems of

simultaneous inequalities is (are) infinite?
(A) x 6 2, y ≥ 2, x ≥ y
(B) x 6 1, y ≥ 2, x ≥ y
(C) x 6 2, y ≥ 1, x ≥ y

1. Which of the following set(s) is (are) the solution set(s) of

the inequality
x2 > 4x − 3?
(A) The segment [−1, −3]

(B) The union of halflines ]− ∞, 1[ ∪ ]3, +∞[
(C) The interval ]1, 3[
(D) The empty set ∅
2. Which of the following point(s) lie(s) strictly inside (and

not on the sides) of the triangle formed by straight lines
x + 2y = 4, x = 2y, x = 4?
(A) A(4, 1)
(B) B(1, 2)
(C) C(3, 1)

1. Which of the following inequalities has (have) infinite so-

lution set(s)?
(A) x2 − 8x > −16

(B) x2 − 8x ≥ −16
(C) x2 − 8x 6 −16
(D) x2 − 8x < −16
(E) None of the above
2. Is the solution set of the system of inequalities
y > x2 + 2x + 2
x−2 > y
(A) infinite;
(B) finite;
(C) none of the above?

Lecture Notes: 0N1 (MATH19861) Mathematics For Foundation Year

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0N1 (MATH19861)

Mathematics for Foundation Year

Short URL bit.ly/2d9dG6Z

Arrangements for the Course 9

2 Subsets; Finite and Infinite Sets 22

2.2 The set of subsets of a set . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6 Propositional Logic, Continued 56

7 Logically equivalent statements 64

9.3 Sample test question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

12 Operations over Inequalities 88

14 Methods of Proof, Continued 99

14.6 Absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

15 Proof by contradiction 105

16 Harmonic, geometric, and

17 Inequalities in single variable 140

17.2.1 Simplifying the quadratic function . . . 142

18 Linear inequalities in two variables 146

19 Interval Arithmetic and Convexity 153

20 The idea of linear programming 156

23 Review of the course 169

Appendix I: Laws of Boolean Algebra 170

Appendix II: Laws of Propositional Logic 171

Appendix III: Weekly Tests, 2015 173

1 Arrangements for the Course

1.1 Aims and description

• A basic course in pure mathematical topics for members

13 lectures: Sets. Definition, subsets, simple examples, union,

A brief very pragmatic description

The course contains all mathematics necessary for

• S Lipschutz, Set Theory and Related Topics. McGraw-

• J Franklin and A Daoud, Proof in Mathematics: An In-

• R Steege and K Bailey, Intermediate Algebra. (Schaum’s

• R. Hammack, Book of Proof, http://www.people.vcu.

Detailed lecture notes will be provided as course progresses.

One tutorial (in small groups) in weeks 3–12,

• Exercise sheets are posted on the Web/Blackboard

Hours of private study: 68.

1.3 Tests and feedback

• The actual formula for computation of the total

• All medical notes, honourable excuses, etc.: sub-

1.4 Rules for Tutorial Tests

6. No books or any papers other than test paper are al-

7. Examiners should remove any remaining formulae from

8. If a student breaches any of these rules, or behaves noisy,

8.1 confiscate the offender’s test script;

The Lecturer will take care of further necessary actions.

1.5 Detailed minute-by-minute instructions

“Time is 13:40. Clear your desks for test.”

2. At 13:41 [0r at 13:42, if clearing desks, etc, took too

“Time is 13:41 [or 13:42]. Start writing”

3. At 13:47 [or 13:48] the tutor announces:

“one minute to the end of test”

4. At 13:48 [or 13:49] the tutor announces:

“Stop writing and pass your test papers to

2 hour examination (January):

• Weighting within course 60%.

1.7 E-mail policy

borovik at manchester.ac.uk

• When relevant, the Lecturer will send a response (with-

borovik at manchester.ac.uk