THE UNITY OF PSALM 23*

by
REUBEN AHRONI
The Ohio State University

ABSTRACT: This study departs from the laborious attempts at imposing

prosodic uniformity and thematic unity on Psalm 23. The Psalm is shown
to possess metrical and metaphoric versatility; it exhibits some stylistic
features suggestive of the paratactic format. The Psalm provides us with
a loosely strung sequence of images, a rhythmic procession of metaphorical
snapshots, which cluster around verse 4b.
Based on a study of the terms seQet and mis 'enet in biblical and Qum-
ran Scrolls contexts, the study suggests that these two terms are meta-
phoric expressions of two cardinal attributes of God in His dealings with
His followers: the former symbolizes the divine justice, while the latter
exemplifies the divine mercy. Both are commensurate with the biblical
image of God as both the stern judge and the merciful, the chastiser and
the healer.
The study also departs from the traditional approach which views the
Psalm as a simple and homely poem dominated by idyllic sentiments. It
is shown that beneath a somewhat deceptive setting of pastoral imagery
lurks a tormented soul of a person who is desperately reaching out for
God. His comfort derives from his confidence in the imminent transmu-
tation of God's rod of affliction into a healing staff.

Two relatively recent scholarly treatments of Psalm 23, namely the

extensive study of David Freedman (1976, pp. 139-166), and the brief
article of Mitchell Dahood (1979, pp. 417-419), highlight the complexity
of the difficulties which this small but popular Psalm poses. The nature
of these difficulties, as pointedly noted by Freedman, is neither textual
nor linguistic-"the vocabulary while unusual is quite comprehensible,

•This study is dedicated to Dr, Sheldon H. Blank, an inspiring teacher, a prominent

scholar and a great human being-tl'i1Vl/1 Oll<l:l ill.
I would like to thank the College of Humanities of the Ohio State University and the
Melton Center for Jewish Studies for supporting my research. Thanks are also due to Alan
Hauser and John Curtis who read the draft of this article and offered helpful suggestions.

21
22 REUBEN AHRONI

and the grammar and syntax are well within the range of classical Hebrew
style" ( 1976, p. 139). The problems, rather, are related to the Psalm's
apparent prosodic intractability and to the disjointedness of its thematic
and metaphorical structure. 1 Both Freedman and Dahood wrestle with
difficulties pertaining to the Psalm's unity of both form and meaning.
With respect to unity of form, Freedman suggests a strophic structure,
which divides the Psalm into five stanzas, each consisting of about 24
syllables. The proposed metrical regularity and strophic symmetry is, how-
ever, obtained at the expense of certain vocalic modifications: Freedman's
counting-system excludes secondary vowels added in MT in relation to
laryngeals, and treats segolate formations in the MT as monosyllabic.
Moreover, Freedman deviates from the traditional and commonly accepted
reading of verse 4 of the Psalm by splitting it into two clauses: The first
clause, ending with rm:i7Y X'l:l 'in the valley of the shadow of death', he
appends to v. 3, to close the second strophe; with the second clause, x7
y, X,'X 'I fear no evil', he opens the next strophe (1976, p. 142). As for
the Psalm's unity of content, Freedman views "the Exodus from Egypt,
and its accompanying phenomena: the wandering through the wilderness,
and the settlement in the domain of God" as the underlying theme which
integrates its disparate elements (1976, p. 139). 2
Resolution of prosodical and contextual problems in the Psalm is also
the main concern of Dahood's article. To "improve the stichometry" of
the Psalm and "to ease the transition" from v. 4 to v. 5, Dahood suggests
two textual emendations: the division of MT y:mahamunl (v. 4) into two
words: yanhu m~nl, which he renders "they guide my destiny;" and the
revocalization of MT 'attah, "thou" to atah, "come." Dahood renders the
whole of v. 4 as follows:
Even though I walk
in the valley of the shadow of Death 3
I will not fear the Evil One;•
for with me come ('atah)
your club and your staff
behold (hemrnah), 5 they guide my destiny! 6

I. "Difficulties arise," writes Freedman, "when we consider the cohesion of the parts,
or the interpretation of the poem as a whole" (1976, p. 139).
2. It should be noted that corporate national interpretation was accorded to the Psalm
by the Targum, which saw in it a praise of God who .K,J,r.JJ it1l:lll n• JT 'fed His people in
the wilderness'. This application was adopted by several medieval commentators.
3. Dahood retains the MT vocalization salmawet, thus not going along with the widely
held salmut, advocated also by Freedman who renders b::Jge' salmut 'in the valley of deep
shadow' ( 1976, p. 156).
 THE UNITY OF PSALM 23 23

These textual modifications, contends Dahood, would provide the Psalm

with smooth, natural and logical flow from one verse to the other, and
would also eliminate metrical disruption (1979, pp. 417-8).
A more recent treatment of the unity of the Psalm is offered by the
German scholar, Siegfried Mittmann (1980, pp. 1-23). Mittmann views
the statement, The Lord is my shepherd' (v. 1) as the motto of the Psalm
and its overriding theme. He contends that the Psalm consists of two
strophes, which together form an organic unity. These two strophes relate
to each other in terms of image (Bild) and reality (Rea/Wit). The first
strophe depicts, through the image of the shepherd, the divine care and
protection; the second relates to the reflection of this image in the reality
of !ife: the renewal of life and the assurance of its safety. Mittmann main-
tains that the Psalm is to be construed as a song of thanksgiving, a cel-
ebration of the saving acts of God with a sacrificial meal in the House of
the Lord (see also Vogt, 1953, pp. 195-211 ). In its wider application, the
Psalm is a celebration of the power of the kingdom of God, manifested
in His constant control over the powers of chaos.
It is clearly evident that the main thrust of this detailed study is
theological, even though it purports to deal with the "Aujbau und Einheit''
of the Psalm. As such it has very little relevance to this study.

II

The unity of Psalm 23 which, according to Freedman, seems "to be

insured by its brevity and its structure" (1976, p. 139), is a longstanding

4. Dahood understands MT lr"l as an epithet of Death and renders it as "the Evil One."
Freedman (1976, p. 143, n. 11) recognizes the possible merits of Dahood's rendering, which
is commensurate with his conception of the Psalm as having its roots in the Exodus from
Egypt and the wanderings through the wilderness. Freedman, however, suggests that this
phrase may not refer to the mythic figure of Death, but to "the historic figure of the Pharaoh
who is the archetypal human antagonist of Yahweh and his people."
5. On the basis of Ugar. hm Dahood takes the MT hemmah as the interjection 'look,
behold!', not as the traditional and commonly accepted 3rd. mas. pl. pronoun. See also Dahood
1954 (p. 16), 1966 (vol. I, p. 56), and Cross-Freedman 1948 (p. 195).
6. In his commentary on the Psalm (1966, p. 147) Dahood adopted the long proposed
emendation of }':Jnahamun'i to }'anhunl, 'they lead me'. He claimed that the verb is derived
from nahah 'to lead' and that "the consonantal cluster }'nhmn}' may well contain an internal
'enclitic' mem. ,. Dahood seems to have retracted this proposed derivation and in the article
under discussion ( 1979, pp. 418-419), Dahood argues that the word contains the element of
the Canaanite god Mani, whose worship is "underscored by the Ebla tablets."
24 REUBEN MIRON!

biblical crux and a major preoccupation of numerous previous studies.

The wide divergences which still exist in the attempt to resolve this dif-
ficulty only underscore its intricacy. Scholars have long noted that the
abrupt transition from the figure of the deity as the good shepherd (vv.
1-4) to that of the lavish and over-generous host (v. 5) disrupts the unity
of thought in the Psalm. Far more disturbing, in the view of many scholars,
is the phrase ,,,Y,ll 'in the presence of my enemies' (v. 5). It has been
contended that this abrupt reference to enemies introduces an inexplicable
note, which is "in jarring contrast" to the pastoral imagery and the idyllic
character of this hymn of perfect faith in God. 7 "This sudden reference
to the enemies, with its unmistakable note of vindictive and selfish sat-
isfaction," remarks Morgenstern, "is altogether out of place" (1946, p.
15). Indeed, this enigmatic clause has been subject to a plethora of inter-
pretations, emendations, and even to deletion. The most notable attempt
to wrestle with this problem in an effort to establish the unity of the
shepherd metaphor throughout the Psalm was that of Power (l 928, pp.
434-442). Power maintained that the new figure of host and guest in v.
5 owes its origin to a very simple error of dittograph: the final letter of
ln7w 'table' being a dittography of the initial letter of the following word
,lJ 'in presence'. If instead of ln7w 'table', suggested Power, we read n?w
'weapons', the whole verse becomes, 'Thou preparest (or bearest) before
me weapons against my enemies', and this produces "a very natural de-
velopment of the idea of the comfort derived from the shepherd's club of
defence" (I 928, p. 439). Power's study was enthusiastically endorsed by
Morgenstern (1946, pp. 13-24), who vigorously defended Power's inter-
pretation of the Psalm and expanded upon it. Power's proposed "very minor
and simple textual emendation," wrote Morgenstern, not only eliminates
the disturbing note of selfishness and vindictiveness, but also restores the
"original unity of thought," with the figurative representation of the Deity
as the good shepherd prevailing throughout the entire Psalm (1946, pp.
15-16). For Morgenstern, the term ,,,Y
'my enemies' does not refer to
human enemies, but rather to beasts of prey, against whom the faithful
shepherd stands constantly on guard with his n?w 'spear' ( 1946, p. 17).
Morgenstern carries the figure of the shepherd still further to include v.
Sb, 'Thou anointest my head with oil, my cup overflows'. The reference
of this phrase, claims Morgenstern, is not to a host or a banquet, but rather
to the task of the faithful shepherd to anoint his sheep's wounds with oil,
that they may heal more readily (p. 17).

7. See, for example, Power (1928, p. 434); Dahood (1979, p. 419).

 THE UNITY OF PSALM 23 25

Ill

The various laborious attempts at imposing prosodic uniformity and

thematic unity on a Psalm which clearly exhibits both metrical and me-
taphoric versatility are too numerous to be enumerated here. However,
this ingenuity is disconcerting, particularly when it comes at the expense
of textual modifications. Freedman provides many valuable insights, and
one notes that he remains faithful to his often voiced discomfort with
scholars' proneness to textual emendations as the way out of difficulties,
and does not indulge in consonantal modifications in his study of the Psalm.
However, his deviation from MT vocalization for the attainment of metrical
uniformity and strophic symmetry is highly questionable. The paucity of
our knowledge regarding pre-masoretic vocalization does not permit valid
and incontestable conclusions. In view of this, vocalic alterations metri
causa must be deemed conjectural. One also cannot help wondering, with
Barr (1968, p. 35), "whether it is ultimately consistent to look with such
deep veneration on the Jewish transmission of the consonants of the Bible
while holding such deep scepticism towards the Jewish transmission of the
vowels." 8
Dahood's reconstruction of parts of the Psalm has admittedly prima
facie fascination. True, the advances made in the study of cognate lan-
guages and the application of comparative philology to the elucidation of
obscure words and passages in the Hebrew Scriptures have proved very
useful. Indeed, the contribution of Dahood in this field is substantial. The
problem with Dahood's approach is his excessive invocation of Semitic
languages for the alleged restoration of the MT and his tendency to over-
state his case. Thus, for example, his "detection" of the Canaanite god
Mani in y:Jnahamun'i and his substitution of atah for MT 'attah are, to
say the least, far fetched. His suggestions go far beyond what can be
deduced from the Psalm, and his references to extra-biblical texts are not
sufficient to establish his claim.
Numerous studies on biblical poetry 9 clearly indicate that many bibli-
cal poems are not amenable to metrical analysis, since they do not exhibit
clear-cut strophic or metrical patterns. "In Hebrew," remarks Gerleman

8. In his 1937 study, Gordis provides a wide-ranging and penetrating evaluation of the
role of the Masoretes. In this and other studies, Gordis clearly defends the reliability of the
vocalic system transmitted to us by the Masoretes. See inter a/ia Gordis 1958, pp. 444-469;
1976, pp. 95-96. In this 1937 study (pp. 94-95), Gordis also speaks critically of the pan-
Ugariticism approach and its uncertainties.
9. See the extensive bibliography in Freedman ( 1972, pp. XLVII-LI II).
26 REUBEN AHRONI

( 1951, p. 170), "we find nothing of the coercive rhymes and rigid metrical
schemes so typical of Arabic poetry." The biblical poet, notes Freedman,
tended to resist metrical rigidity and strove for artistic freedom. He often
deviated from the prosodic norm in order to avoid mechanical uniformity
and repetitious monotony ( 1977, pp. 5-26). There is also general agreement
that meter does not exhaust the complexity of artistic devices which con-
stitute rhythm in biblical poetry. A close scrunity of Psalm 23 leads me
to believe that the key to the understanding of this poem lies not in the
futile quest for metrical and strophic symmetry, nor in the thematic unity.
It lies, rather, in its distinctive style which is determined by the pervading
emotional impressionistic conception, and which eliminates any syntacti-
cally disciplined logical form. The Psalm provides us with a loosely strung
sequence of images, a rhythmic procession of metaphorical snapshots. It
will be shown, however, that despite the apparent lack of syntactic con-
nections, conspicuous links, and logical relationship between the seemingly
disparate segments, the Psalm possesses a basic cohesiveness and unity. io
I suggest that the keynote of the Psalm is stuck in v. 4b:
iJr.Jm, ilr.Jil 1nJY1Ur.Ji iu:::iw
commonly rendered as 'Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me'. The
interpretation which I will offer for this verse, however, departs from the
traditional one.
The puzzling collocation of two apparently synonymous terms u:::iw 'rod'
and nJ.lJIUr.J 'staff' in v. 4b of the Psalm seems to have been resolved,
particularly since Power's extensive treatment of the problem (1928, pp.
434-439). Based on previous studies of the shepherd's customs in Palestine
and Syria, 11 Power strongly argued that these two terms are not to be
regarded as hendiadys; 'staff', he claimed, is not a mere rhetorical repe-
tition, nor amplification of 'rod', but rather a designation of a totally
different rod. Each of the rods, contended Power, fulfills a distinct role:
the u:::iw 'rod' is an offensive weapon in the form of a club, used for the

10. The Psalm clearly exhibits stylistic features suggestive of the paratactic format.
Parataxis, as aptly defined by Hauser (1980, p. 26),
refers to the placing side by side of words, images, clauses, or scenes without connectives
that directly and immediately coordinate the parts with one another ... Parataxis does
not present a complete picture, but normally selects only certain elements which often
at first glance do not appear to correlate well with one another. This does not mean that
the adjacent parts lack a common unity ... The unity that is present is subtle, implicit,
indirect, and below the surface.
See also Gerleman (1951, pp. 168-180).
11. See the references to these works in Power (1928, pp. 435-436 ).
 THE UNITY OF PSALM 23 27

protection of the flock from robbers and beasts of prey; the IlJlTIV1J 'staff'
is an instrument in the form of a crook, used by the sheperd to guide the
sheep, to maintain order within the flock, and as a means of support for
the shepherd himself to facilitate his walking and climbing on rocks. 12
This view, which is strongly supported by Morgenstern (1946, pp. 16-17)
and has won general approbation, is, nevertheless, not without difficulties.
Scholars pointed out that the word immi 'to comfort' is not appropriate
with the subjects 'your club and your staff' (Dahood, 1979, p. 418). This
problem prompted the widely held emendation of y;mahamuni 'they com-
fort me' to yanhuni 'they lead me', or Dahood's above-mentioned proposed
yanhu m;mi, rendered as 'they guide my destiny'.
The significance of these two terms in the Psalm is of more import
than has been accorded to them. They are, in my opinion, metaphoric
expressions of two cardinal attributes of God in His dealings with His
followers: the former, o:iw 'rod' symbolizes the divine justice, and it is the
one which leads the psalmist through j?iY i7ll11J 'paths of righteousness'
(literally, 'paths of justice'); the latter, IlJlTIV1J 'staff' exemplifies to the
divine mercy, the :iio 'goodness' and iOn 'kindness' which shall follow
(iJ1!Jii,). Justice is often paired in the Hebrew Scriptures with Mercy or
Grace (ion) 13 to express God's constant providential concern for His faith-
ful ones. The doctrine itself is expounded in numerous biblical contexts,
which build up an image of God as both the stern judge and the merciful,
the chastiser and the healer. 14 A brief study of the terms o:iw and IlJlTIV1J
substantiating this view follows.

IV

The word u:iw denotes a rod or staff used for diverse purposes. As such
it occurs 43 times in the Hebrew Scriptures. In a few cases 15 the term
refers to a staff which symbolizes power and authority or a scepter. Most
of the occurrences, however, denote an instrument used for oppressive or
punitive purposes, a kind of flail or scourge. Thus we find the expressions
IVlJil o:iw 'the rod of oppression' (Isa 9:3); i!J.K o:iw 'the rod of my fury'

12. Power (p. 437) cites Ezekiel's mention of two 'eslm 'rods' (37: 16-20) and Zecharia's
reference to the two mak/ot 'rods' (11 :7) in support of his thesis of the shepherd's two rods.
13. See, for example, Hos 2:21; Jer 9:23; Ps 103:17.
14. See Hos 6: I; Job 5: 17-18; Ps 30:6. That 'rod' and 'staff' are expressions of God's
chastisement and mercy respectively has already been observed by Rashi (ad foe.).
15. Gen 49:10; Ezek 19:11, 14; Ps 45:7.
28 REUBEN AHRONJ

(Isa 10:5); 1!11'J u:no 'the rod of the one that smote thee' (Isa 14:29); u::iw
YW,il 'the rod of wickedness' (Ps 125:3); in,::iY u::iw 'the rod of his wrath'
(Prov 22:8); in some cases u::iw designates a rod used for chastisement,
particularly for disciplinary purposes. This function is exemplified in
expressions such as ,oitJ u::iw 'rod of discipline' (Prov 22: 15), nn:iini o::iw
'rod and reproof'.
When used in reference to God, the term u::iw expresses God's strict
and rigorous judgment. Generally, God's rod, namely afflictions, is retri-
butive, primarily constituting punishment for sin. It serves as a scourge
to punish the transgressor for his iniquities. 16 The 'rod' is also used by
God to render judgement of his chosen People: 17 when Israel violates His
laws and statutes and strays away from Him by committing moral and
other offenses, He makes them 'pass under the rod' 18 to purge the evil
from among them. Thus the principle of retributive punishment as atone-
ment for sins, and as an explanation for life's fortunes or misfortunes, is
a common belief in biblical and post-biblical sacred writings.
However, retributive judgement does not exhaust the whole spectrum
of meaning and purpose of suffering. In numerous scattered passages and
verses, the Hebrew Scriptures also give expression to the notion that God
often uses His rod against His righteous servants in order to enhance their
goodness and to ennoble their character. 19 This notion of divine fatherly
reproof and salutary correction, which the Talmud aptly terms c,,iD'
il:lil.K i,w 'afflictions of love', 20 accounts for those seemingly paradoxical
biblical verses in which the afflicted profusely thanks God for the immense
suffering inflicted upon him: 'Blessed is the man whom thou dost chasten,
0 Lord ... to give him respite from days of trouble' (Ps 94:12). The
biblical sufferer is confident that the same hand which wounds will also
heal, and that his sorrow will soon be transformed into triumph; weeping
may tarry for the night, but joy would come with the morning (Ps 30:6).
These two attributes of m:iwm p,y 'justice and lawfulness', and ,on
D'l'JM,, 'loving-kindness and compassion' (Hos 2:19), also serve as the basis
for the covenant between God and Israel, insuring that stern judgment is
tempered with mercy. Thanks to their interaction and harmonious exis-

16. See 2 Sam 7:14: Ps 2:9; Job 9:34; Lam 3:1.

17. See Isa 10:5-6; Ps 89:33.
18. Ezek 20:37.
19. For chastisement conceived as fatherly discipline, see Deut 8:5; Prov 3: 12; 6:23;
Lam 3:27-33; Job 36:10. See also Heb 12:5; Acts 14:22; Ecclus 18:13-14; 21:7. The theme
is frequent in Psalms of Solomon. See Moore (1927, vol. 2, p. 254).
20. For the rabbinical concept of suffering as 'afflictions of love', see the detailed
discussion and the exhaustive references in Urbach (1975, pp. 442-447).
 THE UNITY OF PSALM 23 29

tence, the general orderliness of the world and the covenant with Israel
are sustained. 21
It would appear that God's second attribute, namely c,~nii iOn 'loving
kindness and compassion' is exemplified in Ps 23 by the term IU.lllll~. The
root l.lllll, which occurs 37 times in the Hebrew Scriptures, is generally
rendered as 'to lean'. As a noun 22 (l.}'lfl~, IU.lllll~, ll.-'lp~. i1,'ll/¥J~) it refers
to a staff, stay, or something to lean upon, particularly for support. In ten
cases, the term l.lllll refers to God as source of support, sustenance and
salvation. 23
It is true that the only occurrence of the combination t:J::llll and IU.lllll~
is in Ps 23:4b. However, the concept of IU.llW~ as an aspect of God's loving
kindness and mercy is borne out by various scriptural contexts. Thus in
Isa 10:20-24, the term is clearly associated with the idea of healing from
wounds, inflicted by the Assyrian enemy who smites Israel with the t:J::llll.
Moreover, in various biblical contexts the rm~ipi1 'leaning' on God enables
the subdued to prevail over all afflictions; 24 it provides salvation from the
'cords of death' and the assailing torrents of perdition and calamity (Ps
18:4, 18). Rebellion against the Lord causes the withdrawal of His lll1P~
and i1,'ll/¥'~ (Isa 1:3) and the activation of the excruciating disciplinary
t:J::llll. It is stressed that God is the sole support and the orily source of
salvation, and that all other substitutes are nothing but yi:iri mp IU.lllll~
'leaning upon a crushed reed'. 25
The association of the term l.lllll with c,~nii ion 'loving kindness and
compassion' is much more pronounced in the Dead Sea Scrolls. 26 In the
Thanksgiving Hymns (4:36-37), the poet sees himself immune against
tyranny and affliction i1:J,~ni l1~i11 i1:J,ion:::i [,I'1]J.l11lJJ ,:::i 'for I lean on Thy
loving kindness and the abundance of Thy compassion'. The concept of
leaning on God's compassion as a refuge from stern judgment is clearly
expressed in the Manual of Discipline (10: 17-18) 'every day shall I lean
(l.lllllK) on His compassion and I shall know that within His Hand lies the
judgment (t:J!Jlll~) of all the living'. 27 The collocation of the terms cm, l.lllll,
and cni occurs in the Thanksgiving Hymns (11 :33), 'thou hast freed (me

21. See Exod 34:6-7; Hos 2:20-22; Amos 3:2. See also Katz (1977, pp. 69-70), and
Urbach (197 5, pp. 448-461 ).
22. See, for example, 2 Sam 22:19; Isa 3:1; Exod 21:19.
23. Isa 10:20, 50:10; 2 Chr 16:7, 13:18, 14:10, 16:8; Mic 3:1; 2 Sam 22:19; Ps 18:19,
23:4.
24. 2 Chr 13:18, 14:10, 16:8.
25. 2 Kgs 18:21; Isa 36:6. See also Ezek 29:6.
26. See Haberman 1959; Mansoor 1961.
27. See also Manual of Discipline 4:45: 'and leans upon (m:vum) His abundant mercy'.
30 REUBEN AHRONI

from) my pains and comforted me ('Jn!JnJ) in my anguish, for I have

leaned ('nJll'IOJ) on Thy compassion (il::J'!Jni:i)'. We also find the associa-
tion of illl1'1l1' with nJll'IO!J in The Wars of the Sons of Light (4:13) which
reads, 'the salvation (illl1'1l1') of God' ... the help (iTll) of God, the support
(nJll'IO!J) of God.

v
It is in this sense, in my opinion, that the metaphorical terms 'rod' and
'staff' are used in Psalm 23. The assurance that God's fatherly chastise-
ment will ultimately be followed by His salvation serves as the unfailing
source of the psalmist's comfort. It is this transformation of adversity into
triumph that prompted Isaiah (12:1-2) to turn to God in the following
language:
I will give thanks to you, 0 Lord, for though you were
angry with me, thy anger turned away, and thou did
comfort me (ut;mahamenl). Behold, God is my salvation,
I will trust, and will not be afraid, for the Lord God
is my strength and my song, and he has become my salvation.

Thus the problem of the "inappropriate" use of the concept of comfort

with respect to the subjects 'rod' and 'staff', which prompted the emen-
dation of MT y:mahamunl, finds its solution.
If my proposed interpretation to v. 4 is sound, it would entail a totally
different approach to the whole Psalm, not commensurate with the tra-
ditional and commonly accepted one. For generations, Psalm 23 was viewed
as a "simple and homely" poem (Morgenstern, 1946, p. 13), marked by
the "tender touch of a serene soul enjoying perfect peace of mind" (Weiser,
1962, p. 227). "There is no Psalm," remarks Perowne, "in which the ab-
sence of all doubt, misgiving, fear, anxiety, is so remarkable" (1966, p.
248). This simplistic understanding of the Psalm accounts for the excessive
zealousness of scholars to maintain the idyllic sentiments throughout the
Psalm, and the consequent ingenious suppressing of all the elements that
are not compatible with such a conception. 28
A close study of the Psalm reveals that beneath a somewhat deceptive
setting of pastoral imagery and "joyful tranquility" lurks a tormented soul

28. This zealousness is explicity expressed by Morgenstern: "Unquestionably Ps. 23

would be stronger and more direct and effective, and its unity more pronounced, were the
figure of the Deity, as the good shepherd, manifest beyond all question in vv. 1-4, maintained
throughout the entire Psalm" (1946, p. 15).
 THE UNITY OF PSALM 23 31

of a person who is desperately reaching out for God. True, feelings of

bitter emotions and shifting tides of faith and despair, which are so char-
acteristic of many Psalms, 29 do not seem to be apparent in this Psalm.
The author's predicament is not set forth in a copious and leisurely fashion,
but rather is submerged in idyllic pictures and veiled in a series of allusions
and metaphors that bear a dense texture of meaning. We obtain some
vivid glimpses of the psalmist's situation in many key expressions. Thus
the phrase ,.,.,yilJ 'in the presence of my enemies' (v. 5), which has been
a long-standing biblical interpretive crux, does not refer to beasts of prey
that lurk about the sheepfold, as Morgenstern and others hold, but to real
enemies, oppressors, who hunt down the poet's soul and inflict suffering
upon him. 30 The reference of JJ"1 'evil' or 'The Evil One' (v. 4) is indeed
to those persecutors, and the whole verse is a hyperbolic portrayal of the
gloomy ordeal, which causes the psalmist to visualize himself walking
'through the valley of the shadow of death'. However, the psalmist, in his
most assured trust in God, believes that salvation is at hand. Yahweh will
ultimately deliver him out of deep darkness into light and happiness, 31 He
will 'restore' his soul, and will lead him to joyful tranquility (me m:muhot).
Yahweh's scourging 'rod' will soon turn into a comforting 'staff' and the
poet will no longer be hunted down (,J1.!Ji.,,) by enemies (C,"1"1Y), but by
God's benevolence and loving kindness (ioni :ml). Through reversal of
meaning, the traditionally ominous negative sense of cp-, 'hunt down' is
transformed into an assuring positive one.

VI

The prosodic and metaphoric versatility which is characteristic of this

Psalm enriches the expression of the poet's feelings. We are confronted
here with three corresponding images which focus upon the host-guest
motif. These loosely strung together images undergo transformation in
form but not in their essential content. Thus, in verses 1-4, the Lord is
presented as a shepherd who not only entertains his flock-guests with green
pastures and refreshing waters, but also provides them with protection,
peace and tranquility. The same motif recurs in verse 5: it depicts God

29. See, e.g., Pss 42, 43, 84, 102.

30. Cp. Ps 69:20-21: 'my adversaries are all before thee ... I looked ... for comforters
!:],.,
and there were none'. Cp. also with the intriguing collocation of the verbs -,-,y and in 2
Sam 24:13; Ps 119:157.
31. Cp. Isa 9:1; 29:18; 58:8; 58:10; Amos 5:8; Ps 107:14.
32 REUBEN AHRONI

not only as a generous host who prepares for his guest (the psalmist) a
royal banquet with bountiful provisions, but also provides him with refuge
from the tl'iiY 'enemies'. The motif culminates in verse 6 which exem-
plifies the Lord-host as furnishing his guest with the eternal 'pastures': a
dwelling-place in the 'house of the Lord'. In this ultimate place of refuge
the psalmist-guest finds abundant nourishment for his soul and he envisions
himself continually sheltered with 'goodness and mercy'.
Attention should be paid to the significant role of the phrase ir.nu pn::l7
'for His name's sake' (v. 4a). This expression, which some scholars either
delete or relegate to perfunctory status, 32 serves within the framework of
my proposed interpretation of the Psalm as one of the crucial keys to the
meaning of the poem. It gives expression to an overriding biblical doctrine,
reiterated and reemphasized in various biblical contexts. The dominant
concept is that the suffering and wretchedness of God's righteous servants
might be understood by God's adversaries as a sign of His impotence, and
would, therefore, greatly discredit His reputation, and cause the profan-
ation of His holy name. Therefore, God has to redeem His servants as a
demonstration of His supreme power, for the sake of the sanctification of
His name and the magnification of His glory among the non-believers. 33
This deep-rooted biblical doctrine plays a significant role in the psalmist's
unflinching faith in Yahweh's imminent salvation, and contributed to the
poet's renewal of spirit which infused him with new vitality in times of
adversity. The conceptual correspondence between the poet's expectations
of the 'restoration' of his soul and of the restoration of his Lord's name
in v. 3, is one of the implicit cohesive factors in the Psalm.
Of significant evocative power is the image of the cup in v. 5 of the
Psalm. As scholars have noted, 34 the cup is used in some biblical contexts
to express the notion of chastisement and humiliation meted out to the
sinner, and in others the idea of triumph and the happy lot of the righteous.

32. Thus Morgenstern (1946, pp. 20-21) claims that this expression is used in Ps 23
"in just this conventional, almost meaningless manner." He further contends that this phrase
"in its present context ... adds practically nothing to the meaning or force of thought," and
that it is "metrically out of order." He, therefore, suggests a "rearrangement" of the text
thus:
ir.iw-pn:i7 :i:iiw' 'W!:ll/p;:.- '7llll:l::t 'lnl'

This rearrangement would, according to Morgenstern, not only restore the 3/ 3 measure,
"which was undoubtedly original," but will also reestablish the logical sequence of thought.
33. For a trenchant discussion of this doctrine, see Blank (1967, pp. l l 7ff). See also
Morgenstern (1956, pp. l 22ff).
34. See, for example, Power (1928, p. 440), Freedman (1976, p. 161).
 THE UNITY OF PSALM 23 33

The juxtaposition of the 'overflowing cup' with the 'enemies' in the scene
of God's banquet is indeed very intriguing. It emphasizes the Psalm's
predominant sense of transformation of the poet's adversity and humili-
ations into exuberant feelings of victory and comfort. One also notes the
close association of the cup, saturated with wine which 'gladdens the heart
of man' (Ps 104: 15), with the ::nu 'goodness' and ,on 'mercy' which will
'pursue' the poet from now on, in place of the ci,,y 'enemies'. The whole
image is commensurate with the central theme of the Psalm, namely the
transmutation of God's rod of affliction (u:::11v) into a comforting staff
( .M.ll11UC).
It would appear that we are faced here with a poetic composition made
up of multiple small images, seemingly placed side by side without co-
ordinative connectives. The diverse segments do not seem to correlate well
with one another. However, despite the apparent disregard for syntactically
logical relationship, the Psalm does not lack a basic cohesiveness and unity.
Its unity, however, is subtle and implicit. It is borne out not so much by
the verses themselves, but by virtue of the characteristic style of the poem
which is conditioned by emotional impressionistic conception. The dense
and evocative metaphors and images are "fraught with background."J 5
They reverberate with each other to produce in the imaginative mind of
the reader an essentially integrated whole and an impression of unity.

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Barr, J. 1968. Comparative Philology and the Text of the Old Testament.
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Blank, S. H. 1967. Prophetic Faith in Isaiah. Detroit.
Cross, F. M. and D. N. Freedman. 1948. "The Blessing of Moses." Journal
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Dahood, M. 1954. "The Language and Date of Ps 48(47)." Catholic Bibl-
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___ . 1966. Psalms (The Anchor Bible). Garden City.
1979. "Stichometry and Destiny in Psalm 23, 4." Bib/ica
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Freedman, D. N. 1972. "Prolegomenon" to G. B. Gray's The Forms of
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35. See Auerbach (1971, pp. 12-13).
34 REUBEN AHRONI

Freedman, D. N. 1976. "The Twenty-third Psalm." Michigan Oriental

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___ , 1977. "Pottery, Poetry, and Prophecy: An Essay on Biblical
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___ . 1976. The World and the Book: Studies in Biblical Language and
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