1: Structure and Bonding 15-16

1. STRUCTURE AND BONDING

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STATE DESCRIPTION PROPERTIES AND EXPLANATIONS
Particles are in close contact,  High density – the particles are closely packed.
and are arranged in a lattice –  Incompressible – the particles are in close contact, and cannot be
a regularly repeating pattern. forced any closer.
The particles only vibrate, they  Fixed shape – the particles are held in the lattice, and cannot move
can not change position, as around.
they do not have enough
energy to overcome the
strong forces of attraction
SOLID
holding them together.

As the solid is heated, its temperature rises, as the particles gain kinetic energy, and vibrate more
rapidly. When the melting point is reached, the particles have sufficient energy to overcome the forces
of attraction between them sufficiently to move out of their fixed places in the lattice. The temperature
stays constant (at the melting point) until all of the solid has melted, as the heat energy is going into
overcoming the forces of attraction, and not into increasing the kinetic energy of the particles.

Particles are in close contact,  Slightly lower density than solids – the particles are not in a regular
but in no regular pattern. They lattice, so they pack together less efficiently, so there is slightly
are able to move around, but more empty space between them, meaning the same number of
cannot separate fully from particles take up slightly more space.
each other, as they do not  Incompressible – the particles are still in close contact, and cannot
have enough energy to be forced any closer.
overcome completely the  Liquids take the shape of their containers – the particles are free to
forces of attraction holding move around, but cannot spread out indefinitely, as the forces of
LIQUID
them together. attraction between them still hold them together.
As the liquid is heated, its temperature rises, as the particles gain kinetic energy, and move around more
rapidly. When the boiling point is reached, the particles have sufficient energy to overcome completely
the forces of attraction between them, and become fully separated. The temperature stays constant (at
the boiling point) until all of the liquid has boiled, as the heat energy is going into overcoming the forces
of attraction, and not into increasing the kinetic energy of the particles.
Particles are spread far apart,  Low density – the particles are spread far apart.
and in no regular pattern.  Easily compressible – the particles are far apart, and can easily be
They are in rapid, constant, forced closer together.
random motion, as they have  Gases expand to fill their containers – the particles are free to move
sufficient energy to have apart from each other, and in moving randomly will spread as
overcome completely the widely apart as possible.
GAS forces of attraction between
them.
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EVIDENCE

Although atoms and molecules are too small ever to be observed with even the most powerful microscope,
their effects may still be seen under appropriate conditions.

Diffusion

If a small crystal of potassium permanganate is placed in a beaker of water, it begins to dissolve, giving a
purple solution. The purple colour slowly spreads out from the crystal, as the particles (permanganate ions)
move around randomly and spread out through the water molecules. If the solution is then diluted further,
the purple colour becomes paler, as the permanganate ions become spread further apart.

The same effect can be seen if a drop of bromine is placed at the bottom of a covered gas jar. The bromine
evaporates, and the red vapour spreads out to fill the jar, as the bromine molecules diffuse throughout the
molecules in the air. This is much more rapid than diffusion of a coloured solution, since the particles in a
gas are much further apart, and move more rapidly.

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STRUCTURE
All materials have one of two types of structure – giant, or simple molecular. The structure of a substance
describes how the particles are arranged, and should not be confused with its bonding, which describes
the nature of the forces which the atoms together in a compound.

SIMPLE MOLECULAR STRUCTURES

Substances which have a simple molecular structure consist of molecules – discrete, small clusters of two
or more atoms joined together. This typically gives them low melting and boiling points; although there are
strong bonds within the molecules, the forces between the molecules are weak, and do not require much
heat energy to overcome them.

GIANT STRUCTURES

Substances which have a giant structure consist of an unlimited, continuous, 3-dimensional lattice of
particles, with strong bonding throughout the entire structure. This typically gives them high melting and
boiling points, as a lot of heat energy is needed to overcome this strong bonding.

Water – a simple molecular Sodium chloride – a

compound compound with a giant
Strong bonds within structure
the molecules,
holding the H and O
atoms together.
Strong bonding
occurs throughout the
entire structure. The
Weak forces 3D pattern can repeat
between the indefinitely.
molecules
(intermolecular
forces)

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BONDING
There are three different types of bonding which hold together the atoms in substances. All three are the
result of the redistribution of electrons, so it is essential to recall the basic facts of atomic structure in order
to understand bonding.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Atoms consist of a central nucleus, of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons, of equal mass.
The nucleus is orbited by electrons. Atoms have no overall charge, because the total number of electrons
is equal to the total number of protons, which can be found on the periodic table as the atomic number,
usually written at the bottom left of the symbol.

The electrons orbit the nucleus in shells – each shell can hold a certain maximum number of electrons
(2,8,8,2 describes the pattern for the first four shells, up to the element calcium). The number of electrons
in the outermost shell of an element is equal to its group number.

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IONIC BONDING
Ionic bonding occurs in compounds of a metal with a non-metal, as well as ammonium compounds. When
dissolved in water, acids also form ions. The bonding results from the complete transfer of electrons from
one atom to another – usually from a metal to a non-metal. The atoms thereby achieve a full outer shell of
electrons, and so become stable. However, losing or gaining electrons causes the atoms to have an
overall charge – they become ions. This can be represented by a dot-and-cross diagram:

e.g. magnesium chloride

1. Find the formula of the compound:

MgCl2

2. Draw the correct number of each type of atom, as given by the formula, showing their outer shell
electrons only. Use dots for the electrons of one type of atom, and crosses for the other:

Magnesium is in group II, and so the

calcium atom has 2 electrons in its outer
shell.

Chlorine is in group VII, and so the

chlorine atoms have 7 electrons in their
outer shells.

3. Show the transfer of all of the outer electrons from the metal to the outer shell of the non-metal,
such that each metal atom loses all of its outer electrons, and each non-metal atom achieves a full
outer shell of 8 electrons:

Electrons are transferred from the metal,

magnesium, to the non-metal, chlorine, as
shown by the arrows.

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4. Draw the final result, placing the ions in square brackets, and remembering to show the charge on
each ion. Each ion must have a full outer shell of electrons:
Note that the magnesium atom has lost its 2 outer-shell electrons
(from the 4th shell), so the next shell in must be shown (the 3rd
shell), which is full.

Magnesium has lost 2 electrons, so has become a 2+ ion. The

chlorine atoms have each gained an electron to become – ions.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

Remember: METALS IONS ALWAYS FORM POSITIVE IONS.

NON-METALS FORM NEGATIVE IONS - EXCEPT FOR HYDROGEN
(H+) AND AMMONIUM (NH4+) IONS.

The ions formed have opposite charges – positive for the metal, negative for the non-metal. They attract
each other – this is the ionic bonding; the strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
The ions are generally arranged in an ionic lattice – a giant, highly regular structure, placing positive ions
next to negative, and vice versa, to maximise the total attraction, such as in the sodium chloride lattice:

Na+ ion

Cl- ion

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Ionic compounds typically have the following properties:

PROPERTY EXPLANATION

The ionic bonding – ionic compounds have a giant structure, with strong
High melting and boiling points electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions, requiring a lot of
heat energy to overcome.

Strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions makes them

Hard
difficult to break apart.

To reshape a solid, layers of particles must slide past each other. Sliding one
Brittle layer of ions past another places positive ions next to positive ions, and
negative next to negative. The ions repel each other, and the crystal shatters.

Many, though by no means all, ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents,
such as water. Polar solvents consist of molecules with slightly positive and
negative ends. The charged ends of the solvent molecules are attracted to the
Soluble in polar solvents ions in the solid, and can pull them away from the other ions in the lattice and
into solution.
Ionic compounds are insoluble in non-polar solvents, which do not have
charged ends to the molecules, and so cannot attract the ions.

To conduct electricity, a substance must contain free-moving charged

particles. When an ionic compound is solid, the ions are held in place in the
Electrical insulators as solids
lattice – able to vibrate, but not to move around - hence the solid is an
electrical insulator.

When an ionic solid is melted, or dissolved, the ions break free from the
Electrical conductors when lattice, and are able to move around. The presence of free-moving charged
molten or in solution particles enables the liquid or solution to conduct electricity, although the
compound is broken down into elements by the current.

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COMPARISON OF MELTING POINTS

The charge on an ion can be found by applying two simple rules:

 Metal ions, ammonium and hydrogen ions have positive charges. All others have negative charges.
 The size of the charge on an ion is equal to its valency.

The size of the charge on the ions can have a considerable effect on the properties of the ionic compound.
For example, the melting point of magnesium oxide, MgO, is much higher than that of sodium chloride,
NaCl. MgO consists of ions with two units of charge – Mg 2+ and O2- - which therefore attract each other
much more strongly than the singly charged Na + and Cl- ions in NaCl, so much more heat energy is
required to separate them.

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METALLIC BONDING
This is the type of bonding found in all metal elements (and mixtures of metals – alloys).

Each metal atom loses all of its outer shell electrons, thereby becoming a positive ion. These positive
metal ions are closely-packed in a regular 3D pattern – a lattice. The outer shell electrons which they have
lost are ‘delocalised’ – they are free to move throughout the entire metal. It is the electrostatic attraction
between the positive metal ions in the lattice, and the ‘cloud’ of delocalised negative electrons which holds
the metal together – the metallic bonding.

e- e- e-

e-
Regular lattice of positive metal ions.
e-

e- e-
e- e- e- e-
-
e
Delocalised ‘cloud’ of electrons, free
e-
e-
to move between the ions.
e- e- e-
e- e-
e- e- e-
e-
e-

PROPERTY EXPLANATION

Metals have a giant structure, with strong electrostatic attraction

High melting and boiling point,
between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons, requiring large
high tensile strength
amounts of heat energy, or strong forces, to overcome it.

The layers of metal ions can slide easily over each other, allowing the
metal to be deformed. This can happen without disrupting the metallic
Malleable
bonding – the metal still consists of a regular lattice of positive metal
ions, surrounded by a cloud of delocalised electrons.

The cloud of delocalised electrons is free to move throughout the entire

Electrical conductors
metal, allowing an electric current to be passed.

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COVALENT BONDING
Covalent bonding occurs in substances formed only from non-metals – if a metal is present in a compound,
the bonding will be ionic. Covalent bonding occurs when pairs of electrons – one from each atom – are
shared between non-metal atoms.

A COVALENT BOND IS A SHARED PAIR OF ELECTRONS

When the atoms come together, their outer shells overlap. The atoms share pairs of electrons, one from
each atom, so that both atoms can achieve a full outer shell. As with ionic bonding, it is important to
remember that the number of electrons in the outer shell of any atom is equal to the group number of the
element. The strong covalent bond is a result of the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged
protons in the nuclei of the atoms, and the negative electrons pairs shared between them. As with ionic
bonding, covalent bonding can be illustrated in a dot-and-cross diagram:

e.g. oxygen

1. Find the formula of the substance:

O2

2. Draw the correct number of each type of atom, as given by the formula, showing the correct
number of electrons in the outer shell of each:

Oxygen is in group VI, so there are six

electrons in the outer shell of each atom.

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3. To show the bonding in the molecule, consider the valency of each atom – this is the number of
covalent bonds which it must form. Draw a diagram of the molecule representing each bond as
a line between the atoms. Each line in this diagram represents a covalent bond – a pair of
electrons, one from each atom. In the dot-and-cross diagram, this is represented as one dot
Like all elements in group VI,
oxygen has a valency of 2, so
each atom must form 2
covalent bonds, as shown. This
corresponds to two shared
pairs of electrons between the
atoms.
and one cross:

4. Consider how many outer shell electrons each atom had initially. If any atom has outer
electrons which are not accounted for in the bond electrons, they must also be shown, as non-
bonding pairs (also called lone pairs). Every atoms should now have a full outer shell.

Each oxygen atom had 6 outer electrons before

bonding. Two are accounted for in the covalent
bond, leaving 4 electrons (2 pairs) on each oxygen
as non-bonding pairs. Both atoms now have a full
outer shell of 8 electrons.

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EXAMPLES

Hydrogen has a valency of 1, so

H H forms a single covalent bond. The
Hydrogen first shell can only hold 2
electrons, so is full.

+
+
Each chlorine atom needs one
Chlorine Cl Cl Cl Cl more electron to fill its outer shell,

++
+
so they share one electron each.

+
+
Nitrogen has a valency of 3, so
N N forms a triple covalent bond.
Nitrogen Each nitrogen atom has a non-
bonding pair of electrons.

Both atoms have a full outer shell

Hydrogen H Cl – the 3rd shell of chlorine can hold
chloride 8 electrons, but the 1st shell of
hydrogen only holds 2.

Carbon has valency 4, and

Carbon O C O oxygen valency 2. The carbon
dioxide atom forms a double covalent
bond to each oxygen atom.

H H The nitrogen shares one electron

+ each with three hydrogen atoms,
Ammonia + leaving a pair of non-bonded
H + N H H N H
electrons in its outer shell.
++

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The oxygen atom has a
valency of 2, and forms a
single covalent bond to each
Water H O H hydrogen atom. The oxygen
also has 2 non-bonding pairs,
giving 8 electrons in the outer
shell.

H The carbon atom has a

valency of 4, and forms single
bonds to the four hydrogen
Methane H C H
atoms. The carbon atom has
a full outer (2nd) shell of 8
H electrons.

H H
The carbon atoms now share
an electron with each other to
Ethane H C C H form an carbon-carbon bond.
They still have a full outer
shell of 8 electrons.
H H

H H H H Notice that the carbons are

+

sharing two electrons each

+

+ +

Ethene C C C C between them, forming a

double covalent bond
+
+

H H H H between the carbon atoms.

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PROPERTIES

Most covalently bonded compounds have a simple molecular structure – they form small, discrete
molecules, in which the atoms are held together by the covalent bonds.

PROPERTY EXPLANATION

Although the covalent bonds holding the atoms together to form

molecules are very strong, the forces between the molecules are very
Low melting and boiling points weak, and it is these weak intermolecular forces which are broken
when the substance is melted or boiled, requiring little heat energy to
overcome.

To break apart a simple molecular solid, it is not necessary to break the

strong covalent bonds which hold the atoms together to form
Soft
molecules. Only the weak intermolecular forces between the molecules
must be overcome, which requires only a small force.

There are no ions present in covalent compounds, and all electrons are
Electrical insulators localised on particular atoms, or in the covalent bonds, so there are no
free-moving charged particles to carry an electric current.

Because covalent substances do not contain ions, they are generally

Soluble in non-polar solvents more soluble in solvents which are non-polar – solvents made from
molecules which do not have a positive and negative end.

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GIANT COVALENT SUBSTANCES
Not all covalently bonded substances have simple molecular structures. Some form giant structures, in
which each atom is covalently bonded to several others, with this pattern repeating indefinitely to form a
single, giant macromolecule, of unlimited size.
This type of substance is best illustrated using two structural forms (allotropes) of carbon.

DIAMOND

Giant lattice, with each carbon atom forming four strong covalent bonds to four other carbon atoms.

High sublimation temperature – to break down the giant structure requires the strong covalent bonds between the
atoms to be broken, which requires a large amount of heat energy. This results in single carbon atoms with no
bonds between them, so the solid turns directly to a gas.

Hard – to break the structure requires a large number of strong covalent bonds to be broken, which therefore
requires a large force.
Insoluble in all solvents – to dissolve the substance would require the strong covalent bonds between the atoms,
and no solvent is powerful enough to do this.
Electrical insulator – all electrons are localised in covalent bonds, so there are no free-moving charged particles to
carry an electric current.

Uses: coating saw blades and drill bits – its extreme hardness allows it to cut through any substance.

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GRAPHITE

Layer lattice, with each carbon atom forming three covalent bonds to three other carbon atoms, giving
hexagonal layers of atoms.

High sublimation temperature – to break down the giant structure requires the strong covalent bonds between
the atoms to be broken, which requires a large amount of heat energy. This results in single carbon atoms with
no bonds between them, so the solid turns directly to a gas.

Soft – although the covalent bonds within the layers are difficult to break, each layer is held to the next only by
weak intermolecular forces. The layers are therefore easily separated.
Insoluble in all solvents – to dissolve the substance would require the strong covalent bonds between the atoms,
and no solvent is powerful enough to do this.
Electrical conductor – each carbon atom forms only three covalent bonds, so one of the four outer electrons on
each atom is not involved in the bonding. These electrons are delocalised – they are free to move throughout
the structure, and can therefore carry an electric current.
Uses: in lubricating oils, and as pencil ‘lead’ – the weak forces between the hexagonal layers allow the layers to
slide over each other easily, or to rub off onto paper.

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COMMON MISTAKES

Some typical questions on structure and bonding are frequently very badly answered – the following
examples are worth taking particular care to understand and learn:

1. Why do ionic compounds conduct when molten, but not when solid?

Incorrect: When ionic solids are melted, the electrons become free to move around, and are
able to carry an electric current.

Correct: The electrical conductivity of metals is due to free-moving electrons, but in ionic
compounds it is due to free-moving IONS. When molten, or in solution, the ions are
no longer held in place in a lattice, and are free to move and carry an electric
current.

2. Why does water have a much lower melting point that sodium chloride?

Incorrect: The ionic bonding in sodium chloride is strong, but the covalent bonds in water are
weak, so do not require much heat energy to overcome.

Correct: The ions in sodium chloride are held together in a giant structure by strong
electrostatic forces. Water has a simple molecular structure – although the covalent
bonds holding the hydrogen and oxygen atoms together are very strong, these are
not broken on melting – it is the WEAK INTERMOLECULAR FORCES between the
molecules which need to be overcome, and this requires little heat energy.

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SUMMARY

TYPE OF FORMED TYPICAL

STRUCTURE BONDING DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
SUBSTANCE FROM PROPERTIES

Giant lattice of positive metal ions Hard; high melting

held together by strong and boiling points; Gold, copper,
METALLIC Metals Giant Metallic
electrostatic attraction to a ‘sea’ of malleable; electrical steel, silver
delocalised outer-shell electrons. conductors

Compounds
Hard but brittle; high
of metals Giant lattice of alternating positive
melting and boiling Sodium chloride
with non- and negative ions, formed by
points; electrical (salt);
IONIC metals (also Giant Ionic transfer of electrons from a metal
insulators as solids, magnesium
ammonium to a non-metal, and held together
but conductors when oxide
compounds by strong electrostatic attractions.
molten or in solution
and acids).

Small, separate molecules,

Soft; low melting and
consisting of clusters of atoms Water,
boiling points;
SIMPLE held together by strong covalent ammonia,
Non-metals Simple Covalent electrical insulators;
MOLECULAR bonds (shared pairs of electrons), carbon dioxide,
often soluble in non-
but with only weak intermolecular methane, iodine
polar solvents
forces between the molecules.

Sublimes at very high

Giant lattice of atoms held
temperatures; very
together by strong covalent bonds Diamond
hard; electrical
throughout the structure.
insulator; insoluble
GIANT
Non-metals Giant Covalent
COVALENT Layer lattice of atoms held
Sublimes at very high
together by strong covalent bonds,
temperatures; soft;
producing giant molecular layers Graphite
electrical conductor;
attracted to each other by weak
insoluble
intermolecular forces.

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