bioengineering

Article
Techno-Economic Assessment of Bio-Syngas
Production for Methanol Synthesis: A Focus on the
Water–Gas Shift and Carbon Capture Sections
Aristide Giuliano * , Cesare Freda and Enrico Catizzone
ENEA–Italian Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development,
Department of Energetic Technologies, Trisaia Research Centre, I-75026 Rotondella, Italy;
[email protected] (C.F.); [email protected] (E.C.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0835-374-322




Received: 1 June 2020; Accepted: 2 July 2020; Published: 4 July 2020


Abstract: The biomass-to-methanol process may play an important role in introducing renewables
in the industry chain for chemical and fuel production. Gasification is a thermochemical process to
produce syngas from biomass, but additional steps are requested to obtain a syngas composition
suitable for methanol synthesis. The aim of this work is to perform a computer-aided process
simulation to produce methanol starting from a syngas produced by oxygen–steam biomass
gasification, whose details are reported in the literature. Syngas from biomass gasification was
compressed to 80 bar, which may be considered an optimal pressure for methanol synthesis.
The simulation was mainly focused on the water–gas shift/carbon capture sections requested to
obtain a syngas with a (H2 – CO2 )/(CO + CO2 ) molar ratio of about 2, which is optimal for methanol
synthesis. Both capital and operating costs were calculated as a function of the CO conversion in the
water–gas shift (WGS) step and CO2 absorption level in the carbon capture (CC) unit (by Selexol®
process). The obtained results show the optimal CO conversion is 40% with CO2 capture from the
syngas equal to 95%. The effect of the WGS conversion level on methanol production cost was also
assessed. For the optimal case, a methanol production cost equal to 0.540 €/kg was calculated.

Keywords: biomass gasification; bio-methanol; process simulation; carbon capture; economic analysis

1. Introduction
Gasification is a thermochemical process for the conversion of a solid organic material, typically
coal or biomass, into syngas. From a chemical point of view, gasification occurs due to the partial
oxidation of a solid material at temperatures of 700–900 ◦ C by means of a gasifying-oxidant agent,
such as air, oxygen, steam or carbon dioxide. Gasification involves three main steps, namely, (i) solid
drying; (ii) solid pyrolysis with formation of gases, volatile compounds and char; and (iii) secondary
reactions, which convert the pyrolysis gas to syngas. Globally, gasification is an endothermic process;
therefore, the system requires an energy input. The produced syngas is a mixture of incondensable gas
at room temperature and atmospheric pressure that usually are carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon
dioxide, methane and light hydrocarbons. In the case air is used as the gasifying agent, nitrogen is
also present. Syngas from biomass has gathered huge attention in the last decades because it can be
considered as a renewable source of energy, as the carbon dioxide released from syngas utilization is
balanced by the carbon dioxide sequestration by plants during photosynthesis. For decades syngas
has been proposed as fuel for cooking, lighting or for car engines. More recently, it has been used for
combined heat and power production in internal combustion engines (ICEs). For this application, air is
usually used as the gasifying agent due to its low cost. A syngas with a heating value of 4–5 MJ/Nm3 dry

Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70; doi:10.3390/bioengineering7030070 www.mdpi.com/journal/bioengineering

Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 2 of 19

is usually obtained, which must be carefully cleaned of particulates and tar below 0.05 g/Nm3 and
0.1 g/Nm3 , respectively, before being used in an engine [1]. Worldwide, extensive expertise has been
acquired with a gasifier coupled with an ICE with power from tens of kWe to a few MWe [2–5]. Beyond
the power production, the production of strategic green chemicals (e.g., methane, methanol and DME)
from syngas is attracting the attention of the scientific community because it reduces the greenhouse
gas emission and it partially preserves the chemical energy of syngas.
In particular, biomass gasification may be a sustainable way to produce methanol, which may be
considered a strategy to introduce green energy in the industrial chain for chemicals and fuels. In fact,
methanol is considered one of the most valuable green energy carriers of the future, since it may replace
fossil sources (e.g., coal, natural gas or crude oil) for producing chemicals and fuels, [6–8]. Currently,
several industrial plants produce dimethyl ether, olefins or gasoline starting from methanol [9–12].
Methanol is actually produced from syngas, usually obtained by means of steam reforming of natural
gas. The syngas-to-methanol reaction is conventionally performed in a fixed-bed tubular reactor
operating at 60–100 bar and 250–280 ◦ C over a Cu–ZnO-based catalyst. In order to use conventional
technologies, biomass-derived syngas needs to be treated and upgraded to obtain a syngas with the
proper characteristics for methanol synthesis. For instance, tar removal is of paramount importance
to prevent the catalyst’s deactivation. Both chemical and thermal techniques may be used for tar
removal, although catalytic conversion seems to be the most effective way to reduce the tar content
and convert them into syngas or light hydrocarbons [13,14]. An important aspect to consider is
the (H2 – CO2 )/(CO + CO2 ) ratio. In fact, with conventional technologies for methanol synthesis,
the optimal (H2 – CO2 )/(CO + CO2 ) molar ratio should be equal to 2 [15].
Unfortunately, syngas is far from having the above-written ratio, mainly because of elemental
composition of the biomass is quite deficient in hydrogen compared to carbon. Hydrogen is only 6–7 wt%
while carbon is about 47–49 wt% of the dry, ash-free biomass. This drawback could be theoretically
overcome by a proper choice of the gasifying agent and reactor design. For instance, the utilization of
steam as a gasifying agent improves hydrogen yield by means the three following reactions:

kJ
C + H2 O = CO + H2 ∆H◦ (298 K) = 131 (1)
mol
kJ
CH4 + H2 O = 3H2 + CO ∆H◦ (298 K) = 206 (2)
moll
kJ
CO + H2 O = CO2 + H2 ∆H◦ (298 K) = −41 (3)
mol
The reactants of Reactions (1)–(3), namely C, CH4 and CO, are during the biomass pyrolysis
step. The involved reactions, as well as the Boudouard reaction, methanation, drying and pyrolysis,
are globally endothermic; therefore, heat supply is necessary to sustain the gasification process at
800–900 ◦ C. For instance, the reactor may be heated by an external thermal source. In this case,
the performances of the heat exchange and the global efficiency of the process should be considered.
McCaffrey et al. performed gasification tests of almond shells on a bench scale, electrically heated,
bubbling fluidized bed gasifier by using steam as the gasifying agent. They detected interesting results
in terms of the syngas composition: 35–40 vol% hydrogen, 18–21 vol% carbon monoxide, 16–18 vol%
carbon dioxide, 17–21 vol% nitrogen and 5–6 vol% methane [16]. Nevertheless, with the goal for
scaling-up the process from a bench to industrial scale, the heat supply for the endothermic gasification
reactions should be provided in a simpler and efficient way. In this regard, the injection inside of the
reactor of an oxidant agent, such as air or oxygen, is a prosecutable way. In fact, Campoy et al. gasified
biomass by means of an air–steam mixture in a fluidized bed gasifier under simulated autothermal and
adiabatic conditions, with the aim of reproducing the behavior of a full-scale fluidized bed gasifier [17].
They detected a syngas with the following composition: 12–16 vol% hydrogen, 12–15 vol% carbon
monoxide, 16–19 vol% carbon dioxide, about 5 vol% methane and about 50 vol% nitrogen. They also
showed that a proper selection of operating conditions makes it possible to increase the gasification
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 3 of 19

efficiency from 40% to 60%. On the other hand, the main drawback of the air–steam gasification is
related to the large dilution in nitrogen, with all the negative consequences on the thermodynamic
and kinetics of the methanol synthesis, which is favored at high partial pressures of the reactants.
Therefore, the utilization of pure oxygen instead of air has undoubted advantages concerning the
production of a syngas for methanol synthesis. On the other hand, an additional cost is associated with
pure oxygen production, although it may have some advantages in terms of capital investment costs
linked to the reduced size of the reactor and related equipment because of the reduced volumetric
flows. Studies on the relatively low-cost technology for oxygen production strengthen the feasibility
of syngas production from oxygen–steam gasification [18,19]. Meng et al. gasified different biomass
in a 100 kWth steam–oxygen-blown circulating fluidized bed gasifier (CFB). They observed that the
product gas composition obtained from willow over the temperature range from 800 to 820 ◦ C consisted
of a syngas with a high H2 concentration (29 vol%), and with CO (22 vol%), CO2 (38 vol%), CH4 (7 vol%)
and C2 -C3 (3 vol%) [20]. Barisano et al. gasified almond shells in a 1 MWth pilot plant based on
a bubbling fluidized bed gasifier with internal recirculation by using a mixture of enriched air–steam
and oxygen–steam. Obviously, the best results in term of syngas composition for methanol production
were obtained in the case of pure oxygen–steam gasification at process temperatures of 820–830 ◦ C,
with 30–33 vol% hydrogen, 28–32 vol% carbon monoxide, 22–27 vol% carbon dioxide, 9–11 vol%
methane, 1–2 light hydrocarbons and 2–5 vol% nitrogen [21]. An alternative way for supplying thermal
energy for endothermic steam gasification was developed at TUW: it consists of the utilization of the
bed material as a heat carrier in a dual fluidized bed. The obtained syngas showed the following
composition: H2 (36–42 vol%), with CO (19–24 vol%), CO2 (20–25 vol%), CH4 (9–12 vol%) and C2-C3
(3–4 vol%) [22]. From this short review about biomass steam gasification, it can be argued that, despite
of these efforts, the syngas’s (H2 – CO2 )/(CO + CO2 ) ratio is still far from 2; therefore, additional
steps need to be implemented in order to both increase the H2 content and reduce the CO2 level,
although several efforts have been done in last decades aimed to develop catalysts for CO2 -rich syngas
conversion towards methanol or methanol-derivates [23–27]. Feng et al. analyzed the production
of methanol from biomass gasification by simulating a plant mainly consisting of a biomass gasifier,
steam reformer and methanol synthesis reactor [28]. The authors adopted a pressure swing adsorption
(PSA) unit to separate hydrogen from the unreacted gases and recycling it to the reactor inlet. With this
approach, the (H2 – CO2 )/(CO + CO2 ) molar ratio in the methanol reactor inlet was increased up to 0.7,
which is still far lower than the ideal value. PSA was also adopted in the study of Puig-Gamero in
order to adjust the composition of syngas coming from a gasification unit [29].
A water–gas shift reaction (WGS, CO + H2 O = CO2 + H2 ) represents the most used method to
increase the hydrogen content in syngas. WGS is normally used after steam reforming or partial
oxidation of natural gas or coal to produce hydrogen-rich syngas. The WGS is an exothermic reversible
reaction. Due to the thermodynamics constraint, WGS is normally performed in two separated reactors:
a high temperature shift reactor (HTS) and a low temperature shift reactor (LTS). Following this
approach, in the first reactor kinetics is favored due to the high temperature, while thermodynamics is
favored in the low temperature reactor, allowing obtaining high H2 yield. HTS is normally performed
up between 310 ◦ C and 450 ◦ C and 25–35 bar by using an iron/chromium catalytic system, where
iron acts as active sites while the presence of chromium reduces the iron sintering [30]. The LTS step
is usually carried out between 200 ◦ C and 240 ◦ C with a copper/zinc/alumina catalytic system able
to convert the residual CO in the case pure hydrogen is desired. In order to obtain a syngas with
a composition suitable for methanol synthesis, the WGS section needs to be integrated with a CO2
removal section. In this regard, absorption is the most used technology to remove CO2 from syngas
streams. Ju et al. adopted a WGS downstream of the biomass gasification unit in order to increase the
hydrogen content. In the WGS unit, the CO conversion was set at 70%, and the CO2 was removed by
the Rectisol process [31]. Robinson et al. used the WGS coupled with Selexol, in order to produce pure
hydrogen from syngas derived from a gasification unit. The obtained hydrogen-rich gas was mixed
with the raw syngas to obtain a suitable composition for methanol synthesis. In this study, CO was
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 4 of 19

almost totally converted in the WGS step, and about 90% of the CO2 was removed in the Selexol
unit [32]. The aim of this work is to study in more detail, in terms of economic analysis, the WGS
and carbon capture section (CCS). In particular, capital costs and operating costs were assessed as
a function of the WGS conversion level, taking as the target a syngas suitable for methanol synthesis.
An optimal WGS conversion/CCS configuration is suggested on the basis of the obtained results.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. R-Ratio and WGS Conversion/Carbon Capture Relationship

As discussed in the introduction, the syngas produced by biomass gasification needs to be
upgraded in order to obtain a (H2 – CO2 )/(CO + CO2 ) molar ratio (here named R-ratio) equal to 2,
optimal for methanol synthesis [33]. The following strategies can be used to adjust the R-ratio to the
desired value:

(A) add pure H2 [34];

(B) remove CO2 [32].

The A strategy has an impact on the numerator of the R-ratio, and it is possible to obtain
an R-ratio = 2 by adding a large quantity of pure hydrogen, as may be observed from the
following equation:
H2,IN − CO2,IN H2,In + H2,PURE − CO2,IN
→ (4)
COIN + CO2,IN COIN + CO2,IN
where H2,IN is the inlet hydrogen molar flowrate, CO2,IN is the inlet carbon dioxide molar flowrate,
COIN is the inlet carbon monoxide molar flowrate, and H2,PURE is the inlet pure hydrogen molar
flowrate. The main hurdle of this strategy is related to the production of pure hydrogen in a sustainable
way. In fact, traditional processes for hydrogen production are based on fossil sources (e.g., coal, oil
and natural gas) with a high CO2 emission, even though at a relatively low cost [35]. On the contrary,
renewable electricity sources (e.g., wind) may be used to produce hydrogen with a low carbon footprint
via water electrolysis [34]. Actually, the addition of pure hydrogen is clearly an expensive strategy,
even though water electrolysis with atmospheric carbon dioxide capture is an attractive route to
produce methanol [36].
The B strategy can be applied by means of different process schemes. In particular, CO2 removal can
be simple or difficult (cheap or expensive), depending on whether the CO2 molar fraction (and partial
pressure) is low or high, respectively [37].
The CO2 removal from clean syngas can be useless if the molar fraction of H2 and CO are not
appropriate for methanol synthesis. For example, depending on the syngas quality, a 100% CO2 capture
may produce an R-ratio (H2 /CO) lower than 2, and thus not suitable for methanol synthesis.
On the other hand, if the CO2 molar fraction is too low, it is very difficult to achieve high CO2
capture in order to obtain an optimal R-ratio [38]. Therefore, the viability of the carbon capture section
strongly depends on the syngas composition.
As mentioned in the introduction part, CO may be partially converted to hydrogen by the water–gas
shift reaction, which would lead to an increase in both hydrogen and CO2 content. Nevertheless,
by WGS only it is not possible to change the R-value, as perhaps easily demonstrated:

H2,In − CO2,IN H2,In + COIN xWGS − (CO2,IN + COIN xWGS ) H2,In − CO2,IN
→ = (5)
COIN + CO2,IN COIN − COIN xWGS + CO2,IN + COIN xWGS COIN + CO2,IN

where xWGS is the CO conversion in the WGS section. Nevertheless, in this way, the H2 molar ratio
increases as well as the CO2 molar ratio, making the CO2 removal simpler [39]. In this study, we used
a syngas with a composition as reported in the paper of Barisano et al. [21]. Briefly, the authors reported
a study about gasification of almond shells with a 1000 kWh pilot-scale, internally circulating, bubbling
fluidized bed reactor, by using a steam/O2 mixture as the gasification agent. Both char and tar were
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 5 of 19

abated with a ceramic filter and wet scrubber, respectively. The gas stream from the gasification unit is
assumed to be cleaned from residual tars and sulfur compounds, obtaining a mixture with the average
composition reported
Bioengineering 2020, inPEER
7, x FOR Table 1.
REVIEW 5 of 18

fromTable
the 1. The syngas composition
gasification considered
unit is assumed in this
to be work (average
cleaned values oftars
from residual the data
and reported in [21]).
sulfur compounds,
obtaining a mixture with the average composition reported in Table 1.
CO H2 CO2 CH 4 N2

Table 1. The syngas30composition considered

30 25 work (average
in this 10values of the data
5 reported in [21]).

CO H2 CO2 CH4 N2
As may be noted, CO2 removal is useless without a WGS step, due to the relatively low hydrogen
content in the syngas. In particular, the 30 minimum
30 25 WGS 10conversion
5 (corresponding to a 100% CO2
capture rate) is equal to about 33%, obtaining an R = 2:
As may be noted, CO2 removal is useless without a WGS step, due to the relatively low hydrogen
H2,IN in
content + CO xWGS − In
theINsyngas. (CO 2,IN + COIN
particular, thexWGS )(1 − 1)WGS conversion
minimum 30 + 30xWGS(corresponding to a 100% CO2
=2→ = 2 → xWGS = 0.33 (6)
COIN rate)
capture − COis x
equal
IN WGS +
to ( CO
about
2,IN +
33%,CO x
obtaining
IN WGS )( 1
an − R 1 )
= 2: 30 − 30x WGS
, + −( , + )(1 − 1) 30 + 30
Similarly, it is possible to individuate the minimum = 2 →CO2 capture rate = 2(corresponding
→ = 0.33to a 100%
(6)
− +( , + )(1 − 1) 30 − 30
WGS conversion) equal to 64%:
Similarly, it is possible to individuate the minimum CO2 capture rate (corresponding to a 100%
WGS conversion)
H2,IN + COIN −equal(CO2,INto 64%:
+ COIN )(1 − αCO2 ) 60 − (55)(1 − αCO2 )
, + − ( , + )(1 − ) = 2 →60 − (55)(1 − ) = 2 → αCO2 = 0.64 (7)
COIN − COIN + (CO2,IN + COIN )(1 − αCO2 )= 2 → (55)(1 − αCO2 ) = 2 → = 0.64 (7)
− +( , + )(1 − ) (55)(1 − )
Furthermore,
Furthermore,the theCO
CO2 2capture
capturerate
rate(α CO2)) as
(αCO2 as aa function
functionof ofWGS conversionxxWGS
WGSconversion WGS may be calculated
calculated
as
as follows:
follows:
αCO2= =2
2 COIN − − H2 2 IN++ 3 3 CO ,
2,IN
(8)
3(3 ( CO +
2,IN + CO x
IN WGS ) ) (8)
,
Figure
Figure 11 shows that ααCO2
shows that decreases with
CO2 decreases with thethe WGS
WGS conversion.
conversion.

Figure 1. Calculated CO2 removal rate as a function of CO conversion in the water–gas shift (WGS) to
Figurean
obtain 1. Calculated
R = 2. CO2 removal rate as a function of CO conversion in the water–gas shift (WGS) to
obtain an R = 2.

2.2. Flowsheet Description

Figure 2 shows the process flowsheet (drawn using Microsoft Power Point software) considered
in this work based on two consolidate technologies: two-step WGS and CO2 absorption by the
Selexol® process.
After the syngas purification process, the syngas is compressed (C1) at the methanol synthesis
pressure (here 80 bar). The heat exchanger E1 heats the compressed syngas for the HTS-WGS at 400
°C. Water is vaporized and superheated to 400 °C by E2. As mentioned in the introduction part, in
Al2O3 and the temperature is set to 200 °C [42]. The heat exchanger E4 allows for the condensation of
the residual water, which is recycled back to E2. H2/CO2-rich gas is then sent to a small compressor
to reestablish the pressure at 80 bar due to the pressure drop in the WGS reactors. The absorption
column ABS works at 30 °C in order to promote the absorption of CO2 in the solvent. Liquid outlet
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 6 of 19
stream from the bottom of the column (rich in CO2) is expanded in order to recover the other volatile
compounds (H2 and CO). A flash (F2) at 30 °C recycles these gases to the column. The DEPG solvent
and Flowsheet
2.2. CO2 are then expanded again by the V2 valve and the F3 flash allows the recovery of high pure
Description
CO2 (higher than 99% of purity) and regeneration of the solvent. Pure CO2 is finally compressed until
Figure
110 bar 2 shows
for the storage the[43].
process flowsheetDEPG
Regenerated (drawn using Microsoft
is compressed againPower
by thePoint software)
P2 pump considered
and recycled. A
in work based on two consolidate technologies: two-step WGS and CO
gaseous H2-rich stream from the top of the ABS is compressed, if necessary, and2heated to 200by
this absorption °C,the
to
Selexol ® process.
be recycled to the methanol synthesis reactor.

Figure 2. The
The syngas-to-methanol
syngas-to-methanol production flowsheet considered in this work.

After the syngas

A detailed list ofpurification process,
the main items the syngas
considered is compressed
in this (C1)type
work with the at the
ofmethanol
auxiliary synthesis
stream is
pressure
reported (here 2. The heat exchanger E1 heats the compressed syngas for the HTS-WGS at 400 ◦ C.
80 bar).
in Table
WaterTheis vaporized and superheated
main equipment in terms of to 400 ◦consumption
utility C by E2. As mentioned in the introduction
is further detailed here: part, in the
HTS-WGS reactor, Fe2 O4 /Cr2 O3 is usually used as the catalyst [40]. WGS is an exothermic reaction,
- C1 is the main compressor of the process, because the clean biomass-derived syngas is
so in the adiabatic reactor the increase in temperature causes a decrease in the reaction equilibrium
considered at 1 bar.
conversion [41]. Moreover, the higher the inlet temperature is, the lower will be the equilibrium
- E2 is the main heat exchanger of the process, because it vaporizes water at high pressure (80
conversion. So, if a high CO conversion is requested, LTS-WGS may be considered as well, in order to
bar); at this pressure the vaporization temperature of water is about 295 °C, so a boiler (fueled
promote a reaction from a thermodynamics point of view. Catalysts used for this step is Cu–ZnO–Al2 O3
with natural gas) is necessary for both vaporization and superheating. Hence, the H2O/CO ratio
and the temperature is set to 200 ◦ C [42]. The heat exchanger E4 allows for the condensation of the
for the WGS sets the thermal power (and the natural gas demand) of E2.
residual water, which is recycled back to E2. H2 /CO2 -rich gas is then sent to a small compressor to
- C3 is the compressor of the gaseous stream recycled to the ABS column and the electricity
reestablish the pressure at 80 bar due to the pressure drop in the WGS reactors. The absorption column
required depends on the pressure drop at the throttling valve necessary to release volatile
ABS works at 30 ◦ C in order to promote the absorption of CO2 in the solvent. Liquid outlet stream from
compounds (H2 and CO), leaving CO2 into the solvent.
the bottom of the column (rich in CO2 ) is expanded in order to recover the other volatile compounds
(H2 and CO). A flash (F2) at 30 ◦ C recycles these gases to the column. The DEPG solvent and CO2 are
then expanded again by the V2 valve and the F3 flash allows the recovery of high pure CO2 (higher
than 99% of purity) and regeneration of the solvent. Pure CO2 is finally compressed until 110 bar for
the storage [43]. Regenerated DEPG is compressed again by the P2 pump and recycled. A gaseous
H2 -rich stream from the top of the ABS is compressed, if necessary, and heated to 200 ◦ C, to be recycled
to the methanol synthesis reactor.
A detailed list of the main items considered in this work with the type of auxiliary stream is
reported in Table 2.
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 7 of 19

Table 2. Process equipment of the considered flowsheet of Figure 2.

Section Equipment Equipment Kind Utility or Steam Required/Produced

WGS C1 Compressor Electricity
WGS E1 Heat exchanger Natural gas
WGS E2 Heat exchanger LPS produced
WGS P1 Pump Electricity
WGS HTS-WGS Reactor /
WGS E3 Heat exchanger LPS produced
WGS LTS-WGS Reactor /
WGS E4 Heat exchanger Cooling water
WGS F1 Condenser /
CCS C2 Compressor Electricity
CCS E5 Heat exchanger Cooling water
CCS ABS Absorption column /
CCS E8 Heat exchanger LPS required
CCS V1 Valve /
CCS E6 Heat exchanger LPS required
CCS F2 Flash /
CCS C3 Compressor Electricity
CCS V2 Valve /
CCS E7 Heat exchanger LPS required
CCS F3 Flash /
CCS C5 Compressor Electricity
CCS P2 Pump Electricity
CCS C4 Compressor Electricity

The main equipment in terms of utility consumption is further detailed here:

- C1 is the main compressor of the process, because the clean biomass-derived syngas is considered
at 1 bar.
- E2 is the main heat exchanger of the process, because it vaporizes water at high pressure (80 bar);
at this pressure the vaporization temperature of water is about 295 ◦ C, so a boiler (fueled with
natural gas) is necessary for both vaporization and superheating. Hence, the H2 O/CO ratio for the
WGS sets the thermal power (and the natural gas demand) of E2.
- C3 is the compressor of the gaseous stream recycled to the ABS column and the electricity required
depends on the pressure drop at the throttling valve necessary to release volatile compounds
(H2 and CO), leaving CO2 into the solvent.
- C5 is considered to compress CO2 at 110 bar for storage [43].
- P2 is an energy-intensive pump, as a large amount of DEPG solvent is requested to make the CO2
capture possible.

Considering the general flowsheet of Figure 2, several process parameters can be modified in
order to obtain different xWGS and αCO2 and, consequently, an R-ratio equal to 2. The L/D ratio of the
WGS reactors was set equal to 8.
Furthermore, Table 3 shows the process variables investigated in this work and their effect on
the process.
One of the main process variables to increase the CO conversion in the WGS unit is the H2 O/CO
ratio. The WGS reaction is limited by thermodynamics, therefore theoretical conversion of CO may
be increased by increasing the H2 O/CO ratio. To have a good reactor set up, a minimum H2 O/CO
ratio of 1 is necessary. With the increase in the H2 O/CO ratio, a higher CO conversion can be obtained,
but the heating power of E2 can become too high to justify higher conversions. In order to limit the
pressure drop, parallel adiabatic tubular reactors with the same length and diameter were considered.
So, a higher number of tubes must be used in order to save electricity at C2.
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 8 of 19

With the increase in the number of tubes, a higher volume is obtained and, consequently, a higher
conversion, with an acceptable pressure drop (less than 2 bar) [44].

Table 3. Process variables description.

Section Process Variable Units Range Effect

WGS H2 O/CO - 1–3 WGS Conversion
WGS WGS-HTS length m 0–2 WGS Conversion/ WGS-HTS Pressure drop
WGS WGS-LTS length m 0–5 WGS Conversion/ WGS-LTS Pressure drop
CCS DEPG/GAS - 0.5–1 CO2 absorption
CCS V1 output pressure bar 10–70 CO2 absorption/ Captured CO2 purity
CCS V2 output pressure bar 0.7–2 CO2 absorption/ Captured CO2 purity

For the carbon capture section, both the DEPG/GAS ratio and expansion pressure of V1 and V2
have to be set in order to have an R-ratio equal to 2, and low values of solvent quantity and electricity
of the P2, C3 and C5 items
In particular, a higher DEPG/GAS ratio correspond to a higher absorbed quantity of CO2 , H2 and
CO. Consequently, lower V1 pressures may be set to recover H2 and CO, and therefore a higher
electricity demand for both the C3 and P2 items were calculated. A lower DEPG/GAS ratio correspond
to a lower absorbed quantity of CO2 , H2 and CO, which may be insufficient for obtaining the αCO2
required for the correspondent xWGS , and the V2 pressures have to be then set to a lower value in order
to completely regenerate the solvent, then requiring a higher C5 electricity demand.

2.3. Process Simulation Description

A clean syngas with a composition as in Table 1 was fed to the process simulation scheme as
reported in Figure 2. Pumps and compressors were considered adiabatic devices with an efficiency
equal to 0.85 and 0.75, respectively. Hot streams with a temperature in the range 100–500 ◦ C were
coupled with cold streams with a temperature in the range 0–200 ◦ C, for heat integration purposes.
Cold streams at temperatures higher than 200 ◦ C were considered supplied by a boiler fueled with
natural gas.
HTS-WGS kinetics from Hla et al. (2009) [40] and LTS-WGS kinetics from Choi et al. (2003) [42]
were adopted for the simulation. Both the WGS reactors were considered adiabatic and pressure drop
was calculated by the Ergun relationship [43]. Thermodynamic models used for the simulation were the
NRTL model for the estimation of activity coefficients for the liquid phase and the Soave–Redlich–Kwong
equation for the gas phase [45]. An equilibrium absorption column was used for ABS.
In order to fix the xWGS -αCO2 working points, a sensitivity analysis was carried out by varying
the process variables reported in Table 3. Considering also the impact of the process variables on the
process economics, from the sensitivity analysis were selected the WGS reactor sizes with the lowest
lengths (and the lowest pressure drops), the lowest H2 O/CO ratio, the lowest DEPG/GAS ratio and the
maximum V1 and V2 pressures.

2.4. Economic Assessment Description

For the economic assessment of the whole process, both CAPEX and OPEX costs were evaluated.
In particular, the biomass supply chain and pure oxygen costs, natural gas cost, electricity cost,
maintenance and labor costs were considered as the operating costs (OPEX). The economic data used
in the analysis are reported in Table 4. A biomass supply chain cost equal to 40 €/t was considered
from Menin et al. (2020) [46] for a plant size equal to 147,000 t/y (18.6 t/h) of biomass fed to the gasifier,
producing 861 kmol/h of syngas. Maintenance and labor costs were associated to the capital costs and
estimated as 10% of the annual total capital costs.
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 9 of 19

Table 4. Economic parameters used in the economic analysis.

Economic Parameter Units Calculation Value Reference

Biomass supply chain cost (CB ) €/t 40 [47]
Oxygen purchase cost €/t 40 [48]
LPS €/t 7 [49]
MPS €/t 11 [49]
Natural gas €/Nm3 0.136 [49]
DEPG cost €/t 5000 [32]
Column packing €/m3 1000 [32]
Electricity €/MWh 40 -
Column stage height M 0.5 [32]
ABS stage - 12 [32]
Working hour per year h/y 7920 [32]
Fp 0.5/7/50 bar 1/1.5/1.9 [49]
Ft 100/300/500 ◦ C 1/1.6/2.1 [49]
Construction years Y 2 -
Depreciation years (yD ) Y 20 [50]
Maintenance and labor (OCM ) M€/y % of total capital cost 10 [51]
Working capital (WC) M€ % of total capital cost 2 [32]
Taxes (t) % of the gross profit 40 [32]
Discount rate (r) % 3 -

The capital costs considered were the following:

- Gasifier + gas cleaning system [52].

- All pumps and compressors for the WGS and CC sections [49].
- WGS reactors, considering shell and catalysts separately [49].
- ABS column, considering shell and packing separately [49].

For all the equipment, both the scale economies, temperature and pressure ranges were considered
as follows:
Qj mj
!
CC j = CC0, j Fi Ft Fp (9)
Q0, j
where CCj is the capital cost of the j-equipment, CC0,j is the capital cost of the j-equipment for the size
Q0,j , Q0,j is the base size for the j-equipment, and Ft and Fp are the temperature level factor and the
pressure level factor, respectively. Fi is the installation factor reported in the references where cost data
are reported [49,52].
A 4-year catalyst charge was set in the cash flow analysis in order to calculate the production cost
of the methanol, and the global methanol yield from the syngas with an R-ratio = 2 was set to 80% [53].
The capital costs for the methanol synthesis unit were taken from Reference [54].
The NPV (net present value) was set equal to 0, and the corresponding value of the selling price
of the produced methanol was then calculated as follows:
n
X CFi
NPV = =0 (10)
i=0 (1 + r)i

CCTOT
CFi = (PMeOH FMeOH,i − OCi )(1 − t) + WCi + t − CCi (11)
yD
where CFi are the cash flow of the year i, r is the discount rate, n is the final year (22), PMeOH is the
production price of syngas-to-methanol, FMeOH,i is the molar flowrate of methanol for the year i, OCi are
the operating costs for the year i, t is the tax ratio, WCi is the working capital, CCTOT are the total
capital costs, and yD are the depreciation years.
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 10 of 19

The working capital was set as a negative value at the start-up year (i = 2), and as a positive value
at the last year (i = 21). The construction of the plant was considered completed between years 0 and 1
(equal capita cost each year).

3. Results

3.1. Process Results

Table 5 shows the process simulation results in terms of the process variables values obtained
from the simulation, sensitivity, economic analysis and variable optimization.

Table 5. Final variable values.

WGS Conversion (%) Removed CO2 (%) H 2 O/CO DEPG/GAS V1/V2 Pressure (bar)
36 98 1 1 25/0.7
40 95 1 1 20/1.6
49 88 2 0.7 21/1.3
59 82 2 0.7 19/1.5
70 76 2 0.5 58/0.7
80 72 2 0.5 28/0.7
90 67 3 0.5 27/1.5
99 64 3 0.5 23/1.1

In particular, the minimum CO conversion in the WGS step was set to 36%, while the maximum
one to 99%. By varying the HTS-WGS reactor length, the WGS conversion equaled 36%, or 40%, and the
H2 O/CO equaled 1; a one-step WGS was sufficient to reach the conversion desired. Furthermore, for
the WGS conversion of 49% and 59%, only HTS was sufficient, but a H2 O/CO equal to 2 was required,
because the addition of the LTS reactor is not sufficient to reach the desired conversions.
By increasing the CO conversion from 36% to 59%, which correspond to a CO2 capture rate
decrease from 98% to 82%, respectively, the DEPG/CAS molar ratio may be decreased from 1 to 0.7.
V1 pressure varies between 19 and 25 bar; furthermore, the V pressure decreases as the αCO2 value
decreases. When the CO2 partial pressure in the syngas-fed inlet to the column is higher, the CO2
capture is favored, but the required αCO2 is lower. Consequently, a higher flowrate of the gas recycled
to the column is calculated, and a lower V1 pressure needs to be set. The optimal pressure of the
V2 valve increases as the CO2 capture decreases, because a lower regeneration level of the solvent is
requested, also in relationship with the DEPG/GAS ratio.
A H2 O/CO molar ratio equal to 2 was sufficient for a CO conversion in the WGS equal to 70% and
80%, while the H2 O/CO molar ratio has to be increased to 3 for a conversion higher than 90%. In these
cases, the LTS-WGS unit is necessary from a thermodynamics point of view, and then 70%, 80%, 90%
and 99% xWGS may be obtained. The CO conversion reaction rate is slower in the LTS-WGS due to a
lower reactant concentration and reaction temperature with respect to the HTS-WGS step.
In order to obtain a CO2 capture rate of 76%, 72%, 67% and 64% after the WGS units, which
correspond to 70%, 80%, 90% and 99% of the CO conversion, respectively, a DEPG/GAS ratio was
set equal to 0.5. A maximum V1 pressure of 58 bar (minimum compressor power demand of C3
compressor) was found for a CO conversion of 70%. This high pressure is due to the high concentration
of CO2 in this stream. To obtain the regeneration of the solvent, the lowest value of the V2 pressure
was necessary (0.7 bar). The decrease in the αCO2 values cause a decrease in V1 pressure in order to
recover a small quantity of CO2 solubilized in the column outlet stream for these cases.
Figure 3 shows both the thermal and the electricity power demand as a function of CO conversion
in the WGS steps. In particular, the natural gas demand obviously increases by increasing the H2 O/CO
ratio for the WGS reactor due to the higher production of steam. For an xWGS equal to 36% and 40%,
which requires a H2 O/CO ratio equal to 1, about 2.7 MWt of thermal energy is calculated. About a
double value was calculated for a CO conversion in the range of 49–80%, which were obtained with a
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 11 of 19

H2 O/CO ratio equal to 2. A slighter effect of CO conversion on electricity power demand was calculated,
as it varies between 8.6 and 9.3 MWe. A more careful analysis reveals that the minimum value was
achieved at a 90% CO conversion. Electrical demand is mainly related to the DEPG recycle pump (P2)
Bioengineering 2020, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18
and CO 2 compressor (C5) units. Both the power demands increase as the CO conversion decreases.
For xThe
WGS CO= 99%, the recovery compressor C3’s power is higher than xWGS = 70%, 80% and 90%, due to
2 molar fraction obviously has an impact on the lower heating value of the upgraded syngas
the lower V1 pressure.
that decreases from about 25 MJ/kg to about 18 MJ/kg, by increasing the CO2 content from 1% to 21%.

Bioengineering 2020, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

The CO2 molar fraction obviously has an impact on the lower heating value of the upgraded syngas
that decreases from about 25 MJ/kg to about 18 MJ/kg, by increasing the CO2 content from 1% to 21%.

Figure
Figure 3. Natural
3. Natural gasgas
andand electricityrequired
electricity required as
as function
functionofofCO
COconversion in the
conversion WGS
in the step.step.
WGS

Figure 4 reports the characteristics of the upgraded syngas in terms of CO2 content and LHV.
CO2 content increases by increasing the CO conversion, increasing from about 1% to about 21% by
increasing the CO conversion from 36% to 99%, while the CO2 removal decreases from 98% to 64%.
The CO2 molar fraction obviously has an impact on the lower heating value of the upgraded syngas
that decreases from3.about
Figure Natural25 MJ/kg
gas to about
and electricity 18 MJ/kg,
required by increasing
as function the COin2 the
of CO conversion content from 1% to 21%.
WGS step.

Figure 4. The effect of CO conversion in the WGS step on the CO2 content (left axes) and low heat
value (right axes) of the post-CCS, upgraded syngas.

Methanol synthesis occurs by hydrogenation of the CO and CO2 compounds, so in the stream
syngas-to-methanol, only CO and CO2 can be converted to methanol. The carbon loss due to the
WGS/CCS unit was about 64%, regardless of the CO conversion in the WGS steps.
This result may be obtained by the mathematical relationships between the R-ratio, xWGS and
Figure 4. The
αCO2.Figure
The 4. The
captured of CO
effecteffect of conversion
carbon CO in calculated
conversion
atoms were the WGS
in the WGSstep on on
asstep
follows:COCO
thethe 2 content (left
2 content (leftaxes)
axes)and
andlow
lowheat
heatvalue
(rightvalue
axes)(right
of the post-CCS,
axes) upgraded
of the post-CCS, 2
syngas.
upgraded − 2 +3
syngas. ,
, + = , +
3 , + (12)
Methanol synthesis occurs 1
2 by hydrogenation of the CO and CO2 compounds, so in the stream
= − 2 + ,
syngas-to-methanol, only CO 3 and CO 32 can be converted to methanol. The carbon loss due to the
WGS/CCS unit was about 64%, regardless of the CO conversion in the WGS steps.
This result may be obtained by the mathematical relationships between the R-ratio, xWGS and
αCO2. The captured carbon atoms were calculated as follows:
2 − 2 +3 ,
, + = , +
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 12 of 19

Methanol synthesis occurs by hydrogenation of the CO and CO2 compounds, so in the stream
syngas-to-methanol, only CO and CO2 can be converted to methanol. The carbon loss due to the
WGS/CCS unit was about 64%, regardless of the CO conversion in the WGS steps.
This result may be obtained by the mathematical relationships between the R-ratio, xWGS and
αCO2 . The captured carbon atoms were calculated as follows:
Bioengineering 2020, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18
IN IN 2 CO −H2 +3 CO
2,IN
yCO2 (CO2,IN + COIN xWGS ) = (CO2,IN + COIN xWGS )
3 (CO2,IN +COIN xWGS ) (12)
So, both xWGS and αCO2 do not affect the carbon capture
= 2 CO − 1 H2 + CO level.
3 IN 3 IN 2,IN

3.2. Economic
So, both Results
xWGS and αCO2 do not affect the carbon capture level.
Four main sections were considered for the estimation of capital costs: (i) gasification and syngas
3.2. Economic Results
cleaning; (ii) the water–gas shift; (iii) carbon capture and storage; and (iv) methanol synthesis.
Four main
Figure sections
5 shows thewere considered
capital for the estimation
cost distribution of capital
as a function of the costs:
WGS(i)conversion.
gasification Green
and syngas
bars
cleaning; (ii) the water–gas shift; (iii) carbon capture and storage; and (iv)
represent the gasification and syngas cleaning section and it is equal to 27 M€, regardless of the WGS methanol synthesis.
Figurelevel.
conversion 5 shows capital cost
On the contrary, WGS distribution
affects theascapital
a function
costs ofof the
the WGS conversion.
and CC sections, Green bars
which
represent the gasification and syngas cleaning section and it is equal
have an opposite trend. To reach higher CO conversions, higher capital costs are estimated for theto 27 M€, regardless of the WGS
conversion
WGS section, level.
while On the contrary,
lower capital costs WGS areaffects the capital
estimated for thecosts of the WGS
CC section; and CCtosections,
this thanks which
higher partial
have an opposite
pressures of the CO trend. Toshifted
2 in the syngas CO
reach higher afterconversions,
favoring COhigher capitalduring
2 absorption costs arethe estimated for the
Selexol® process.
WGS
For lowsection, while lower (i.e.,
WGS conversions capital costs are
36–59%), theestimated
capital costforof
the
the CCWGSsection;
sectionthisisthanks
below to higher
6 M€ duepartial
to the
pressuresofofthe CO2 in thereactor.
theLTS-WGS shiftedThe syngas aftervalue
favoring COCC ® process.
absence highest of the 2 absorption
section isduringcalculatedthe Selexol
for a 99% WGS
For low WGS
conversion, conversions
with a value (i.e.,
of 9.2 36–59%),
M€. Onthe thecapital
othercost of the
hand, theWGSCC section isisbelow below6 7M€ M€ due
fortoCOthe
absence of the LTS-WGS reactor. The highest value of the CC section
conversions in the range 70–99%, with the lowest value for CO conversion equal to 70% (i.e., 5.7 M€). is calculated for a 99% WGS
conversion,
The with a value
lowest capital costs ofof9.2
theM€.CCOn the other
section hand, the for
is calculated CC asection is below
conversion of 770%,
M€ fordueCO toconversions
(i) a lower
in the range
DEPG flowrate 70–99%,
in the with the lowest
column, value foraCO
which requires conversion
smaller columnequal to 70%
diameter; (ii)(i.e., 5.7 M€).
a smaller The
size lowest
pump at
capital
P2; andcosts
(iii) aof the CC
lower section
amount ofissolvent
calculated
to buy forfor
a conversion
the start-upofof70%,the due to (i) a lower
absorption unit. DEPG flowrate
in the column,the
Globally, which requires of
combination a smaller column
these effects leadsdiameter; (ii) that
to estimate a smaller size pump
the minimum at P2;
value andcapital
of the (iii) a
lower amount of solvent to buy for the start-up of the absorption unit.
costs at the point where xWGS = 70% is 42.8 M€. The most expensive case is for xWGS = 99%, at 46.3 M€.

Figure 5.
Figure Capital costs
5. Capital costs as
as aa function
function of
of WGS
WGS conversion.
conversion. Gasification
Gasification includes
includes syngas
syngas cleaning.
cleaning.

Globally, the combination of these effects leads to estimate that the minimum value of the capital
Operating costs have a higher impact on the economic analysis. In fact, the lowest operating
costs at the point where xWGS = 70% is 42.8 M€. The most expensive case is for xWGS = 99%, at 46.3 M€.
costs are for the case xWGS = 40% (13.1 M€/y) and the highest operating costs are for xWGS = 99%, at 13.8
M€/y, as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 shows the operating costs of the process as a function of the WGS conversion value. In
particular, a constant cost is for the biomass supply (about 5.9 M€/y). The natural gas cost increases
by increasing the CO conversion due to a higher H2O/CO ratio requested to obtain the desired
conversion. This is the main effect of the H2O/CO ratio on the operating costs. A slighter effect is
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 13 of 19

Operating costs have a higher impact on the economic analysis. In fact, the lowest operating
costs are for the case xWGS = 40% (13.1 M€/y) and the highest operating costs are for xWGS = 99%,
at 13.8 M€/y,
Bioengineering as 7,
2020, shown in Figure
x FOR PEER 6.
REVIEW 13 of 18

Figure 6. Operating costs varying with the WGS conversion.

Figure 6. Operating costs varying with the WGS conversion.
Figure 6 shows the operating costs of the process as a function of the WGS conversion value.
The effect of WGS conversion on methanol production cost is reported in Figure 7. The minimum
In particular, a constant cost is for the biomass supply (about 5.9 M€/y). The natural gas cost increases by
production cost was calculated for a WGS conversion equal to 40%, with a value equal to 0.540 €/kg.
increasing the CO conversion due to a higher H2 O/CO ratio requested to obtain the desired conversion.
The highest impact on the production cost were derived from the operating costs. Considering a 20-
This is the main effect of the H2 O/CO ratio on the operating costs. A slighter effect is calculated in
year plant life, the mean values of the annualized capital costs is equal to 2.2 M€/y, while the mean
terms of electricity costs (2.7–2.9 M€/y). Maintenance and labor costs follow the same trend in capital
operating costs are about 13.4 M€/y. As shown in Figure 3, the natural gas demand increases with the
costs since they were considered equal to 10% of the latter.
H2O/CO ratio. The electricity demand for the case xWGS = 36% is 4% higher than electricity demand
The effect of WGS conversion on methanol production cost is reported in Figure 7. The minimum
calculated for the optimal case, xWGS = 40%, due to the different electricity demanded by C5, which
production cost was calculated for a WGS conversion equal to 40%, with a value equal to 0.540 €/kg.
was caused by a lower V2 pressure. For a CO conversion between 49% and 80%, the methanol
The highest impact on the production cost were derived from the operating costs. Considering a
production cost is similar, which is about 0.545 €/kg, and depends on the natural gas demand
20-year plant life, the mean values of the annualized capital costs is equal to 2.2 M€/y, while the mean
For the WGS conversion of 90% and 99%, the natural gas cost is the main cause of higher
operating costs are about 13.4 M€/y. As shown in Figure 3, the natural gas demand increases with the
production cost. For these cases, also the capital costs are higher than the case with a lower WGS
H2 O/CO ratio. The electricity demand for the case xWGS = 36% is 4% higher than electricity demand
conversion, due to the higher capital costs of both the WGS reactors (associated to CO conversion)
calculated for the optimal case, xWGS = 40%, due to the different electricity demanded by C5, which was
and the ABS column due to a higher gas flowrate.
caused by a lower V2 pressure. For a CO conversion between 49% and 80%, the methanol production
Obtained results may be affected by several variables, such as the syngas final pressure, which
cost is similar, which is about 0.545 €/kg, and depends on the natural gas demand.
here was set to 80 bar. A higher pressure in the WGS section does not have an influence on the
For the WGS conversion of 90% and 99%, the natural gas cost is the main cause of higher
reaction equilibrium, but a higher partial pressure of the reactants would favor reaction kinetics, then
production cost. For these cases, also the capital costs are higher than the case with a lower WGS
requiring a smaller size of the reactors. Furthermore, the CC section is strongly affected by syngas
conversion, due to the higher capital costs of both the WGS reactors (associated to CO conversion) and
pressure, because CO2 absorption would be more favored and, consequently, an optimal column size
the ABS column due to a higher gas flowrate.
and solvent-to-gas ratio would be lower. On the other hand, the C1 compressor pressure also has an
Obtained results may be affected by several variables, such as the syngas final pressure, which
effect on the global economic analysis. In particular, in decreasing the C1 pressure, both the WGS
here was set to 80 bar. A higher pressure in the WGS section does not have an influence on the reaction
reactor and CC section equipment size (column size, solvent flowrate) would be higher.
equilibrium, but a higher partial pressure of the reactants would favor reaction kinetics, then requiring
In the investigated process, since the optimal case was for a CO conversion equal to 40% and a
a smaller size of the reactors. Furthermore, the CC section is strongly affected by syngas pressure,
CO2 capture equal to 95%, the optimal configuration was without an LTS-WGS reactor and both the
because CO2 absorption would be more favored and, consequently, an optimal column size and
H2O/CO and DEPG/GAS ratios equal to 1. In that case, operating costs were the lowest (13.1 M€/y),
divided into 5.9 M€/y for biomass supply, 4.5 M€ for maintenance and labor, 2.8 M€/y for electricity
and only 0.3 M€/y for the natural gas consumption. In particular, electricity consumption is required
by the syngas compressor C1 (about 6.6 MWe), the CO2 compressor C5 (about 1.4 MWe) and by
solvent pump P2 (about 0.66 MWe). Total capital costs were about 44.8 M€, as a sum of 27 M€ for the
gasification system, 7.0 M€ for the compressors, 1.4 M€ for the pumps, 4.4 M€ for the Selexol® system
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 14 of 19

solvent-to-gas ratio would be lower. On the other hand, the C1 compressor pressure also has an effect
on the global economic analysis. In particular, in decreasing the C1 pressure, both the WGS reactor
and CC section
Bioengineering 2020, equipment
7, x FOR PEERsize (column size, solvent flowrate) would be higher.
REVIEW 14 of 18

Figure 7.
Figure Costof
7. Cost ofthe
theupgraded
upgradedsyngas
syngasfor
formethanol
methanol synthesis
synthesis expressed
expressed in
in kmol
kmol of
of carbon
carbon atoms.
atoms.

In the investigated process, since the optimal case was for a CO conversion equal to 40% and
Finally, Figure 8 shows the annual cash flow for the optimal case. After the first two years for
a CO2 capture equal to 95%, the optimal configuration was without an LTS-WGS reactor and both the
the plant construction (about −20 M€), revenues (higher than operating costs) make the annual cash
H2 O/CO and DEPG/GAS ratios equal to 1. In that case, operating costs were the lowest (13.1 M€/y),
flows positive, and at the 22nd year, the NPV is equal to zero. In the first years, cash flows are higher
divided into 5.9 M€/y for biomass supply, 4.5 M€ for maintenance and labor, 2.8 M€/y for electricity and
due to the effect of the discount rate (3%). For the last year, the working capital is recovered, making
only 0.3 M€/y for the natural gas consumption. In particular, electricity consumption is required by the
the cash flow equal to 0.9 M€/y.
syngas compressor C1 (about 6.6 MWe), the CO2 compressor C5 (about 1.4 MWe) and by solvent pump
P2 (about 0.66 MWe). Total capital costs were about 44.8 M€, as a sum of 27 M€ for the gasification
system, 7.0 M€ for the compressors, 1.4 M€ for the pumps, 4.4 M€ for the Selexol® system and 1.1 M€
for the WGS. Compressor C1 was the most expensive compressor with a cost of 4.1 M€.
Finally, Figure 8 shows the annual cash flow for the optimal case. After the first two years for the
plant construction (about −20 M€), revenues (higher than operating costs) make the annual cash flows
positive, and at the 22nd year, the NPV is equal to zero. In the first years, cash flows are higher due to
the effect of the discount rate (3%). For the last year, the working capital is recovered, making the cash
flow equal to 0.9 M€/y.
Finally, considering the best production cost equal to 0.540 €/kg, it is comparable with the higher
end of the cost range for pure hydrogen for Case A considered in Paragraph 2.1 [55]. For a price of
pure hydrogen of 6 €/komlH2 [32], in fact, 0.449 €/kg is to purchase the pure hydrogen, not considering
compression costs and capital costs of the gasifier and compressors.
The obtained results give insights in light of a growing development of a biorefinery concept, and
confirm the production of methanol from biomass as a promising strategy to go towards a low-carbon
society, although a more detailed study should be carried out [56–63]. For example, the methanol
production costs strongly depend on plant capacity. In a recent paper, Wang et al. discussed the effect of
feedstock and plant capacity on methanol production costs [64]. In particular, wood, waste, natural gas

Figure 8. Annual cash flow for the optimal WGS conversion (xWGS = 40%).
 Figure 7. Cost of the upgraded syngas for methanol synthesis expressed in kmol of carbon atoms.

Finally, Figure 8 shows the annual cash flow for the optimal case. After the first two years
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70
for
15 of 19
the plant construction (about −20 M€), revenues (higher than operating costs) make the annual cash
flows positive, and at the 22nd year, the NPV is equal to zero. In the first years, cash flows are higher
and to
due coal
thewere
effectconsidered as raw
of the discount materials
rate (3%). Forfor
themethanol
last year,synthesis. The
the working methanol
capital production
is recovered, cost
making
strongly depends on the plant
the cash flow equal to 0.9 M€/y. capacity, especially for the biomass-based processes.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Annual
Annual cash
cash flow
flow for
for the
the optimal
optimal WGS
WGS conversion
conversion (x
(xWGS
WGS ==40%).
40%).

By considering a cost analysis based on 2013 data, for plant capacities from a few tens to hundreds
of kton/yr of methanol, the methanol production cost ranges from about 200 to 935 €/ton for either
lignocellulose biomass (wood) or waste residues, from 160 to 480 €/ton for coal, and from 90 to 290 €/ton
for natural gas. The production of methanol from fossils, especially in the case of natural gas, may be
then considered the cheapest solution, although the cost of fossils may change as a function of several
factors, such as geopolitics. Therefore, by considering our methanol production rate, namely about
35 kt/yr, our estimation (i.e., 540 €/ton) well agrees with the literature data.
In this work the management of the solid by-product of the gasification, the so-called char, was
not considered. From the work of Barisano et al. [21], about 80–100 g of char are produced from 1 kg of
dry biomass. If the biomass ash (1.2 wt%) is quantitatively preserved in the produced char, the organic
fraction of the char is 88 wt%. The authors analyzed the organic fraction of char: a carbon content of
82 wt%, hydrogen content of about 4 wt% and 14 wt% oxygen [21]. On the basis of these analyses,
the solid by-product of the gasification could be considered as biochar [65,66]. Biochar is a versatile
product whose applications are continuously expanding, mainly in agriculture, operations related to
the natural environment and industry. It can be used as a soil additive, or added to fodder and silage,
or applied in water treatment. Biochar can also be used for the immobilization of contaminants from
soil, and in sewage treatment; it can be applied as a supplementary material in composting and in
methane fermentation processes. Biochar can be used as a catalyst for tar reduction in pyrolysis and
gasification, and as a fuel when pelletized [66].

4. Conclusions
In this work, a techno-economic assessment of the upgrading of syngas from biomass gasification
was studied. In particular, the WGS and CC sections were analyzed, varying the CO conversion in the
WGS reactor and fixing to the optimal value, an R-ratio (H2 − CO2 )/(CO + CO2 ) of 2. The relationship
Bioengineering 2020, 7, 70 16 of 19

between CO conversion and percentage of CO2 to be removed was studied and the process parameters to
obtain the same conditions of the syngas were found. For each case and process condition, an economic
analysis was done and set equal to a zero net present value, thus finding the correspondent value of
the production cost of methanol. The results show the convenience of lower CO conversions with
respect to easier CO2 capturing processes. The main cost parameter is the H2 O/CO ratio of the WGS
section, due to the high natural gas cost. A CO conversion equals to 40% was calculated as the optimal
value to obtain the lowest process cost with a methanol production cost of 0.540 €/kg.
More detailed studies should be carried out for a more accurate estimation of methanol production
cost; but, on the whole, the obtained results reveal that an optimization of the upgrading system should
be taken into account.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: A.G.; methodology and computer-assisted simulations: A.G.;

writing—original draft preparation and revision: A.G., C.F. and E.C. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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