Lec 35

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Plant Design and Economics

Prof. Debasis Sarkar


Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture No -35
General Procedure for Reactor Design and Cost Estimation

Welcome to lecture 35 of plant design and economics, in this last lecture of module 7 we will
have a discussion on general procedure for reactor design and cost estimation of reactors.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:29)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:32)

The basic objective of reactor design is to produce a specified product at a given rate from
known reactance and reaction path. The reaction paths that use less expensive raw materials
and produce less by products are preferred. So we can use economic potential to decide this.
These are economic potential we have discussed when we talked about conceptual process
synthesis.

The design and selection of chemical reactors involved reactor type, catalyst, reactor size or
volume, reactor configurations, operating conditions, such as temperature, pressure, phase,
feed condition that is concentration, temperature, pressure of feed. Many reactor designs are
unique and proprietary in nature, particularly when the reactions came involves catalysts or
multiphase flow.

Reactors are not always designed starting from the first principles; reactors are often designed
by scaling it up from pilot plant reactors or previous designs.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:01)

Design of industrial reactor must satisfy the following points: the chemical reaction kinetics
factors: The design must provide sufficient residence time for the desired reaction to proceed
to the required degree of conversion. The mass transfer factors: with heterogeneous reactions
the reaction rate may be controlled by the rates of diffusion of the reacting species; rather
than the chemical kinetics.

The heat transfer factors: The design must satisfy the removal or addition of the heat of
reaction. The safety factors: The design of reactors must satisfy the confinement of hazardous
reactants and products and the controller of the reaction and the process conditions for safe
operations.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:05)

Now, let us outline the general procedure for chemical reactor design. In the step 1 collect
required data, kinetic data, thermodynamic data, physical properties, etcetera the data that are
important are heat of reaction, phase-equilibrium constants, diffusion coefficients, heat
transfer coefficients, mass transfer coefficients etcetera. The kinetic data required for reactor
design will normally be obtained from laboratory and pilot plant studies.

It is not very likely that you will obtain data for commercially attractive processes in open
literature because such data are generally protected for business interest, so the kinetic data
required for reactor design will normally we obtained from laboratory and pilot plant studies.
Values will be needed for the rate of reaction over a range of operating conditions such as
pressure, temperature, flow-rate and catalyst concentration.

Collect the physical property data required for the design this can be collected from literature
or it can be estimated by using various models and correlations or you can also perform
laboratory experiments to obtain such data.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:44)
In the step 2, determine the rate limiting step: the reaction rate is usually limited by one of the
following fundamental processes, the intrinsic kinetics that is rate of the reaction itself. Mass
transfer rate, mass transfer rate is limiting particularly in multiphase reactions or in presence
of porous catalyst where the diffusion of the species is involved. Heat transfer rate may be
limiting, feed addition rate may be limiting.

By manipulating the feed addition rate, we can effectively control highly exothermic
reactions or reactions that occur very fast, mixing rate can also be rate limiting. So, how do
you find out which one is the rate limiting step? This can be determined experimentally by
collecting rate data and then fitting a suitable model for reaction kinetics. So assume a rate
limiting step solve the model try to feed the rate data and this way you can experimentally
determine what will be the rate limiting step.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:12)
Once you have determined rate limiting step you select reactor type and reaction conditions
choose a suitable reactor type based on experience with similar reactions or from the
laboratory and pilot plant work. Make an initial selection of the reactor conditions to give the
desired conversion and yield. Reaction conditions should optimize reactor conversion, yield,
selectivity, reacting conventions should be safe, it should be controllable.

And, this conditions must be achieved at a reasonable cost, reaction conditions governs
selection of reactor type. For example, the reactance products are all in vapour phase the
CSTR will not be chosen. Then we can determine the materials of constructions: The factors
that govern the choice of material of construction will be reaction conditions such as
temperature, pressure, presence of particular component will govern material of constructions
it may be required that you make use of special alloy.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:39)
In step 5, you can perform preliminary sizing, layout and costing of reactors. While sizing the
reactor, exact analytical solutions of the design relationship may not always be available. So,
semi-empirical method based on the analysis of idealized reactors will have to be used often.
The volume estimated is only the active reacting volume and the reactor layout must also
consider various factors that may add to the volume required for the reactor vessel.

So, what are those factors? Additional space needed for any internal heat transfer devices
such as cooling coils, heating coils within the reactor, spargers for vapour-liquid distribution,
inert vapour space; inert vapour space in CSTR makes pressure control easier, catalyst
support in packed bed or moving bed, fluid distribution grids, cyclones for fluidized bed
reactor. So, we must add extra volume for these factors.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:17)
Next, we estimate reactor performance: it is important to confirm that the reactant design will
actually achieve the target conversion and selectivity for main products and by products.
Generally, it is difficult to be fully satisfied without building and testing a full scale reactor,
which is economically expensive option. Historically, chemical companies would go through
multiple steps of pilot plane scale up to validate their reactor design.

However, currently we can perform simulation studies and follow a combine approach of
experiments as well as mathematical modelling and computer simulation to attempt to predict
the full scale performance, this saves both time and money. The steps 7, we optimize the
design at this stage it may be necessary that we go back to some of the previous steps and
redo the calculations.

In this final in the step 8, we prepare scale drawings for detailed design. So these are the
outlines of general procedure for chemical reactor design.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:59)

Now, only choose reactor conditions particularly the conversion and optimize the design we
should also keep in mind the interactions of the reactor or reactor networks with the other
process units in the process flow sheet, particularly the separation units. The degree of
conversion of raw materials in the reactor will determine the size and cost of any equipment
needed to separate and recycle un-reacted materials.

So, the conditions in the reactor will heavily influence the recycle as well as the separation
units. So a better way to optimize the reactant network or reactors will be that we consider the
optimization of reactor separation system together, so we consider reactor separation system
as one unit and then optimize the process.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:24)

Now, we will briefly talk about few reactor types.


(Refer Slide Time: 12:37)

Catalytic reactors; if catalyst is used the reactor design should account for mass and energy
transport issues that arise due to the presence of catalyst. A number of basic reactor designs
are available such as fixed bed reactor, fluidized bed reactor, moving bed reactor, slurry
reactors and multi-tubular reactors. So these are commonly used catalytic reactors. In all
these reactors, we use solid catalysts.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:27)
Catalyst can reduce residence time requirements, provide greater selectivity for the desired
product and thereby reduce investment and operating cost. How do you select the catalyst?
What will be the most appropriate catalyst for my process? Unfortunately, there is no single
path of finding a catalyst for a particular chemical reaction. It is both an art and science to
find the appropriate catalyst for any given process.

Experience, imagination or creativity, trial and error experimentation and scientific analysis
of the experimental results will provide guidance for the selection. Currently, catalyst designs
are guided by molecular dynamic simulations. So molecular dynamic simulations is helping a
big way for design of new catalyst, again this helps in saving time as well as money.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:59)
What you see in figure is the reactor section for the catalytic reforming or petroleum naphtha,
the reforming of petroleum naphtha is done for improving the octane number of the gasoline.
Adiabatic operations are preferred for simplicity of design. The reforming reactions are
mostly endothermic, so during adiabatic operation the temperature would fall during the
course of the reaction.

If the reactor is made as one single unit then this temperature fall may be too large, so to have
this we can increase the inlet temperature otherwise we must have the low outlet temperature.
So, if you use high inlet temperature this can lead to undesired reactions and undesired by-
products, whereas low temperature at the outlet will lead to incomplete reactions, note in the
figure the reactors have been divided in three sections, 1, 2 and 3.

And, heat is supplied externally between the sections using intermediate furnace, so such
considerations should be there during design process.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:06)

If the reactor does not operate adiabatically then it is design must include provision for heat
transfer. Note, the provision for heat transfer in the figures we can use a jacket; cooling jacket
or heating jacket around the reactor, we can use internal coils, we can use external heat
exchanger or we can also use multi tube reactor.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:54)
Here are some selections for reactor; here are some heuristics for selection of reactors. For
conversion up to 95% of equilibrium the performance of 5 or more CSTR’s connected in
series approaches that of a PFR. CSTR’s are easily used for slow liquid phase or slurry
reactions. Batch reactors are best suited for small scale productions, very slow reactions,
those with foul, or those requiring intensive monitoring or control.

The typical size of catalytic particles is approximately 0.003 meter for fixed-bed reactors,
0.001 meter for slurry reactors and 0.0001 meter for fluidized bed reactors. Large pores in
catalytic particles, favour faster, lower-order reactions conversely, smaller pores favour
slower, higher-order reactions. So these are some heuristics for selection of reactors.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:11)

Now we will briefly talk about estimation of cost for reactor equipment.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)

The design and costing or reactor vessels are handled in a manner similar to that for regular
mixing and pressure vessels. The cost of a reactor depends on various items such as type of
reactor, size of the reactor, materials of construction, as well as wall thickness to handle give
operating conditions. Note that, we must choose appropriate materials of construction and
wall thickness to handle given operating conditions.

So, the cost of the reactor will depend on all such critical items type and size of the reactor, as
well as materials of construction and wall thickness.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:15)

Many reactors are designed to be operated at high pressures and such reaction vessels are
classified as a pressure vessels or pressure vessel reactor. Once the reactor dimensions have
been determined, the pressure vessel design method can be used to estimate the wall
thickness and hence determine the capital cost. Additional cost may be needed because we
will require additional cost for the reactor internal as well as for ancillary equipment such as
agitators.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:03)

Now you can look at separation vessel codes say semi-pressure visual codes to find out the
minimum wall thickness for pressure vessels for various types of cells. For cylindrical cells,
the thickness or the minimum wall thickness can be computed using these equations, note
these equations are applicable for these given limiting conditions. So you can also look at
design books particularly mechanical design, the books for mechanical design to obtain such
expressions for minimum wall thickness.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:41)
The cost of jacketed stirred tank reactors are not addressed using simple pressure vessel cost
correlation alone. The reason is that a substantial part of the cost is in the construction of the
vessel jacket. In the figure you see, how the purchase cost and the capacity of the reactors
made from various materials of construction, such as carbon steels, stainless steel, gasoline
steel are related.

So, such graphical correlations can be used to find out the purchase cost given particular
capacity and operating conditions and materials constructions, note that both for carbon steel
and stainless steel the data are given for various pressures; 50 psi, 300 psi and 1500 psi. So,
such graphical correlations can be used.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:12)

Similar correlations are also available for cost data for kettle reactors.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:33)
And, also available for autoclaves which are used for high pressure, high temperature
applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:50)

Now, let us look at a very simple example showing the steps to obtain the cost of a pressure
vessel reactor. What is we seen the outline of the steps without performing detail calculations,
so you are considering the design of a cylindrical reactor and let their, we know internal
accessories such as cooling or heating coils. So, how do I obtain the cost of the reactor? So
first obtain the dimensions, so size of the reactor, so we get the length and diameter of the
reactor then you make use of the code for obtaining the thickness.

We are considering the pressure vessel reactor, so we can look at the pressure vessel code for
the cylindrical shell we have given the expression or equation or formula for determination of
thickness. So using the procedure for sizing of the reactor and the following the codes for
determining the thickness of the pressure vessel reactor, let us consider we have obtained the
length, diameter and thickness of the cylindrical shell.

So, now I can find out the weight of the shell, of course at this stage we must know what
should be my material of construction and from the density of that we can find out the weight
of the shell. Now where I am using a cylindrical shell there will be heads of the shell, so
select head of the vessel hemispherical or ellipsoidal or torispherical, let us say we choose
hemispherical heads, so we choose hemispherical heads.

So, again consider the design codes for pressure vessels and find out the volume of the two
heads and then weight of the two heads, so the find out the weight of the shell plus head.
Now, let us add 15% weight of this shell weight plus head weight to take care of nozzle,
manholes, saddle etcetera. So, I now obtain the total weight which includes weight of shell,
weight of head as well as 15% additional for nozzle, manual, saddle etcetera.

Now, once I have the total weight for the given material of construction I can make use of
cost correlations that are available to find out what will be my preliminary cost. So,
preliminary cost estimation is possible by obtaining the weight of the reactor material. For
example, if material of construction is carbon steel the cost per kg of fabricated unit will be
73 into total weight to the power -0.34.

These expressions are given this particular expression is obtained from the books of Peterson
Timmerhaus, so similar cost correlations are available which can be used for preliminary cost
estimation purpose. With this we stop our discussion on module 7 here.

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