Thermocouple

It is commonly known that a thermocouple consists of a pair of dissimilar wires

joined at one end. This connecting point is known as a measuring junction, but in
fact, the junction itself doesn't really 'measure' anything. It simply joins the two
wires at one place, and ensures that there can be no electrical potential
difference between the wires at that point. Thus, the sole purpose of the 'junction'
is to establish a starting point from which a thermoelectric voltage can be
developed.

There is a popular, and very misleading, misconception of how a thermocouple

operates. In this erroneous ‘model’, it is imagined that the thermocouple's 'hot'
(measuring) junction somehow functions as an electrical source, and that the
junction itself produces the thermocouple's small signal voltage. This concept is
simply not true. The actual thermoelectric effect is an extended and continuous
one that is distributed along the entire length of the thermocouple conductors.
The process is driven by the temperature differences, or gradients, through which
these conductors pass.

The key point here is that a thermocouple electromotive force (emf), or voltage, is
developed from the measuring junction rather than by that junction. It follows that
throughout the circuit beyond this starting point or junction, the thermocouple
conductors must be electrically insulated from each other, and must remain so
under all operating conditions, so that a useful output signal may be realized.

One helpful way of visualizing a thermocouple is to consider a hypothetical and

greatly idealized application in which there are three temperature zones as
shown in Fig. 1. One zone, where the temperature is being measured, is
uniformly hot. Another, containing the reference junction and instrument
connections, is taken to be at a cooler, and likewise uniform, ambient
temperature. And in between is a zone within which the temperature is assumed
to vary in a linear manner with distance, decreasing smoothly from the hotter to
the cooler temperature.
 FIG. 1  Hypothetical and idealized thermocouple installation.

Figure 2 shows graphically the relationship between temperature and the emf in
each of the thermoelements for the hypothetical thermocouple of Fig. 1.

FIG. 2  Development of a thermocouple emf.

Because of the connection at the measuring junction, there is no electrical

potential difference between the wires at that point. In fact, no emf difference
between the wires can exist anywhere within the uniform, hot zone, because
under the assumed temperature conditions there is no thermal gradient there that
could produce one. For the same reason, no additional change in emf difference
between wires will occur within the uniformly cool, ambient temperature zone.

All thermoelectric activity therefore takes place in the center zone of decreasing
temperature. The two thermocouple wires, or thermoelements, are dissimilar by
design. That is to say, each conductor is made up of chemical elements that
essentially differ from those of the other wire, and the presence of these
dissimilarities will cause each element to respond to external stimuli (in this case,
a temperature change) in a different way.

The electrical potential emf along any wire will change as the local temperature
changes. Thus, a diminishing temperature will result in a reduced emf for both
thermoelements, but the amount of this reduction in one wire will not be the same
as for the other because of their different compositions. The small net difference
in emf change between two dissimilar wires constitutes a thermocouple output
signal. For an appropriately chosen thermocouple pair this emf output can be a
dependable and repeatable function of the temperature difference between the
ends the wires.

Thus we see that when subjected to a temperature gradient, selected wires with
different known thermoelectric properties will produce a useful electrical signal
that varies with the temperature difference in a predictable way. It should be
apparent that if the temperature does not change along a particular length of a
thermoelement pair, then the emf will not change along that length. It also follows
that a temperature difference of any magnitude cannot produce a thermal emf
between two conductors traversing that difference if the conductors are
thermoelectrically identical.

Standard Thermocouple Types

While it is true that any randomly chosen pair of dissimilar wires will produce
some kind of thermal emf when subjected to a temperature difference from end
to end, the emf so produced may be unpredictable and of little use. However,
certain thermoelement combinations have been commercially developed over the
years that have proved to be useful, reproducible, and readily available.

Eight of the most widely used of these combinations have been assigned letter-
designations for ease of reference, and their thermoelectric properties have been
standardized. Among these several standard types, differences will be found in
their useful operating temperature range, their stability in use, their compatibility
with various operating environments, and their cost.

Selection of Thermocouple Type

A primary consideration in choosing which thermocouple type to use in a given

circumstance is the range of temperatures over which the device is to be used.
Some of the other selection factors to be addressed include suitability for the
conditions of use and expected service life.
Listed below are descriptions of the eight letter-designated thermocouple types
arranged in order of increasing upper operational temperature limit.

Base metal types

Type T, Copper (+) vs. Constantan (nickel-45%copper) (). This type is moisture
resistant, very stable, and useful to 370°C (700°F) in air, a temperature limit
imposed primarily by oxidation of the copper element. When used in vacuum or
in reducing or inert atmospheres, operation at somewhat higher temperatures
may be possible. It is also suitable for subzero use down to
-200°C (-370°F), but stock materials are not normally pretested in this range, so
special selection and additional calibration of materials is usually required for
such use. Neither wire is magnetic, but visual identification by metal color is
easy.

Type J, Iron (+) vs. Constantan (nickel-45%copper) (). These thermocouples

are suitable for use in vacuum, air, reducing, or oxidizing atmospheres to 760°C
(1400°F) in the heavier gage sizes. Rapid oxidation of the iron wire at
temperatures above 540°C (1000°F) limits the expected service life of the finer
sized wires. Type J wires of any size should not be used in sulfurous
atmospheres above 540°C (1000°F). Subzero use of this type is limited because
of rusting and embrittlement of the iron conductor. The positive (iron) wire is
strongly magnetic and the negative one is non-magnetic.

Type E, Chromel® (nickel-10%chromium) (+) vs. Constantan (nickel-

45%copper) (). Type E is recommended for use to 900°C (1600°F) in oxidizing or
inert atmospheres. This type is also quite suitable for low temperature work down
to about -230°C (-380°F), and develops the highest output emf of any
standardized type. For subzero work, special selection and testing is usually
required. Type E thermocouples are vulnerable to sulfur attack and should not be
exposed to atmospheres containing this substance. These thermocouples
perform best in clean oxidizing atmospheres. They are not recommended for use
under partially oxidizing conditions, nor when subjected to alternating cycles of
oxidation and reduction, or in vacuum, except for short time periods. The wires of
this type can be difficult to identify because neither one is magnetic and
coloration is similar, but the negative leg appears a little ‘warmer’ in color than
the positive one.
Type K, Chromel® (nickel-10%chromium) (+) vs. Alumel® (nickel-5%aluminum
and silicon) (). Thermocouples of this type are suitable for use in oxidizing or
inert atmospheres at temperatures up to 1260°C (2300F), These thermocouples
are the traditional base-metal choice for high- temperature work. Type K is quite
vulnerable to sulfur attack and should not be exposed to sulfur- containing
atmospheres. These thermocouples perform best in clean oxidizing atmospheres
and, except for short time periods, are not recommended for use under partially
oxidizing conditions, in vacuum, or when subjected to alternating cycles of
oxidation and reduction. Identification of these wires is usually made by magnetic
response. The positive leg is non-magnetic, while the negative one shows a
moderately magnetic response.
®Trademarks of Hoskins Manufacturing Company

Type N, Nicrosil (nickel-14%chromium, silicon) (+) vs. Nisil (nickel-4%silicon,

magnesium) (). This type differs from type K by having silicon in both legs and
containing magnesium in the negative leg. It was developed to be more stable
(exhibit less calibration drift) than type K when used at temperatures above about
1000°C (1800°F). Type N tolerates operation under partial oxidization better than
type K, but should not be used in vacuum or reducing atmospheres. Both type N
wires are similar in color and both are non-magnetic, so identification is usually
made by gently heating the junction and observing the polarity of the resultant
emf.

Noble metal types

The following three letter-designated types are made from the precious metals,
platinum and rhodium, and as a consequence are more costly than the base-
metal types described above. But these thermocouples do operate at higher
temperatures than any of the base-metal types, and it is also possible to recover
a significant portion of their initial cost by reclaiming the used scrap metal.

Type S, Platinum-10%rhodium (+) vs. Platinum (). Type S is recommended for

continuous use in air or inert atmospheres in the temperature range 0 to
1480°C (32 to 2700°F). It is quite stable and capable of long operating life when
used in clean, favorable conditions. When used above 1100°C ( 2000°F), Type S
must be protected from exposure to metallic and non-metallic vapors. It is
therefore not suitable for direct insertion into metallic protecting tubes. Long
operation times at very high temperatures can produce large grain growth
leading to mechanical failure of the negative thermoelement. This type has the
same uses as type R, but is not interchangeable with it.

Type R, Platinum-13%rhodium (+) vs. Platinum (). This type is recommended

for continuous use in air or inert atmospheres in the temperature range 0 to
1480°C (32 to 2700°F). It is quite stable and capable of long operating life when
used in clean, favorable conditions. When used above 1100°C ( 2000°F), these
thermocouples must be protected from exposure to metallic and non-metallic
vapors. Type R is not suitable for direct insertion into metallic protecting tubes.
Long periods of operation at very high temperatures can produce large grain
growth leading to mechanical failure of the negative thermoelement. This type
has the same uses as type S, but is not interchangeable with it.

Type B, Platinum-30%rhodium (+) vs. Platinum-6%rhodium (). Type B

thermocouples are recommended for use in clean air at temperatures from 870 to
1700°C (1600 to 3100°F). They may be used for brief periods in vacuum, but
should not be used in reducing atmospheres nor where exposed to nonmetallic
or metallic vapors. This type is not suitable for direct insertion into metallic
protecting tubes. Type B is more resistant than either type R or S to grain growth
that could result in mechanical failure. Under some conditions, type B may also
have less calibration drift than type R or S sensors that are subjected to the same
use.

Identification of noble metal thermocouple wires is made difficult by the fact that
all alloys are nearly identical in color and all are non-magnetic. Sometimes it is
possible to distinguish the positive wire from the negative one for types R or S by
observing the ‘limpness’ of the wires. Pure platinum wires tend to be slightly
more soft, or limp, while the rhodium-alloyed conductors are a little stiffer,
enough so to permit identification. The differences, however, are subtle, and it is
not possible to tell one rhodium alloy from another by these means. Proper
connections for these thermocouples can be reliably determined by gently
heating the junction and observing the resulting polarity on a sensitive indicator.

In a related way, qualitative identification of rhodium alloys may be made by

forming a junction between an unknown wire and another whose composition is
known. If the wires are the same, no significant emf will result when their junction
is heated to a considerable degree.

Practical Assemblies
Design Rationale

The choice of thermocouple type is dependent upon the temperatures and

conditions of use. Whatever the choice, it is usually necessary to provide the
thermoelement with suitable protection from the often harsh conditions in which
temperature measurements must be made. Another important factor in selecting
a design can be the ease with which a sensor may be serviced or replaced.

Materials selection

One class of thermocouple material, referred to as ‘metal-sheathed’, is shown in

Fig. 3. It has an integral outer sheath, or tube, whose material is chosen to be
compatible with the test atmosphere and to resist deterioration by it. Inside this
sealed tube a compacted ceramic (metal oxide) powder supports and insulates
the thermocouple wires. These sensors are rugged and may be bent. Materials
inside the sheath are made pure and dry at time of manufacture and effective
seals are formed at both ends . These seals must remain intact so that the
ceramic powder inside remains completely dry, because moisture intrusion is apt
to shorten service life.
 FIG. 3  Metal-sheathed thermocouple (partially sectioned).

In another frequently used construction, illustrated in Fig. 4, bare thermoelements

are simply strung through holes in hard-fired ceramic beads. Under very
favorable conditions, it may be possible to insert such a bare, insulated
thermoelement directly into a space to obtain temperature measurements.
However, in most instances, isolation from the test medium is necessary.
Therefore, bare-wire, insulated thermoelements are usually inserted into single,
or multiple concentric, closed-end protecting tubes for isolation and protection
from the measurement environment. Metal-sheathed assemblies are often
installed in such tubes, too. By such means, measurements in very hostile
environments can be successfully taken. Where measurements are to be
obtained in fluids under pressure, drilled thermowells, machined from solid metal,
are sometimes required to obtain the necessary mechanical properties.

FIG. 4  Beaded thermocouple assembly.

For moderate temperature applications, it may be possible to utilize soft insulated

single or duplex thermoelements with a simple welded junction bead at the end,
such as shown in Fig. 5. Depending on the type of insulation and conditions of
use, these economical constructions may be directly inserted into the medium to
be measured, or may be provided with some type of tube or other enclosure for
isolation from potentially harmful test atmospheres.

FIG. 5  Duplex wire thermocouple.

Hardware Choices

Once the basic materials selections have been made, the mechanical details of
the installation can be determined. Mounting may be accomplished by simply
sliding the sensor into a hole, or it may be necessary to rigidly connect it to the
process by means of threads or clamps. Pipe fittings are often used for this
purpose. Note that the hardware associated with the complete design can often
be as important to the success of an application as the choice of thermocouple
type inside.

Connecting means for wiring to an instrument often occurs at the outer end of a
sensor assembly. In some instances, this may take the form of an open or
enclosed connecting head, as in Fig. 6(a) or Fig. 6(b), or a terminal block. At
other times a plug and jack type of quick disconnect may be used, similar to Fig.
6(c). It is important that all current carrying portions of the circuit that may be
subjected to a temperature gradient should be made of matching thermocouple
materials. This is because each incremental length in the circuit must make its
contribution according to the temperature difference that it 'sees'. As an
exception to the matching materials rule, judicious use can sometimes be made
of short, heavy splices containing non-matching materials as long as the
connections are well protected and remain essentially isothermal. Where
properly applied, such splices may be used without causing a significant error.

(a) (b) (c)

FIG. 6  Thermocouple terminations: (a) Open head; (b) Enclosed head; (c)
Plug and Jack .

Often it is desirable to select wiring used beyond a connecting head or plug that
is different in some respects from the construction needed for the thermocouple
itself. Because the ambient temperatures in this 'extension' part of the circuit are
often less severe than those seen by the thermocouple itself, alternate insulation
materials and wire constructions may be appropriate. For example, soft plastic
insulation and fine stranded wires may be used for extensions even though they
might be unsuitable for the thermocouple itself. Economical extension grade
wires are also available that have the same nominal composition as costlier
thermocouple grades, but are usually guaranteed over more limited temperature
ranges and may also have moderately relaxed tolerance levels.

In those cases where thermocouple wires are made of noble metals or other
costly alloys, the extension wires can made be of a totally different material as an
economy measure. Such specially produced extension alloys have
thermoelectric properties that are closely matched to those of the particular
thermocouple type with which they are to be used. These materials are called
compensating thermocouple extension wires.
Selection Factors
Why choose one T/C over another

The usual goals in picking a thermocouple type are to provide an adequate

measurement over the longest possible life, and at the lowest cost. It is prudent,
for such comparisons, to consider the total cost over some suitable time period. It
is easy to overlook such hidden costs as maintenance, testing, and replacement,
or loss of production due to down time or as a result of inaccurate readings.
Other factors in making the best choice might be the availability of
instrumentation, and sometimes a need to standardize on the thermocouple type
or types to be used at a given site.

Service life

Useful thermocouple life is a very difficult prediction to make, even when most of
the details of an application are known. And unfortunately, such information is
often very hard to determine. The very best test for any application is to actually
install, use, and evaluate the in-use performance of a design that is thought likely
to succeed. The recommendations, and non-recommendations, listed under the
thermocouple type descriptions are a good starting place to pick a type to try.

Decalibration & Drift

Stability

All thermocouples are subject to calibration drift with use, it is just a matter of how
much, and how fast this may happen. Thermocouple performance is critically
dependent upon absolute uniformity of both physical and chemical properties
along the entire length of the circuit. When thermoelement materials are
produced, careful steps are taken to assure that this uniformity (or homogeneity)
is achieved. In use, different parts of the circuit experience different conditions of
heat, chemical exposure, etc., and as a result such parts actually do grow to be
'different' from each other physically.

Because the thermoelectric emf resulting from a given temperature difference is

sensitive to changes in the chemical and metallurgical properties of the wire, the
total emf produced by a used probe can be different from an otherwise identical
new one under the same conditions. The changes are usually small (often
negligibly small) over appreciable periods of time. But under adverse conditions,
it is possible to realize large drifts at rapid rates.

To achieve long and reliable thermocouple life, the usual strategy is to operate
the device comfortably under its maximum temperature, and provide it with the
cleanest possible environment in which to work. Enclosures, such as sheaths,
protecting tubes, and thermowells are the usual means of controlling the
conditions that actually surround the thermoelements themselves.
Summary

A key to the successful use of thermocouples is the understanding of how and

why they operate. Once the basic principle  namely distributed generation of
the thermocouple’s emf, driven by the temperature gradients, or differences,
through which the wires pass  is known and understood, applying
thermocouples to most applications becomes straightforward and logical.

Commercially available thermocouples are standardized by letter-designated

type and by tolerance levels of conformance to published tables or ‘curves’ of
emf versus temperature. Custom calibration of thermocouple materials is
available to answer needs more critical than can be covered by the usual
tolerance grades.

An important fact to be remembered is that laboratory calibration of

thermoelements is predicated upon good uniformity or homogeneity of the
thermoelement being tested. New materials will possess this property, but used
materials may not, so it is not normally possible to recalibrate used
thermocouples. This is particularly true for base metal types after use at high
temperatures.

Thermocouples are available in an almost endless variety of constructions and

configurations. It is possible and practical to connect them in special ways to
sense either temperature differences or temperature averages over a number of
sites. It is even possible to ‘gang’ these devices together to boost the amount of
electrical signal arising from small temperature differences. But applications like
these are specialized. The major use for thermocouples is to make reliable and
direct measurements of temperature in many diverse applications.

Thermocouples are fundamentally simple devices. They are extremely versatile

and rugged, and are capable of operating over a very wide range of
temperatures. Thermocouples can be made to very tiny dimensions and into
many different forms for standard or special purposes. In addition, they are low in
cost and are readily interchanged or replaced. But they do need to be
understood, so that they will measure the quantity that is desired with the
precision that is required.