Educational technology 

is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving

performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and
resources.

Educational technology is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might
prove helpful in advancing student learning. 

Educational technology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving
performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and
resources."[1] The term educational technology is often associated with, and
encompasses,instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology covers the
processes and systems of learning and instruction, educational technology includes other
systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational Technology includes,
but is not limited to, software, hardware, as well as Internet applications and activities. But there
is still debate on what these terms mean.[2]

Contents
 [hide]

1 Explanation and meaning

2 A Short History
3 Theories and practices
o 3.1 Behaviorism

 3.1.1 Skinner's
Contributions
o 3.2 Cognitivism
o 3.3 Constructivism

4 Instructional technique and

technologies
5 Theorists
6 Benefits
7 Criticism
8 Educational technology and the
humanities
 9 Technology in the classroom
10 Societies
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 Publications

[edit]Explanation and meaning

Educational technology is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might
prove helpful in advancing student learning. Educational Technology relies on a broad definition
of the word "technology". Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as
machines or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods
of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to overhead
projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as "smartphones" and games
(both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential.

Those who employ educational technologies to explore ideas and communicate meaning are
learners or teachers.

Consider the Handbook of Human Performance Technology.[3] The word technology for the

sister fields of Educational and Human Performance Technology means "applied science." In
other words, any valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research
using the "scientific method" is considered a "technology." Educational or Human Performance
Technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes, but neither necessarily
implies physical technology. The word technology comes from the Greek "techne" which means
craft or art. Another word, "technique," with the same origin, also may be used when
considering the field Educational Technology. So Educational Technology may be extended to
include the techniques of the educator.[citation needed]

A classic example of an Educational Psychology text is Bloom's 1956 book, Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives.[4] Bloom's Taxonomy is helpful when designing learning activities to
keep in mind what is expected of—and what are the learning goals for—learners. However,
Bloom's work does not explicitly deal with educational technology per se and is more concerned
with pedagogical strategies.

According to some, an Educational Technologist is someone who transforms basic educational

and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of
learning or instruction. Educational Technologists typically have a graduate degree (Master's,
Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media,
experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational,
Instructional or Human Performance Technology or Instructional (Systems) Design. But few of
those listed below as theorists would ever use the term "educational technologist" as a term to
describe themselves, preferring terms such as "educator".[citation needed] The transformation of
educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville,
Browne, and Whitaker.[5]

[edit]A Short History

Educational technology in a way could be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, e.g.,
paintings on cave walls. But usually its history starts with educational film (1900s) or Sidney
Pressey's mechanical teaching machines in the 1920s.

The first large scale usage of new technologies can be traced to US WWII training of soldiers
through training films and other mediated materials. Today, presentation-based technology,
based on the idea that people can learn through aural and visual reception, exists in many
forms, e.g., streaming audio and video, or PowerPoint presentations with voice-over. Another
interesting invention of the 1940s was hypertext, i.e., V. Bush's memex.

The 1950s led to two major, still popular designs. Skinners work led to "programmed instruction"
focusing on the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small
units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Advocating a mastery approach to
learning based on his taxonomy of intellectual behaviors, Bloom endorsed instructional
techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. Models
based on these designs were usually referred to as computer-based training" (CBT), Computer-
aided instruction or computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in the 1970s through the 1990s. In a
more simplified form they correspond to today's "e-contents" that often form the core of "e-
learning" set-ups, sometimes also referred to as web-based training (WBT) or e-instruction. The
course designer divides learning contents into smaller chunks of text augmented with graphics
and multimedia presentation. Frequent Multiple Choice questions with immediate feedback are
added for self-assessment and guidance. Such e-contents can rely on standards defined by
IMS, ADL/Scorm and IEEE.

The 1980s and 1990s produced a variety of schools that can be put under the umbrella of the
label Computer-based learning (CBL). Frequently based on constructivist and cognitivist
learning theories, these environments focused on teaching both abstract and domain-specific
problem solving. Preferred technologies were micro-worlds (computer environments where
learners could explore and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can play
with parameters of dynamic systems) and hypertext.

Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid 80s and became
popular by the mid-90's, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail and Forums.
There is a difference between two major forms of online learning. The earlier type, based on
either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer-based learning (CBL), focused on the
interaction between the student and computer drills plus tutorials on one hand or micro-worlds
and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered today over the WWW. Today, the prevailing
paradigm in the regular school system is Computer-mediated communication (CMC), where the
primary form of interaction is between students and instructors, mediated by the computer.
CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor
facilitation and requires scenarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT
provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge
management tasks. It also provides tools for student and curriculum management.

In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major role in full-time
distance teaching. While most quality offers still rely on paper, videos and occasional CBT/CBL
materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums, instant messaging, video-
conferencing etc. Courses addressed to smaller groups frequently use blended or hybrid
designs that mix presence courses (usually in the beginning and at the end of a module) with
distance activities and use various pedagogical styles (e.g., drill & practise, exercises, projects,
etc.).

The 2000s emergence of multiple mobile and ubiquitous technologies gave a new impulse to
situated learning theories favoring learning-in-context scenarios. Some literature uses the
concept of integrated learning to describe blended learning scenarios that integrate both school
and authentic (e.g., workplace) settings.

[edit]Theories and practices

Three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks have been present in the
educational technology literature. These areBehaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Each
of these schools of thought are still present in today's literature but have evolved as
thePsychology literature has evolved.

[edit]Behaviorism

This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning
experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike,Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F.
Skinner and many others. Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment
with human learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many
educators.

[edit]Skinner's Contributions

B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis

of Verbal Behavior[6] and wrote "The Technology of Teaching",[7] an attempt to dispel the myths
underlying contemporary education as well as promote his system he called programmed
instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed the Celeration learning system similarly based on
behavior analysis but quite different from Keller's and Skinner's models.

[edit]Cognitivism

Cognitive science has changed how educators view learning. Since the very early beginning of
the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of
change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new
paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.
Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning.

After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working

memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new
cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. It is
important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major
influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly
known as short term memory) and long term memory have been facilitated by research and
technology from the field of Computer Science. Another major influence on the field of Cognitive
Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive
load and Information Processing Theory.

[edit]Constructivism

Constructivism is a learning theory or educational philosophy that many educators began to

consider in the 1990s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct
their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different
perspectives.

Constructivist learning environments require students to utilize their prior knowledge and
experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this
framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that
learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the
prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen
(1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that
"ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing
technology when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that
reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment.

[edit]Instructional technique and technologies

Problem Based Learning and Inquiry-based learning are active learning educational
technologies used to facilitate learning. Technology which includes physical and process
applied science can be incorporated into project, problem, inquiry-based learning as they all
have a similar educational philosophy. All three are student centered, ideally involving real-world
scenarios in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. The process that
students are encouraged to employ (as long as it is based on empirical research) is considered
to be a technology. Classic examples of technologies used by teachers and Educational
Technologists include Bloom's Taxonomy and Instructional Design.

[edit]Theorists

This is an area where new thinkers are coming to the forefront everyday. Many of the ideas
spread from theorists, researchers, and experts through their blogs. Extensive lists of
educational bloggers by area of interest are available at Steve Hargadon's "SupportBloggers"
site or at the "movingforward" wiki started by Scott McLeod.[8] Many of these blogs are
recognized by their peers each year through the edublogger awards.[9] Web 2.0 technologies
have led to a huge increase in the amount of information available on this topic and the number
of educators formally and informally discussing it. Most listed below have been around for more
than a decade, however, and few new thinkers mentioned above are listed here.

 Alan November  Alex Jones

[10]
 Seymour Papert  George Siemens
 Will Richardson  David Wiley
 John Sweller  David Wilson
[edit]Benefits

Educational technology is intended to improve education over what it would be without

technology. Some of the claimed benefits are listed below:
 Easy-to-access course materials. Instructors can post the course material or important
information on a course website, which means students can study at a time and location
they prefer and can obtain the study material very quickly[11]
 Student motivation. Computer-based instruction can give instant feedback to students
and explain correct answers. Moreover, a computer is patient and non-judgmental, which
can give the student motivation to continue learning. According to James Kulik, who studies
the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time
when receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more and develop more
positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes.[12] The American
educator, Cassandra B. Whyte, researched and reported about the importance of locus of
control and successful academic performance and by the late 1980s, she wrote of how
important computer usage and information technology would become in the higher
education experience of the future.[13][14]
 Wide participation. Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are
accessible to a wider audience[15]
 Improved student writing. It is convenient for students to edit their written work on
word processors, which can, in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some
studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over
a computer network with students they know[11]
 Subjects made easier to learn. Many different types of educational software are
designed and developed to help children or teenagers to learn specific subjects. Examples
include pre-school software, computer simulators, and graphics software[12]
 A structure that is more amenable to measurement and improvement of outcomes. With
proper structuring it can become easier to monitor and maintain student work while also
quickly gauging modifications to the instruction necessary to enhance student learning.
 Differentiated Instruction. Educational technology provides the means to focus on
active student participation and to present differentiated questioning strategies. It broadens
individualized instruction and promotes the development of personalized learning plans.
Students are encouraged to use multimedia components and to incorporate the knowledge
they gained in creative ways.[16]
[edit]Criticism

Although technology in the classroom does have many benefits, there are clear drawbacks as
well. Lack of proper training, limited access to sufficient quantities of a technology, and the extra
time required for many implementations of technology are just a few of the reasons that
technology is often not used extensively in the classroom.

Similar to learning a new task or trade, special training is vital to ensuring the effective
integration of classroom technology. Since technology is not the end goal of education, but
rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the
technology being used and its advantages over more traditional methods. If there is a lack in
either of these areas, technology will be seen as a hindrance and not a benefit to the goals of
teaching.

Another difficulty is introduced when access to a sufficient quantity of a resource is limited. This
is often seen when the quantity of computers or digital cameras for classroom use is not enough
to meet the needs of an entire classroom. It also occurs in less noticed forms such as limited
access for technology exploration because of the high cost of technology and the fear of
damages. In other cases, the inconvenience of resource placement is a hindrance, such as
having to transport a classroom to a computer lab instead of having in-classroom computer
access by means of technology such as laptop carts.

Technology implementation can also be time consuming. There may be an initial setup or
training time cost inherent in the use of certain technologies. Even with these tasks
accomplished, technology failure may occur during the activity and as a result teachers must
have an alternative lesson ready. Another major issue arises because of the evolving nature of
technology. New resources have to be designed and distributed whenever the technological
platform has been changed. Finding quality materials to support classroom objectives after such
changes is often difficult even after they exist in sufficient quantity and teachers must design
these resources on their own.

Experimental evidence suggests that these criticisms may have limited basis. See, for example,
the work done by Sugata Mitra.[17]. A recent presentation summarizes the research and Dr.
Mitra's current research initiative. [18]

see also: [19]
[edit]Educational technology and the humanities
Research from the Alberta Initiative for School Improvement (AISI) [20] indicates
that inquiry and project-based approaches, combined with a focus on curriculum,
effectively supports the infusion of educational technologies into the learning and teaching
process.

[edit]Technology in the classroom

There are various types of technologies currently used in traditional classrooms. Among
these are:

 Computer in the classroom: Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any

teacher. With a computer in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new
lesson, present new material, illustrate how to use new programs, and show new
websites.[21]

 Class website: An easy way to display your student's work is to create a web page
designed for your class. Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework
assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much more. In today's
society, children know how to use the computer and navigate their way through a
website, so why not give them one where they can be a published author. Just be
careful as most districts maintain strong policies to manage official websites for a
school or classroom. Also, most school districts provide teacher webpages that can
easily be viewed through the school district's website.

 Class blogs and wikis: There are a variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being
implemented in the classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue,
such as a journal,thoughts, ideas, and assignments that also provide for student
comment and reflection. Wikis are more group focused to allow multiple members of
the group to edit a single document and create a truly collaborative and carefully edited
finished product.

 Wireless classroom microphones: Noisy classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with

the help of microphones, students are able to hear their teachers more clearly. Children
learn better when they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no
longer lose their voices at the end of the day.

 Mobile devices: Mobile devices such as clickers or smartphone can be used to

enhance the experience in the classroom by providing the possibility for professors to
get feedback.[22] See also MLearning.

 Interactive Whiteboards: An interactive whiteboard that provides touch control of

computer applications. These enhance the experience in the classroom by showing
anything that can be on a computer screen. This not only aids in visual learning, but it
 is interactive so the students can draw, write, or manipulate images on the interactive
whiteboard.

 Online media: Streamed video websites can be utilized to enhance a classroom lesson

(e.g. United Streaming, Teacher Tube, etc.)

 Digital Games: The field of educational games and serious games has been growing
significantly over the last few years. The digital games are being provided as tools for
the classroom and have a lot of positive feedback including higher motivation for
students. [23]

There are many other tools being utilized depending on the local school board and funds
available. These may include: digital cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools,
document cameras, or LCD projectors.

 Podcasts: Podcasting is a relatively new invention that allows anybody to publish files to

the Internet where individuals can subscribe and receive new files from people by a
subscription. The primary benefit of podcasting for educators is quite simple. It enables
teachers to reach students through a medium that is both "cool" and a part of their daily
lives. For a technology that only requires a computer, microphone and internet
connection, podcasting has the capacity of advancing a student’s education beyond the
classroom. When students listen to the podcasts of other students as well as their own,
they can quickly demonstrate their capacities to identify and define "quality." This can
be a great tool for learning and developing literacy inside and outside the classroom.
Podcasting can help sharpen students’ vocabulary, writing, editing, public speaking,
and presentation skills. Students will also learn skills that will be valuable in the working
world, such as communication, time management, and problem-solving.