FIHRDC/WERC 001T2015-EN

Radiation, Nuclear Reaction, and NPP

Takuya KITABATA

Director

Fukui International Human Resources Development Center for Atomic Energy

The Wakasa Wan Energy Research Center

(Prepared: November 17)

This material is prepared by Fukui International Human Resources Development Center for Atomic Energy
(FIHRDC) of the Wakasa Wan Energy Research Center (WERC) for its training courses. For reprint or translation,
please contact:

FIHRDC/WERC
64-52-1 Nagatani, Tsuruga, Fukui-ken 914-0192, Japan
Tel: +81-770-24-7472, Fax: +81-770-24-7288
E-mail: [email protected]
URL: http://fihrdc.werc.or.jp
 FIHRDC/WERC-001T2015-EN

1. Introduction the FR development, and Russia and India operate a few

Fukui International Human Resources FRs for commercial use.
Development Center for Atomic Energy in the Wakasa This material, however, explains mainly about
Wan Energy Research Center (FIHRDC/WERC) holds PWRs, because 277 PWRs and 80 BWRs are operated
almost ten training courses annually as of 2015 mainly among the total of 438 NPPs in the world as of 2014 [2].
for the Asian countries planning to introduce nuclear
power plants. The mission of the FIHRDC/WERC is to 1.2 Principles of power generation
support the human resource development (HRD) of the The steam produced from the heat of nuclear
participating countries which ensures nuclear safety in reactor rotates the turbine and generates electricity. The
their countries and establishes good relationship with steam is condensed by the cooling water taken from the
local residents who accept nuclear facilities. The sea, lakes or air-cooled cooling towers. The condensed
participants of the training courses are usually invited water returns back as feed water to steam generators in
from about ten different countries excepting a few PWRs or directly to the reactor vessel in BWRs. The
courses tailored for a single country. The background of utilization way of the steam in nuclear power plant
the participants also ranges very widely from nuclear (NPP) is similar to thermal power plants as illustrated
engineering, basic science and technology, sociology, in Fig. 2.
economics, to political science, for instance
administrative officers. Under this conditions,
participants are required to check their own basic
knowledge on radiation/radioactivity and nuclear power
generation in prior to or just after joining the training
courses to make it very efficient.
Good textbooks on these basic fields written in the
languages of their mother countries have been published
in many of the countries introducing nuclear power
generation. Participants are strongly recommended to
use the materials in prior to joining the training courses.
However, it is still difficult for all participants from
many countries to line up at the same staring line.
Introductive knowledge on radiation/radioactivity
and nuclear power generation are described in this
material in a text-oriented manner to solve this difficulty Fig. 2 Thermal and nuclear power generation [3]
and make the trainings efficient encouraging the
The temperature of primary coolant of the NPPs is
participants’ self-learning. Information on fast breeder
designed around 300 °C to reduce the corrosion of fuel
reactors and heavy water reactors are also referred in
clad made of zirconium-alloy with reactor cooling water.
this material to help the understanding of the
The turbine of NPP is rather larger than that of thermal
participants who have chances to visit the reactors built
plant at the same electricity output because the nuclear
in the Fukui Prefecture as well as eleven pressurized
turbine uses steam around 280°C, 6.8MPa which are
water reactors (PWRs) and one boiling water reactor
lower both in temperature and pressure than usual
(BWR).
thermal plants. Thermal efficiency of usual NPPs is up
1.1 Nuclear power generation to 35 %, but the newest thermal power plant around 50 %
The first power generating nuclear reactor for in which burnt natural gas at very high temperature
peaceful use in the world was the sodium-cooled fast directly drives gas-turbine then generates steam for
reactor (FR), EBR-1 in Idaho, the United States. conventional turbine system [4].
Sodium-cooled FR has more advantages than other The temperature of the releasing water from NPPs
nuclear reactors from a scientific view point. Several is regulated to minimize environmental impact. For
countries including Japan and France have continued most of Japanese plants, the temperature of the water
from a NPP to the sea is required not to exceed 7 °C
higher than the inlet of the plant.
The electricity power grid is used not only to
transmit the electricity from NPPs, but also to supply
electricity to the plant for such cases to cool the reactor
core just after the plant shut down. All NPPs in Japan
are connected to more than two different grid systems at
the voltages of 275 kV or 500 kV. For the cases of the
external grid failure caused by earthquake or lightning,
all NPPs in Japan equip emergency diesel generators
and direct current source with battery. Power supply
vehicles were additionally deployed to the Japanese
NPPs after the Fukushima-Daiichi accident.

2. Radiation and radioactivity

2.1 Atoms
Fig. 1 First nuclear power generation for civil use at All matters on the earth are classified into 92
the EBR-I in 1951 [1] atoms, from hydrogen of atomic number 1 to uranium of
atomic number 92, except for artificial elements. Each

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atomic diameter is about 1/10⁸ cm, having an atomic two each escapes from a rather large nucleus. The group
nucleus of 1/10¹² cm. An atomic nucleus consists of of the protons and neutrons two each is called as alpha
mainly protons and neutrons. Proton has positive charge. particle or alpha ray. The alpha particle is in other words
Atomic nucleus also has electrons with negative charge, “nucleus of helium” with atomic number two. With an
which keeps neutrality in an atom. The number of alpha decay, the original nucleus reduces its atomic
protons is equivalent to the atomic number, for example number and mass number two and four, respectively.
hydrogen of atomic number 1 has 1 proton, and uranium, The event of alpha decay is rather big change in the
atomic number 92, with 92 protons. original nucleus and the gamma ray(s), a kind of light
The number of neutrons depends on each atom. with high energy, is also emitted in the stabilizing
Uranium mostly has 141 to 146 neutrons. Every process of the nucleus after the alpha decay.
uranium has 92 protons, but the number of neutrons is The second is beta (or beta plus) decay. The beta
different. That is called isotope. Isotope is distinguished particle is electron or positron. Electron and positron
and called by mass number, the total number of protons have negative and positive electric charges, respectively.
and neutrons. Uranium having 92 protons and 143 The electron or positron is turned over between proton
neutrons is called uranium-235. The atomic number for and neutron inside a nucleus in a stable condition. When
cesium is 55, which means cesium-137 has 55 protons the electron or positron escapes from the nucleus
and 82 neutrons. occasionally, the event is called as beta decay or beta plus
It was very mysterious in the classic physics that decay, and the electron or positron itself is called as beta
hundreds of protons with positive electric charge and ray or beta plus ray, respectively. Although in several
neutrons without charge are bound together in a very cases, for instance strontium 90 and tritium (H-3), only
tiny space with a diameter around 1/10¹² cm resisting the beta ray is released with the beta decay, in most cases of
Coulomb repulsive force. The binding forces is the exact beta decay, gamma ray(s) is also emitted from the
source of nuclear energy and is called as “nuclear force”. decayed nucleus.
The elemental particle meson, which is smaller than Other patterns of decays are spontaneous fission
proton and neutron, provides the nuclear force. The divide an atomic nucleus into two, and electron capture
studies on this field is called as nuclear physics. Hideki takes in electrons from outside nucleus. Internal
Yukawa is one of the famous researchers, who was the conversion is known as the ejection of orbiting electrons
first Japanese winner of the Nobel Prize in physics. Dr. instead of gamma ray. Isomeric transition undergoes in
Yoichiro Nambu, a physicist graduated from a high a stabilization process inside a nucleus, emitting gamma
school in Fukui, was also awarded, and other many rays slowly. Cesium 137 is transformed into metastable
Japanese nuclear physicists have contributed in this barium-137m by beta decay and the barium 137m turns
field. into stable barium 137 in isomeric transition, emitting
off gamma ray.
2.2 Avogadro’s number The alpha, beta, gamma rays and neutron itself are
In English words, names of large number change generally called as radiation. The ability of decay is
every thousand time: million 106, billion 109, trillion 1012, called as radioactivity. When one decay occurs in one
quadrillion 1015, quintillion 1018, sextillion1021, second, the strength of the radioactivity is called as one
septillion 1024… Becquerel, symbolled with Bq.
It is known when a single atom exists in the grams
same as its mass number, numbers of atoms are unique Meanwhile, prediction of the exact timing of decay
regardless of kinds of atoms. The unique number is of one nucleus looking at it is much more difficult than
called as the Avogadro’s number. The value is 602 the forecast of earthquake. But usually we observe a lots
sextillion, i.e. 6.02×1023. of nuclei at the same time because 602 trillions of nuclei
Major carbon atom is carbon 12 which consists of we will look at, even when the 6 cm3 carbon cube
six protons and six neutrons. When you collect 602 described in the Section 2.2 is cut into very tiny pieces
sextillion atoms of carbon 12, the total mass of your and share for 100 million people, almost all Japanese or
collection will be 12 g. Vietnamese population. People easily predict
The volume of the carbon is only 6 cm3 (a cube with statistically how often decay occurs a second among the
1.8 cm edges, like a small loaf of cheese) because the large number of nuclei.
specific weight of carbon is approximately 2g/cm3. In When the very small piece has radioactivity and
such a tiny space, 602 sextillion atoms are, and 84 emits radiation, estimations will be possible to
million (almost the number of Vietnamese population) of determine how often the decay occurs in the piece after
atoms line on the 1.8 cm edge. measurements of radiation. For example, when you
measure 6020 alpha particles from the piece every
2.3 Half-life second, 6020 times of decay occur in a second. The
Isotopes are made up of different number of radioactivity of the piece is 6020 Bq. Supposing the piece
neutrons and a specific number of protons corresponding has 6020 trillion of atoms, the rate of decay , physicist
to an element as previously described. Solidarity of an calls as decay constant, will be evaluated as 6020/6020-
isotope is different from another isotope due to the trillon per second i.e. 10-12 s-1. The decay constant is
difference of balance of protons and neutrons. Protons inherent to nucleus.
and neutrons in the nucleus changes each other like Although the decay constant is a very fundamental
“Prince and the Pauper” written by Mark Twain, and value for physicists, it is not very intuitive. Half-life is
mesons move around to keep the solidarity of the nuclei. often used instead of the decay constant to solve this
Occasionally, the balance for solidarity collapses, and the difficulty. The half-life means the length of time before
nucleus decays. the radioactivity reduces to the half of the original
Nuclei decay in several ways. The first one is the amount (Bq). The half-life of cesium 137 and iodine 131
alpha decay in which a group of protons and neutrons

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are 30 years and 8 days, while the decays constants are other natural environment [5]. ICRP shows 1 Sv of excess
7.3×10-10 s-1 and 1.0×10-6 s-1, respectively. dose with nuclear industry or nuclear accident causes
5% increase of death with cancer through one’s life [6]. In
2.4 Characteristics of radiation the case of 100 mSv, the excess death by the cancer is
Breeze is felt with your cheeks, and visualized 0.5 %. In the case of Japan in 2013, 26% of male and 16%
when rustling leaves. Air consists of the molecule- of female die caused by cancer [7]. The 0.5% excess death
particles of oxygen and nitrogen. The particles hit your by cancer with 100 mSv of additional dose would not be
cheeks, and leaves when the breeze is felt or visualized. very large.
Alpha and beta rays have the same characters as Cancer promoting risk, which is different from
particles of the air and come into collision with the fatal risk with cancer, is 1.5 times higher with 1 Sv
oxygen and nitrogen in the air. The moving distance of excess dose than usual and 1.05 times higher with 100
alpha and beta rays are up to 4-5 cm and 5-6 m in the air, mSv excess dose. Smokers has 1.6 times higher cancer
respectively. Gamma rays move forward as light, not like promoting risk than non-smokers [8]. This concludes the
laser but getting pale with distance like torch light. They excess radiation dose in the range of 100 – 1000 mSv has
can pass through human bodies or wood like X-rays, but similar risks to the usual life activities.
can’t pass through thick concrete or iron. The description above related to the risk with
Cesium-137 released with the Fukushima-Daiichi cancer, because recent radiation risk is limited in the
accident floated in the air, and finally fell down on the cancer risk triggered with low dose. In the beginning era
ground. The cesium-137 emits beta and gamma rays of radiation utilization, however, workers sometimes
with its decay. To less the effect of the gamma ray, it’s caught over 1 Sv of dose at one time, and suffered acute
better to be in a concrete made school building and stay symptoms, nausea, skin redness, and blood cell change.
inside of the classroom away from windows. Parents Dr. Roentgen who discovered the X-ray also caught this
should be careful to the beta rays when children play in type of symptoms. At the accident at the nuclear fuel
sandbox, because they usually play within the flying making facilities in Japan, 1999, two workers were killed
range (5 – 6 m) of the beta ray which had no effect to the with acute irradiation around 7 Sv from the wrong
inside classroom. handling of the uranium solutions in a tank. At present
From the viewpoint of radiation, radiation loses its in Japan, however, the occupational dose at nuclear
energy at the resistance of air. But from the air side, air facilities controlled to lower than 1 mSv/day and 100
absorbs energy from the radiation. One Gray means one mSv for 5years for usual personnel [9, 10] and any acute
joule of radiation energy is absorbed with one kilogram radiation effect on workers is never anticipated.
of air. Heredity effect of radiation is not confirmed by the
Hiroshima-Nagasaki data, and is evaluated with the
2.5 Effect of radiation on human body concept of doubling dose. The doubling dose is an amount
Answering to a tricky question “Which is heavier 1 of dose which accelerates the emerging rate of natural
kilograms of iron or sponge?”, not very few people say mutation. Due to the difficulty of human experiments,
“Iron.”. The reason would be the image of iron is “heavy” the evaluation was conducted comparing the doubling
and when 1 kilogram of iron flies, it looks more dose data from animal experiments and emerging rate of
dangerous than 1 kg of sponge despite both weights are natural mutation on human body. Although the
the same as 1 kilogram. evaluation for 2007 recommendation of ICRP [11], (1) the
A similar image is useful in an explanation on heredity effect is limited only two generations including
radiation. Alpha particle is much heavier, almost 7300 the exposed individual, and (2) recovery from the
times heavier, than beta particle. Alpha ray brings more mutation are newly considered, but the doubling dose for
serious effect on biological cell than beta ray even when human body was kept at 1 Gray [12].(In a gamma ray’s
the energies (Gy) of the rays are same. And one kilogram case, 1 Gray nearly equals to 1 Sv)
of iron is much more dangerous when it hits human body An announcement from a government officer just
at head than leg. When radiation hits bone marrow or after the Fukushima Daiichi accident, “The radiation
pancreas where deadly cancer often develops in, it is levels around the Fukushima area is not in serious
much more serious than when it hits the thyroid gland immediately (in the range of 20 – 100 mSv).” was
or skin where cancer is more easily healed. absolutely correct, but many complains and anxieties
The unit “Sv” (sievelt) represents the radiation arose from media and publics, “Not immediately? Am I
effect on human body. One micro-sievelt per hour (μSv/h), safe in future, too?” A better announcement would be
which is often reported in TV news in Japan just after “You are safe even if you were exposed in the range of 20
the Fukushima Daiichi accident, means people will – 100 mSv at the moment. But the situation with the
receive dose of 1μSv when they stay at the point for 1 accident is still changeable. Please be careful to our
hour. Micro means one millionth and milli means one succeeding information.”
thousandth. If a person stay in the area of 1μSv/h for one
year, he/she will receive 1μSv/h × 8740 h/year = 3. Fission and nuclear reactions
8740μSv/year =8.74 mSv/year. 3.1 Nuclear fission of uranium
How safe when you receive a certain amount of When a nucleus absorbs a neutron flown from
dose is researched in the International Commission on outside, a new nucleus is formed increasing the mass
Radiological Protection (ICRP) evaluating the data of the number by one. The new nucleus is usually less stable
victims of the atomic bombs of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. than original one and easily decays because the balance
The ICRP recommended the standards of dose to protect of the proton and neutron (see Section 2.3) of the new
human health comparing the cancer data of the victims nucleus is not very natural.
and usual residents. In the case of neutron absorption by uranium 235,
Usual people in the world receive 2.4 mSv annually uranium 236 is generated but very quickly broken and
in an average from the space, land surface, food and generates two large fragments i.e. fission products and 2

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– 3 neurons. Cesium 137 (half-life: 30 year), strontium operation. Most fission products absorb neutron in the
90 (28.8 years) and iodine 131 (8 days) are well known core and disturb the reactor operation. Refueling has the
fission products even to the public after the Fukushima meaning to remove these fission products from the core
Daiichi accident because of their high yields with the as well as to supply new fission materials. The fission
fission and rather long half-lifes. The total energy of the products in the fuel are retrieved in reprocessing facility
particles generated from a fission is ca. 200 MeV and disposed as high level waste after appropriate
(200×106 eV). When you compare with the burning solidification process, for instance vitrification. A long
reaction of two molecules of hydrogen with one molecule half-life fission product, iodine 129 (half-life: 1.29×107
of oxygen generation two molecules of water and 6 eV of year) is considered as a target of transmutation by FRs
energy, you realize the hugeness of the fission energy. or ADSs as well as the minor actinides.
When fission occurs two or three neutrons are
generated. If the neutron absorbed by another uranium 3.2 Moderator
235, a chain reaction is started. In the case with much Fast neutrons generated just after a fission have
amount of uranium 235 exists the chain reaction easily energy of more than 10 MeV. A simple calculation tells
occurs. The event with the chain reactions occur in a very the speed equivalents to 14000 km per second. But the
short time called as nuclear explosion, and the state with neutron must be absorbed by nucleus of uranium 235 to
stable chain reaction in a controlled manner is called as trigger fissions, the slower neutron has more advantages
criticality. than fast neutrons. The uranium 235 exists only 0.7 % of
When uranium 238 absorbs a neutron, uranium uranium and most of others are uranium 238 which
239 is generated with the mass number increased by one. hardly occurs fission. For isotopic enrichment of the
The uranium 239 is also unstable and decays with beta uranium 235 requires much amount of energy and very
decay and generates neptunium 239 and then again beta advanced technologies. These are the reasons why the
decays to generate plutonium 239. current nuclear reactors use slowed i.e. moderated
Plutonium 239 is also used as a nuclear fuel due to neutrons. In usual NPPs neutrons are moderated to the
the easiness of fission with fast or rather slow neutrons. speed of usual thermal movement of air particles around
In the midstream of the slow down process of neutron, 0.025 eV (almost 2200m/s). The moderated neutron is
however, plutonium 239 tends to absorb the neutron in called as “thermal neutron”.
medium speed and changes into degraded plutonium: Moderation process of neutrons is conceptually
plutonium 240, plutonium 241 which hardly occur similar to the collision of two billiard balls. After the ball-
fission and are undesirable material in the nuclear 1 hits the exact center of the other ball-2, the ball-1 stops
reactor. Although americium 241 generated after the at the collided position and ball-2 moves on to the same
beta decay of plutonium 241 is a very useful radioisotope direction at the same speed as the ball-1 moved. As the
being used as a source of alpha rays or neutron source ball-1 hits the ball-2 off-center, they move in a reverse V-
when combined with beryllium, it works as a neutron shape from the collision point but also in this case, the
absorber in the reactor and hinders the reactor operation. speed of the ball-1 reduces.
In the case that ball-2 is made of lead and ball-1 is
usual, even when the ball-1 hit the exact center of the
ball-2, the ball-2 hardly moves, and ball-1 is reflected,
but the speed of the ball-1 slightly reduces. When the
ball-1 hit the off-center of the ball-2, ball-2 hardly moves
and the speed of the ball-1 only slightly changes.
Since the mass of hydrogen nucleus i.e. proton is
almost equal to neutron, the collision of neutron with
hydrogen nucleus resembles to that of the same weight
billiard balls. Hydrogen is the most effective moderator
of neutrons and water which contains much hydrogen is
also a very good moderator. But hydrogen also has
possibility to absorb and waste the neutrons in the core
changing into deuterium composed of proton and
neutron. In the case of reactors which use natural
uranium as its fuel, deuterium oxide i.e. heavy water or
Fig. 3 Fission of U-235 and generation of Pu and graphite is used as moderator avoiding the loss of
minor actinides [13] neutrons with hydrogen.
The group of the elements with larger atomic
number than 89, actinium, excepting uranium and 3.3 Nuclear reactions in fast reactor
plutonium is called as minor actinides. Minor actinides Highly-enriched uranium-235 or plutonium-239 is
are generated from decays of the degraded plutonium. required to continue the fission chain reactions because
The minor actinides work as obstacles of reactor the fission probability is smaller with fast neutrons than
operation, similarly with fission products, these species thermal ones. But fission with fast neutron produces
must be removed from the reactor in the process of more neutrons than the fission with thermal neutron
refueling. Neptunium 237 (half life: 2.41 million year), and is more advantageous to produce plutonium 239
americium 241(431 year) and curium 245 (8500 year) are from uranium 238 using the excess neutrons. Fast
considered as major objective to burn in the fast reactors neutron is also useful to burn minor actinide or long life
or the accelerator driven system (ADS) for solving an fission product which waste neutrons in the process of
ultimate issue of the nuclear energy [14]. moderation. The reactor uses fast neutrons without
In reactor cores, most of elements lighter than moderation is called as “fast reactor” and when it
uranium are generated as fission product with NPP

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produces more plutonium than burned plutonium or The electric output was 68MWe [15] for the first core
uranium is called as “fast breeder reactor”. configuration. As the fully commercialized 2-loop type
In the fast reactors, no moderator is required but PWR, the Yankee Rowe nuclear power station (175MWe)
to remove the higher heat from the core, liquid metal for started power generation in August 1960 [16]. As for
instance liquid sodium or lead is often used as reactor BWRs, Dresden Unit 1 was firstly operated in October
coolant with its higher thermal conductivity. 1959. The Japanese first PWR is the Mihama Unit 1
which connected to the grid in 1970. Twenty four PWR
4. PWR plant plants had been built and operated in Japan alternating
4.1 Brief introduction its specifications as listed in Table 1 [17, 18].
The Shippingport nuclear power station started its A schematic diagram of the PWR NPP is illustrated
operation in 1957 as the first PWR in the world for in Fig. 4. Configuration and function of each part are
peaceful use. The core used highly enriched uranium 235 described below.
and is also used for a kind of research and development.

Table 1 Specifications of PWR plants in Japan [17, 18]

100-400 500-600 800-900 1100-1200 1600
Class of plant
MW MW MW MW MW
Mihama - Mihama- Takaham Tsuruga-
Example of Plant Sendai-1 Ohi-1 APWR (EPR)
1 2 a-1 2
Beginnings of 1967/ 1968/ 1970/ 1979/ 1972/ 1982/ (2005)/
-/-
Construction/Operation. 1970 1972 1974 1984 1979 1987 (2012)
Electric output (MW) 340 500 826 890 1175 1160 1530 1600

Type of fuel assembly 14×14 14×14 15×15 17×17 17×17 17×17 17×17 17×17

Number of fuel assemblies in core 121 121 157 157 193 193

Average power density (kW/L) 71 84 92 100 105 105 103 -

Flowrate of primary cooling pump
4.42 5.62 5.62 5.62 5.62 5.62 6.06 7.87
(m3/s)
Heat transfer area of SG (m2) 3,332 4,128 4,785 4,785 4,785 4,785 6,039 7,960

Number of loops 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 4
Steel
Type of reactor container vessel Steel vessel Steel vessel Steel vessel Steel vessel PCCV*2 PCCV*2 PCCV*2
vessel*1
*1: with ice condenser
*2: PCCV: Pre-stressed concrete container vessel

Fig. 4 Overview of a PWR plant [19]

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of stopping ones. The control rods of PWRs are made up

4.2 Reactor core with silver–indium-cadmium alloy in stainless tubes [23].
4.2.1 Nuclear fuel The materials inside the control rod is designed not to
Almost all current NPPs in the world use fuel pellet disturb the movement of the rods with swelling due to
made from sintered uranium oxide. As for current PWRs the neutron absorption.
in Japan, the isotopic content of U-235 is around 5%. The
pellet is shaped small cylinder, almost 1cm each in
diameter and height. Several hundreds of pellets are
inserted into a fuel clad made from zirconium alloy tube
about 4m length. The 17×17 type fuel assembly consists
of 157 fuel pins as shown in Figure 5. A total length of
the fuel assembly is ca. 4.2m and the weight ca. 700 kg
[20].

Fig. 6 Insertion of control rod into the fuel assembly of

PWR [24]

Localized peaking of the power tends to appear in

the vicinity of the control rod due to the deformation of
neutron distribution in the reactor core. In another view
of a longer time range of the plant operation, at the
beginning of the core (BOC), neutrons must be forcibly
absorbed because the amount of neutron absorbing
Fig. 5 Fuel assembly (17×17) of PWR [21]
fission products are still few and fuels keep much
The fuel pellet holds fission products (FPs) inside, amount of fission materials. On the contrary, at the end
which are generated with plant operation. The of the core (EOC), neutrons should be kept in the core
temperature of the pellet center is regulated lower than because of the much amount of neutron absorbing fission
1900˚C [22] to keep this FP holding ability. Pellets are materials and little amount of fission materials in the
often assimilated to the first barrier for the FPs towards burned fuel. Using the control rods alone is not suitable
the public environment, and the fuel clad tubes second. to avoid the local peaking of the reactor power previously
The fuel clad of PWRs is made from zirconium alloy described and to compensate the long-time-change of the
which hardly absorbs neutron in the core. Regarding to reactivity of the core from the view point of saving the
the US origin PWRs, Zircaloy-4 is used with 1.5% of tin, control rods with limited lifetime. Chemical sim is used
0.15% iron, 0.1 % chromium, and balance zirconium. The to solve these difficulties.
melting temperature of the materials are: uranium Chemical sim is agents added to the primary
dioxide ca. 2850˚C, and zirconium alloy ca. 1850˚C. cooling water of PWRs which easily absorb neutrons.
Typical one is boric acid. The concentration of the boric
4.2.2 Control rods, chemical sim, and burnable acid in the primary coolant is high in BOC and low in
poison EOC. The boric acid is removed with operating plant by
A lot of neutrons with various speeds move in the the ion exchange resins in the chemical-volume control
reactor core. The neutrons arise a variety of phenomena system (CVCS) after mentioned. Gadolinium in the fuel
in the core: triggering nuclear fission and generating pellet is also used, as so-called “burnable poison”, for the
different neutrons, being absorbed by another material same purposes to absorb much amount of neutrons in the
for instance, fission products, structure materials of the BOC with highly enriched uranium fuels for the longer
core, and leaking out from the core region. When the operation of NPPs because the solubility of the boric acid
neutrons keep a certain number in the core, the reactor to the water is limited. The gadolinium burns off with
is stably operated. The reactor power is changed with plant operation and compensates the concentration
increasing/decreasing the number of neutrons in the core. change of reducing fissile materials and increasing
To adjust the numbers of neutron in the PWR core, fission products in the fuel.
insertion/withdrawal of the control rods, and
adding/removing chemical sim are conducted. 4.2.3 Reactor vessel
The shape of the control rods of PWRs is illustrated The reactor vessel (RV) of PWR and the reactor
in Fig. 6. The control rods are inserted into or withdrew pressure vessel (RPV) of BWR accommodate nuclear
from the fuel assembly. The vertical positions of the fuels and control rods, which generates nuclear reactions.
control rods are adjusted by the control rod driving The heat generated from the nuclear fission or decay of
mechanisms (CRDs) installed at the reactor vessel head. the fission products are removed by the primary cooling
In the case of emergency, control rods are released from water with high flowrate.
CRDs, drop down into the fuel assemblies within a few The reactor vessel of the PWR is pressurized
seconds, and stop the reactor. Control rods are classified around 16MPa to avoid the boiling of the primary coolant
into two types: a few power-adjusting rods and a number while the operating pressure of the RPV of BWR is

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around 7MPa. Design specifications of RV and RPV are The primary cooling system formulate the third barrier
listed in Table 1 together with the reactor vessel of against fission products in the core toward the
Monju which uses liquid sodium as its primary coolant. surrounding environment.
The materials of the RV and RPV are forged iron
containing manganese, nickel and molybdenum ca. 1%
each, namely low alloy steel A533B.

Table 1 Specifications of reactor vessel [25]

PWR BWR Monju
Reactor Outlet
ca. 325℃ ca. 286℃ ca. 529℃
Temp.
Temp. difference of
ca. 35℃ ca. 70℃ ca. 132℃
inlet/outlet of RV
Operating pressure ca. 16MPa ca. 7MPa < 1MPa
Wall thickness of ca. ca.
ca. 50mm
RV 220mm 160mm

The reactor vessel of PWR is composed of a lower

vessel and a vessel head which are connected with a
number of thick bolts, namely stud bolts. Lower
internals inserted in the lower vessel accommodates
nuclear fuel assemblies and control rods. Just above the
lower internals, upper internals with guide tubes for
control rods and thermocouples to measure the Fig. 8 Primary cooling system of 3-loop type PWR [28]
temperature at the outlet of the core. The vessel head
Depending on the output of the plant, the primary
equips the control rod driving mechanisms to adjust the
cooling systems of PWRs consist of 2 – 4 loops as
positions of the control rods.
illustrated in Fig. 9. The major function of the primary
cooling system are to cool the fuel assemblies with
circulated cooling water at high flowrate and to transfer
the heat to the secondary cooling system via steam
generators. The reactor vessel is placed lower position
than steam generators to enable the natural convection
in the case of the loss of electric power accident.

Fig. 7 Assembling/de-assembling of RV [26]

Dimensions of the reactor vessels depend on the

number of loops. A typical sizes are listed in Table 2. The
height of the vessel means the length from the top of the
dome of the vessel head to the bottom of the outer surface Fig. 9 Configurations of primary cooling system of
of the lower vessel. PWRs [29]

Table 2 Typical dimensions of RV [27]

Details of the components in the primary cooling
2 Loop 3 Loop 4 Loop APWR
system are described below.
ca. ca. ca. ca.
Height
11.5m 12.4m 12.9m 13.6m 4.4.1 Steam generator (SG)
Inner Steam generators (SGs) in Japan shape the vertical
ca. 3.4m ca. 4.0m ca. 4.4m ca. 5.2m
diameter heat exchanger as shown in Fig. 10. Primary cooling
Number of water from the reactor vessel in high temperature is
2 3 4 4
inlet nozzle introduced to the bottom part of the SG via so-called “hot
Number of leg” and the reactor coolant inlet nozzle of the SG. The
2 3 4 4
outlet nozzle primary coolant flows inside of the U-shaped heat
transport tube, transfers its heat to secondary cooling
water, and flows out from the SG via reactor cooling
4.4 Primary cooling system water outlet nozzle set at the bottom part of the SG. The
The primary cooling system of the PWR are mainly pipe connected at the outlet nozzle called as “cross over
composed from a reactor vessel (RV), reactor coolant leg” feeds the primary cooling water to the reactor
pumps (RCPs) , steam generators (SGs), a pressurizer coolant pump (RCP).
(PRZ), and connecting pipes as shown in Fig. 8. All Secondary cooling water from the turbine-feed-
components of the primary cooling system are water system is introduced at the rather higher position
accommodated in the reactor containment vessel (CV).

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of the middle part of SG shell, guided down to the bottom The shaft of the impeller at the pump part is
part through the annular space formed with the SG shell connected to the rotating shaft of the motor above.
and the outer cover of the heat transport tubes being Assuring the high speed rotation of RCP without leakage
mixed with the circulation water in the SG, turned of primary water and isolation of the motor from the
upward, then heated by the primary water via the U- pump operated at the high-temperature and high
shaped heat transport tubes. The steam generated at the pressure environment, seal water injection/drainage
heat transport tubes is removed its water drop and system and thermal isolation devices are equipped in the
moisture at the steam separator and moisture separator RCP.
at the upper part of the SG, and guided to the turbine
from the top of the SG. 4.4.3 Pressurizer
Pressurizer (PRZ) is a vertical tank connected with
the hot leg via the pressurizer surge tube set at the
bottom of the tank. For the recent advanced type PWRs,
the dimensions are: outer diameter 2.7 m, height 16 m
and volume 65m3 [34]. In the plant operation period, ca.
55% of the volume is filled with water. Electric heaters
are inserted to the water area from the bottom of the
tank. To decrease the temperature and pressure in the
pressurizer, rather low temperature water is introduced
to the water phase. Only one pressurizer is installed
regardless of the number of loops.
Safety valve of the pressurizer has enough capacity
to release steam at high flowrate to reservoir tank in the
occasion such as load loss. To avoid the frequent
activation of the large safety valve, a smaller relief valve
connected to the reservoirs is also equipped and releases
Fig. 10 Steam generator (Type 70F-1) [30, 31] the pressure when the pressurizer is over pressured in
normal operation.
4.4.2 Reactor coolant pump 4.5 Turbine system
Reactor coolant pump (RCP) is a significantly 4.5.1 Turbine and generator
important equipment to circulate the primary cooling The turbine and generator system for 1.2 GWe
water in the core. The primary cooling water from the class PWR are composed of one high pressure turbine,
SG via the cross over leg is fed to the suction nozzle of two low pressure turbines and a generator which are
the RCP set at the bottom, pressurized at the impeller connected on the same rotating axis as shown in Fig. 12.
near the bottom, and sent to the reactor vessel via so- The pressure of the saturated steam supplied from the
called “cold leg”. SGs at the inlet of the high pressure turbine is ca. 5.5 –
7.5 MPa.

Fig. 11 Reactor coolant pump [32] Fig. 12 Turbine and generator of a 1200 MWe PWR
[35]
Specifications of the RCP vary with the types
according to the flowrate and frequency of the electric The steam condition of the most modern thermal
power source. The specification of Type MA25S, designed power plant in Japan is pressure around 24.5 MPa and
for Units 3&4 of Tsuruga NPP are listed below [33]: temperature around 600 °C [36]. Because of the
differences, the steam volume of the PWR is 4 – 5 times
 Maximum pressure 17.16 MPaG larger than the thermal plant at the inlet of the turbine,
 Maximum temperature 343 °C which requires larger size of turbine equipment for
 Rated suction pressure 15.41 MPaG PWRs. Considering the increase of the stress on the
 Rated flowrate 25 800 m3/h components of the turbine, 1500 rpm for 50 Hz or 1800
 Rated pump head 92.0 m rpm for 60Hz is adopted for NPPs while thermal plants
 Feeding flowrate of seal water 1.8 m3/h use 3000 or 3600 rpm.
 Flowrate of heat shield water 9.1 m3/h The steam after rotating the high pressure turbine
 Height (Motor + Pump) ca. 8.5 m (HPT) contains fine water drops which erode the turbine
 Weight ca. 110 ton blades of the low pressure turbine (LPT) and causes the
low efficiency of the turbine system. Moisture separator
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and steam drier is installed between the high and low When the heat transport tube failed with corrosion
pressure turbines. The steam exhausted from the high and/or erosion, sea water easily intrudes to the
pressure turbine is introduced to these equipment and condensate and brings chloride ion which causes the
dried and reheated by the main steam or extracted stress corrosion cracking of the SG heat transport tubes.
steam from the midstream of the high pressure turbine. To avoid this problem, titanium tubes with high
resistivity against corrosion/erosion are used for the heat
4.5.2 Condensate/Feedwater system transport tubes of the main condenser. The water
The steam worked at the turbine is condensed at chemistry of the condensate is continuously monitored
the main condenser. The environment in the main and the condensate is purified with resin bed.
condenser is nearly vacuum. Appropriate chemicals are added to the condensate to
protect the SG tubes [38].
The condensate is heated at the low pressure
heaters with the extracted steam from the midstream of
the turbines, de-gassed at deaerators, heated again at
the high pressure heaters, and flows into the SG as the
feedwater.

4.6 Engineered safety system

4.6.1 Emergency core cooling system
The major function of the emergency core cooling
system (ECCS) of the PWRs is to cool the reactor core
with injecting boron-containing water in the refueling
water-pit into the core in the case of loss of coolant
accident (LOCA) due to the failure of the primary cooling
system. The ECCS of the advanced PWRs consists of
high pressure coolant injection (HPCI) system and the
accumulated pressure coolant injection (APCI) system
Fig. 13 Condensate/feedwater system of PWR [37] which is integrated from the past APCI and the low
In the Japanese case, all NPPs use sea water as the pressure injection (LPCI) systems. [39] The new APCI and
coolant for the main condenser. The sea water flows HPCI are called as the safety injection system (SIS)
inside of the heat transport tubes of the main condenser. which is illustrated in Fig. 14.

Fig. 14 Emergency core cooling system of APWR [39]

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CV to avoid the seismic difficulty for steel CV with the

4.6.1 (1) HPCI system height over 100 m if the steel CV is applied. The
The HPCI system of the advanced PWR injects maximum pressure are ca. 0.1 and 0.4 MPa for steel and
boron-contained water into the core via SIS injection pre-stressed concrete CVs, respectively. Thickness of the
nozzle of the reactor vessel (RV) and down comer of the pre-stressed concrete CV of the Unit 3 and 4 of the Ohi
RV from the refueling water pit installed inside the NPP is approximately 1.3m [45,46].
reactor containment vessel. The SIS pumps are designed
to satisfy the “Guideline for the performance evaluation 4.6.3 Containment vessel spray system
of the ECCS of the light water cooled power reactors [40]” The pressure and temperature of the CV increase
to keep the temperature of the fuel clad surface lower with LOCA when the primary cooling water splashes
than 1200 °C, in any LOCA together with the APCI into the CV and vaporizes. The containment vessel spray
system. system (CVSS) is installed to cool the CV. Cooling water
The APWRs equips four series of HPCIs with 50% is splashed from the nozzles of spray rings set at the top
capacity each, while the conventional PWRs with two of the CV [47].
series of HPCIs of 100%-capacity each. The refueling The spraying water is supplied from the refueling
water pit of the APWRs is installed in the reactor water pit at the bottom of the CV which contains boric
containment vessel, while the conventional type in the acid. Small amount of caustic soda is also added to the
neighboring building. This improved the safety spraying water to accelerate the absorption of
reliability saving the operating action to change the radioactive iodine [48].
water reservoirs [41].
4.6.4 Air purification system for installation area
4.6.1 (2) APCI system of safety equipment
APCI injects pressurized boron containing water Cooling of the reactor core after stabilizing of
with accumulated gas pressure of nitrogen into the core LOCA is conducted with the circulation of accumulated
when LOCA occurs. The tanks of APCI are directly water at the bottom of the CV containing rather high
connected to each cold leg of the primary cooling loop. radio activity. The water is circulated by the pumps of
The water is injected to the core via the sound loops SIS or CVSS installed at the outside CV. Special air
without failure. The pressure of the APCI tank is kept purification system for installation area of safety
around 4.4MPa. The water is automatically injected to equipment is installed to treat the leaked radioactivity
the core when the pressure of the core decreases lower from the pumps without leak-tight shaft sealing
than the pressure of the APCI tanks [42]. mechanism. The filters of the air purification system are
designed to remove over 95% and 99% of iodine and dust,
4.6.2 Containment vessel respectively. Some plants integrate the air purification
Containment vessel (CV) is the fourth and system with the annulus air purification system [49].
practically final barrier against the fission products in
the core toward the public environment. The fifth barrier 4.6.5 Annulus air purification system
is the reactor building (RB) itself. The role of the fifth The radioactivity leaked into the CV has a
barrier is rather supplemental to enhance the radiation probability to leak out from the CV through the gaps of
shield from the direct radiation from the core and the pipes and other gates which connect inside and
recover the leaked radioactivity from the CV. outside of the CV. Annulus is a space to capture this kind
The CV must keep the increased pressure inside of radioactivity. The air in the annulus is ventilated by
and endure the higher temperature when the failure of the “annuls air purification system” with the filtering
the primary cooling system occurs. The CV is able to cool efficiencies of over 95% and 99% for radioactive iodine
the core even in the isolated condition without and dust, respectively [50].
connection from other buildings. After the accident at
the Fukushima Daiichi NPP, filter vent system is 4.7 Reactor auxiliary system
required to release the over pressured gas in the CV to 4.7.1 Chemical and volume control system
the environment after filtering [43]. Chemical and volume control system (CVCS)
controls the water chemistry and volume of the primary
coolant.
The water level of the pressurizer is controlled with
flowrates of continuous extraction from the inlet of the
RCP (i.e. cross over leg) and feed from the charging pump
of CVCS set outside the CV. The extraction flowrate is
changed with the number of de-pressuring orifice in use
installed in the CV.
In the start-up or shut-down periods of the plant,
the low pressure in the primary cooling system causes
lack of extraction flowrate and increase of coolant
volume due to the imbalance with injected seal water to
the RCPs. The lack of the extraction flowrate is
compensated with the drainage through extra coolant
Fig. 15 Containment vessel of PWR [44] extraction coolers connected to the RCPs. The effluent is
drained to a tank outside the CV in the CVCS or a
Steel CV is used for the 2 loop or 3 loop type PWR primary coolant drain tank in the CV.
in Japan as illustrated in Fig. 15. In the cases of the 4- The water chemistry of the primary coolant is
loop plant, pre-stressed concrete (PCCV) is used for the controlled to adjust concentrations of boric acid for

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reactivity control and hydrogen and lithium for corrosion 4.7.4 Sea water system
control as well as to remove impurities mainly from the Sea water system (SWS) supplies sea water to the
metal surface of the structural components which heat exchangers of CCWS, emergency diesel generators,
dissolute very slight amount of metal ions: iron, nickel, and compressors of ventilation systems for their cooling.
chromium, cobalt etc. The slight amount of metal ions The SWS consists of two independent systems to assure
are closely related to the radiation exposure of workers the actions in emergency. Each system has two sea water
during maintenance periods. pumps. The pumps of the SWS are smaller than the sea
Hydrogen controls radiolysis of water in the reactor water pumps for the main condenser, but their role is
core and reduces oxygen in the primary coolant which very important to release the core heat to the sea in case
causes general corrosion and stress corrosion cracking of emergency [54].
(SCC) of the structural materials. Hydrogen is added
from the CVCS tank filled with hydrogen gas in its cover 4.8 Radioactive waste treatment system
gas area. Lithium in the primary coolant is controlled to Radioactive waste of NPPs in gaseous, liquid, solid
adjust the pH value in the range of 7.3±0.1. states is released to the environment or stored in the
To reduce the oxygen concentration in the primary NPP sites.
coolant, hydrazine is used only in the start-up period of
the plant because the hydrazine is easily decomposed in 4.8.1 Gaseous waste treatment system
the high temperature and high radiation-dose conditions Nitrogen is used for the cover gas of coolant drain
[51]. tanks to reduce the corrosion of the primary cooling
system with oxygen intrusion. Hydrogen is also filled for
4.7.2 Residual heat removal system the CVCS tanks to add the hydrogen into the primary
Even after the reactor shut down with complete coolant. Krypton 85 (half life: 10.76 y) and xenon 133
insertion of control rods, decays of the fission products in (half life: 5.27 day) are generated in the primary water
the fuels still continue, and the heat with the decay in the same manner as other fission products from the
equivalents to approximately 1% of the full plant fission of uranium exists in the structure materials
operation. This heat is enough to cause the melting of including fuel clad. The rare gas, krypton and the xenon
the reactor core well-known as the Fukushima Daiichi transfer into the cover gases of nitrogen and hydrogen
accidents. Residual heat removal system (RHR) is because the rare gas are not removed by ion exchange
operated to remove the decay heat and residual heat of resins even if they slightly dissolved into water phase [55].
the plant. The heat is not enough to operate the turbine The molecule sizes of the xenon and krypton are
and generators. rather lager than air. When the gases flow in the active
The heat exchangers and pumps of RHR system charcoal bed cooled deeply by liquid nitrogen, the gases
are co-used with the CVSS described in the Section 4.6.3. are more easily trapped by the charcoal than other gases.
When the equipment are used as the RHR system, the This causes the longer retention time of the xenon and
primary coolant is taken from the inlet of the SG, i.e. hot krypton in the charcoal bed than other gasses, and the
leg, circulated through the pumps and heat exchangers, more effective activity reduction of xenon and krypton
and returned back to the outlet of RCPs, i.e. cold leg. with radioactive decay. The rare-gas hold-up system is
The RHR system is designed to have the capacity installed to reduce the airborne activity to the
to reduce the temperature of the primary coolant to environment using this principle.
lower than 60°C no later than 20 hours of reactor shut The volumes of the waste nitrogen and hydrogen
down removing the decay heat of the core and other are much smaller than ventilated air from buildings of
remaining heat. The RHR system is also used to fill up the plant. The waste gas from the rare-gas hold-up
the refueling cavity with the stored water in the system is mixed with the ventilation air and released
refueling water pit for refueling and to drain the water from the stack. The gas in the stack is continuously
in the cavity to the pit after refueling [52]. monitored with radiation detectors as well as sampled
for evaluation of airborne release of radioactivity in the
4.7.3 Component cooling water system forms of dust and iodine. The amount of airborne
Component cooling water system (CCWS) supplies activities are evaluated, recorded and reported
coolant for heat exchangers of the CVSS/RHR system periodically.
and other safety guard systems. The CCWS plays a very
important role in emergency to transfer the core heat to 4.8.2 Liquid waste treatment system
the sea as the ultimate heat sink. A number of key Fission products (FPs) are slightly contained in the
components of the NPP, the RCPs, SIS pumps, primary coolant in usual plant operation generated from
compressors for control air, non-generative heat the impurity uranium of the structural materials as
exchangers of CVSS, ventilation system of the CV, described in the previous section. When pin holes or hair-
radioactive waste treatment system and the pumps of cracks occur on the fuel clad, the concentration of iodine
the CCWS itself, are also supplied their coolant from the 131 increases in the primary coolant.
CCWS. The CCWS is designed to have the dual The major radioactive nuclides in the primary
configuration and is used in a separated manner if coolant, however, are cobalt 58, cobalt 60, manganese 54,
necessary to escape from the plant shutdown caused by iron 59 and chromium 51. The species are called as
the single failure of the CCWS [53]. corrosion products (CPs) which generated from the
The sea water flows inside the tubes and the CCWS activation of dissolved metals of structure materials
coolant in the shell side of the heat exchangers of the with the neutrons in the core.
CCWS. Corrosion inhibitors are added to the CCWS Liquid waste is treated in three different major
coolant. ways of equipment drain, floor drain, and laundry drain
depending on their sources.

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The equipment drain generated from discharged are solidified with cement and treated as homogeneous
water from tanks and equipment contains rather high solid waste.
radioactivity than the others. The water chemistry of the Metal waste generated in modification or
equipment drain is purer than the others. The maintenance of the plant are usually contaminated with
equipment drain usually directly treated by waste the radioactive materials or sometimes radioactive by
evaporator/concentrator. The distillated water is treated itself after irradiation with neutrons. These metal waste
again by ion exchange resin beds and released to the are usually compressed with compacter, solidified with
environment. Concentrated waste water is treated as cement, drummed and treated as the heterogeneous
solid waste after solidified with cement or other solid waste. The packages of 200L drums or steel pallets
solidification processes. of approx. 1m3 are used for storage.
The floor drain is generated with maintenance The packages of the solid waste are stored in
work or leaked water from the equipment. Cleaning radiation-controlled warehouse and shipped to different
water of the contaminated equipment is also included. solid waste disposal site depending on its radioactivity.
Filtering process are required before the treatment with
the evaporator/concentrator treatment. 4.9 Fuel handling system
The laundry drain is the most difficult to be treated Workers cannot access the spent fuel without
despite the radioactivity is the lowest in the three kinds shield because the spent fuel contains much amount of
of the liquid waste, because it contains soap, fibers and radioactivity which causes high radiation dose rate and
other trashes which form bubbles and choke filters easily. heat. The upper core structure has very high dose rate
Special devices, for instance charcoal dispersed with strong gamma-ray emitting cobalt 60 (half life: 5.3
concentrator, is required to remove the radioactivity year) and other nuclides generated from the neutron
from the laundry drain. irradiation of the stainless steel composed of iron, nickel,
All treated liquid waste is collected a tank for chromium, and cobalt as impurity. This is also difficult
sampling, measurement of radioactivity, retreat if to be accessed without shield.
necessary, and then released to the sea. The spent fuel and upper core structure are,
therefore, handled under water with shielding and
4.8.3 Solid waste treatment system cooling abilities. Water is translucent and its shielding
The concentrated water of the ability of 1 m depth against gamma rays equivalents 10
evaporator/concentrator, spent ion exchange resins, cm of lead. When the depth is kept over 4 m, even spent
filtering materials ashes from the incinerator of waste fuel highly irradiated is handled by workers observing
the movement.

Fig, 16 Exchange scheme of PWR fuel [56]

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For refueling, the refueling cavity in the CV, which bus, is also equipped preparing for the failure of the
is usually dry area during the plant operation, is filled main transformer [58].
with boron-containing water. The upper part of the RV is The in-house high voltage bus consists of regular
also covered by the water with this procedure, and all bus for loads of the normal operation and emergency
processes for refueling are conducted under the water. high-voltage bus which supplies electricity for the
Spent fuels are lifted by crane after removing the reactor important equipment to keep the safety of the plant, for
top dome and upper core structure. The spent fuel is instance, the engineered safety systems. The emergency
turned down, moved through the transfer tube bus system is configured with two independent busses
horizontally, turned up in the refueling canal in the which have 100% capacity each to shut down the plant
refueling area, and lifted again vertically and moved to safely.
racks in the spent fuel storage pool.
Spent fuel is cooled in the storage pool and the 4.11.3 Emergency diesel generator
radioactivity also decays. In prior to the transportation The emergency diesel generators in NPP supplies
for destinations outside the NPP site, the spent fuel is electricity for the plant safety when both of the two
loaded into a transportation cask with shielding, air- different outside power grid system are failed. More than
cooling abilities, and very tough structure against two emergency diesel generators with 100% capacity
accidental dropping of the cask. each are connected to the in-house high voltage bus of
Fresh uranium fuel assembly generates very few each NPP.
heat and low radiation dose rate, although the
plutonium containing mixed oxide (MOX) fuel slightly 4.11.4 Direct current power source
generates heat and low radiation dose rate. Fresh fuels Direct current (DC) power source is composed from
for the PWRs are usually carried into the NPP site in two sets of safety-related and another two sets of regular
industrial packages by tracks in Japanese case. The use system. Each system independently accommodates
fresh fuels are stored in a radiation-controlled area of the batteries, chargers, and electricity distribution systems.
NPP and loaded into the reactor core via the refueling The safety-related DC power source supplies electricity
canal and the reverse route of the spent fuel discharge. to the relays, breakers, electro-magnetic valves, and
invertors of safety-related systems as un-interruptible
4.10 Spent fuel power source. The regular DC power source supplies
All spent fuels are transferred to the fuel electricity for the equipment of the turbine-generator
reprocessing facility according to the Japanese nuclear system: invertors and relays, breakers, electro-magnetic
policy which intends to reuse the plutonium as a valves for regular use [59].
domestic energy resource. Another Japanese law
prescribes the high-level radioactive waste is only 4.12 Other important systems
generated in the reprocessing facility. From this reason, This material describes about the knowledge which
no high-level radioactive waste is generated in NPPs. will be useful in the training courses held by the WERC.
The treatment about the spent fuels in NPPs in This is the reason why the other important systems for
Japan is completed when the spent fuels in the cask are NPP operation in more special fields and are only listed
transferred to a reprocessing plant or mid-storage below:
facilities.
A) Instrumentation
4.11 Electricity supply B) Control system
4.11.1 Main transformer and switchyard C) Air-conditioning and ventilation system
The output voltage of the generator depends on D) House boiler
designs, for instance 23,000 V for 3-loop plants and E) Pure water system
30,000 V for APWRs, depending on the design. Main F) Sea water related facility (Intake, Release…)
transformers in the NPPs adjust the voltage for G) Main control room
transmitting for the main power grid operated in 275 kV H) Emergency commanding and operation
or 500 kV in present Japan. Switchyards are constructed system
in NPP sites to manage the inflow and outflow of the I) Communication/transmitting system
electricity. According to the Japanese nuclear regulation, J) Radiation control/management system (plant,
each NPP is connected to more than two different power environment, personnel)
grid system [57]. K) Chemistry control (instrumentation, lab)
L) Personnel admission control system
4.11.2 In-house power system M) Physical protection system
For the equipment in the Japanese NPPs in N) Firefighting system
operation, the electricity from the generator is adjusted O) Spare parts management (Warehouse)
to 6.6 kV with in-house transformer and supplied to the facility
high voltage bus of each plant. In shut-down periods of
plants, electricity from the power grid system is received Acknowledgement
by the main transformer or a staring-up transformer for The author expresses his deep gratitude to Mr.
modern or conventional plant, respectively. The high Shigemitsu Otsuka of the Mitsubishi Heavy Industry,
voltage bus (6.6 kV) is charged by the in-house LTD. Mr. Kuwata of the Ohm-sha and other cooperators
transformer after receiving the electricity via the main who kindly agreed to supply precious information and
or starting-up transformer. Another auxiliary very attractive figures and tables for this material.
transformer, to receive electricity directly from the
outside power grid and charge the in-house high-voltage

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References [25] Mitsuru Uesaka et al., “Nuclear reactor structural

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[10] Article 5 of Pronouncement No.5 of the Science and p.57, Ohm-sha, ISBN978-4-274-20660-3 (2011). In
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[11] The 2007 Recommendations of the International [41] Makoto KANDA et al., “Nuclear plant engineering”,
Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP p.57, Ohm-sha, ISBN978-4-274-20660-3 (2011). in
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[12] Toshiso Kosako, “Safe-ology on Radiation”, p.72, [42] ibid., p.57 (2014).
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[13] Graphical flip-chart of nuclear & energy related 02-04-04-02, (2015). http://www.rist.or.jp/atomica/data
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(07-02-01-02), (2015). in Japanese [45] Makoto KANDA et al., “Nuclear plant engineering”,
[15] Historic Achievement Recognized “Shippingport p.59, ISBN978-4-274-20660-3 (2014). In Japanese
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[16] Yoshiaki Oka, Nuclear Reactor Design. Springer. p. [47] Makoto KANDA et al., “Nuclear plant engineering”,
128. ISBN 978-4-431-54898-0 (2014). p.61, Ohm-sha, ISBN978-4-274-20660-3 (2011). In
[17] Yoshiaki Oka et al., Nuclear reactor design, p.110, Japanese
Ohm-sha, ISBN978-4-274-20892-8 (2010). in Japanese [48] ibid.
[18] Makoto Kanda et al., “Nuclear plant engineering”, [49] ibid., p.63
p.26, Ohm-sha, ISBN978-4-274-20660-3 (2011). in [50] ibid., p.64,65
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[19] Shigemitsu Otsuka (MHI), Features of Nuclear [52] ibid., p.69
Power Plants, p.48, WERC NPS Course (2014). [53] ibid., p.71
[20] Home page, Nuclear Fuel Transport Co. Ltd., [54] ibid., p.73
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[21] Shigemitsu Otsuka (MHI), Features of Nuclear [56] Shigemitsu Otsuka (MHI), Features of Nuclear
Power Plants, WERC NPS Course, p.54 (2014). Power Plants, p.58, WERC NPS Course (2014).
[22] Yoshiaki OKA et al., Nuclear reactor design, p.80, [57] Makoto KANDA et al., “Nuclear plant engineering”,
Ohm-sha, ISBN978-4-274-20892-8 (2010). in Japanese p.81, Ohm-sha, ISBN978-4-274-20660-3 (2011). in
[23] ATOMICA, “Reactor core design of PWRs”, (02-04- Japanese
02-01) (2015). in Japanese [58] ibid., p.83
[24] Shigemitsu Otsuka (MHI), Features of Nuclear [59] ibid.
Power Plants, p.55, WERC NPS Course (2014).

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