CHAPTER 3

WHAT IS SOIL?

It is important to understand the types and properties of soils and their uses. Some soils are totally
unsuitable for some works and Supervisors should consider this when planning the job. Discuss with
your Manager. Some Councils have access to soil laboratories.

Soils are simply deposits of disintegrated rocks which have been slowly broken down into fine particles
due to nature’s physical and chemical processes. Physical processes may have included freezing and
thawing, rolling, grinding, or blowing as dust in the air. The resulting gravels, sands, and silts are
essentially miniature boulders.
Clay is formed by chemical processes due to the long term weathering action of warm and cold
climates, plus rainfall. Clay consists of tiny flat particles with distinct crystal structure that evolve from a
wide variety of rocks.
Plant growth also contributes to soil formation. When plants die, their residue becomes part of the
soil. This organic matter is generally too spongy and weak to be used for structural purposes.

Soil groups
Although soils may vary widely in physical and chemical makeup, five fundamental groups are
recognised.

Gravel
Individual grains vary in size from 2mm to 63 mm in diameter and have a rounded appearance.

Sand
Small rock or mineral fragments smaller than 2 mm in diameter and semi-sharp.

Silt
Fine grains appearing soft and floury when dry. When moist, silt pressed between thumb and forefinger
will have broken appearance.

Clay
Very fine texture soil which forms hard lumps or clods when dried. When moist, clay is very sticky and
can be rolled into a ribbon between thumb and forefinger.

Organic
This matter consists of either partially decomposed vegetation (peats) or finely divided vegetable matter
(organic silts and clays).

Grain size limits

Most soils are made up of mixtures of the five basic soil types and are classified according to the types
and amounts of each included such as sandy clay, clayey sand, sandy silt. The mineral portions of soils
are divided in five types, each with a specific grain size as shown in Table 3.1.

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 Chapter 3: What is Soil?

Table 3.1: Grain Size Limits for Soils

Material Size (mm)
Gravel 63 to 2.0
Sand 2.0 to 0.075
Silt 0.075 to
Clay 0.002 less
Colloids than 0.002
less than

Soil properties
A number of terms are used to express the properties and characteristics of various materials. A basic
knowledge of these terms and their application to soil and compaction can provide a more thorough
understanding of soil engineering. Also, it will provide useful background in the selection of the correct
compaction equipment for a particular job.

Capillarity is a fine-grained soil’s capacity to absorb water and transmit it in all directions (see Figure
3.1). Capillary action can damage embankments sealed by pavement since the water cannot escape.
The trapped water softens and expands the subgrade resulting in an inadequately supported surface and
pavement. By placing an insulating layer of sand, gravel or rock between the soil and water source,
capillary action can be prevented (see Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Compressibility refers to the reduction in soil volume that occurs when force is applied to it. Air between
the particles has been compressed or has escaped, and any water that may have been present has
been squeezed out. The result is that the soil particles are closer together and occupy less volume (see
Figure 3.3).

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Figure 3.3

Consolidation refers to the increase in density of fill material under actual service conditions due to
permanent loads or the passage of traffic. It usually takes place with the passing of time.

Elasticity is the ability of a soil to return, partially, to its original form after a compressive load is
removed (see Figure 3.4). Road surfaces having elastic soils underneath will deteriorate due to constant
flexing under loads.

Figure 3.4

Permeability refers to that property of a soil which allows it to transmit water (see Figure 3.5). Sands
and gravels are very permeable while fine-grained soils like clays, are least permeable.

Figure 3.5
Settlement of embankment is a decrease in surface elevation due to consolidation of the fill material
in the embankment (see Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6

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 Chapter 3: What is Soil?

Shearing resistance is the ability of soil particles to resist sliding against one another when force is
applied (see Figure 3.7). There are two mechanical properties of soil which determine its shearing
resistance (see Figure 3.8).

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8

• Internal friction resulting from the soil particles resistance to sliding over each other - high in coarse
sand and low in silt and clay.
• Cohesion resulting from the soil grains attraction to each other – low in coarse sand and high in
smooth silt and clay.

Soil with a high bearing capacity may contain gravel and sand in sufficient amounts to contribute high
internal friction, plus enough fine-grain soil (such as clay) to provide adequate cohesion.

Shrinkage occurs in fine-grain soils as water within the soil is reduced by evaporation (see Figure
3.9). Sand and gravel shrinkage is very slight, but clays shrink a great deal. Soil which shrinks when
dried and expands when wet provides a poor foundation since the resulting movement can cause
structural failures in pavement or buildings dependent on their support.

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Figure 3.9

Water in soil
Water content in soil is all important as the liquid/solid relationship of soil controls such important
physical properties as consolidation, compaction and stability. Water also acts as a solvent for salts
present in soil.
Some of the more important physical properties of soils which are affected by the water content are
as follows:

Cohesion
The mechanical cohesion between the individual particles of fine grained soils, such as silts and clays, is
due to the fact that these particles are bound together by films of water. The cohesive forces are
generally accepted as being due to:

(i) Surface tension at the air/water interfaces within the soil structure
(ii) Interaction between the soil particles or between the particles and water molecules.

It has been found experimentally that the cohesive forces increase with increasing surface tension
and decreasing particle size. Cohesion is most marked in soils such as clays, which have a high
proportion of very fine particles.

Swelling
The swelling of clay soils is a physical effect associated with particle hydration. Close to the surface of
clay particles the absorbing forces acting on the water molecules are very strong, and the water is here
believed to be in the solid rather than the liquid state (absorbed water).
As the absorbed layers grow during the wetting of clay, the effective solid volume associated with
each particle increases, and if the layers are in contact with each other, the growth of the individual
layers is reflected in an increase in the total volume of the soil structure.

Consolidation
The absorbed water films in clay grow in thickness until the suction pressure in the water becomes equal
to the overburden pressure on the soil due either to self-loading or to externally applied loads. If at the
point of equilibrium the loading is increased, the absorbed water films are reduced in thickness and then
settlement occurs. This process is called consolidation.
If a structure is built on a clay soil which is liable to moisture changes it will normally rise and fall with
the changing moisture conditions.

Plasticity
If a mass of soil is subjected to a stress above its elastic limit it will deform and rupture.
Should the soil be cohesive and have a sufficiently high moisture content, the soil will not break up
but plastic flow takes place.
Plasticity is an important characteristic of all cohesive soils such as silts and clays.

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 Chapter 3: What is Soil?

Table 3.2: Description of properties and effect on stability

Basis of Descriptive
Characteristic and Effect on Stability
Description Term

Clay predominates; strength derives from cohesion and is

Cohesive
strongly influenced by moisture content.
Strength
Frictional Sand predominates; strength derives from internal friction
non-cohesive and is influenced by moisture content.

Coarse grained Gravel and sand predominate - tend to be non-cohesive.

Grain Size
Fine grained Silt and clay predominate - tend to be cohesive.

Particle-size distribution extends evenly over a wide

Well-graded
range of sizes, good stability.

Particle-size distribution with an excess in some sizes and

Poorly-graded
Grading a deficiency in others adversely affects stability.

Uniformly graded or Particle-size distribution extends over a limited range with

Closely graded one size predominating, low stability.

High A reflection normally of the clay content. Materials of high

Plasticity Medium and medium plasticity would normally require
Low stabilization.

Field identification
Soils fall essentially into two groups, coarse grained non-plastic soils, and fine grained plastic soils with
intermediate groups. The characteristics used in field identification are different for each of the two
groups. These characteristics (listed below) should be observed and noted, to facilitate identification. The
soil can then be classified.

Coarse grained non-plastic soils

The majority of particles are visible to the naked eye and generally less than 50% would pass a 75 mm
A.S. sieve. Identification is based on visual examination of particles and classification is as follows:

• Particle size
Boulders – larger than 200 mm
Cobbles – 63 mm to 200 mm
Gravel – passing 75 mm A.S. Sieve
Sand – 75 mm A.S. Sieve to 2.36 mm A.S. Sieve

• Grading
Angular – sharp edges, unpolished flat surfaces
Sub-angular – rounded edges
Rounded – no edges, smoothly curved sides

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• Surface Texture
Polished, smooth or rough, clean or coated (usually with clay or salts).

Fine grained soils

The majority of particles are not visible to the naked eye and more than 50% pass a 75 µm A.S. Sieve.
These soils are usually plastic and are subdivided on the basis of texture.

• Particle size
Sand particles are visible to the naked eye and are easily identified as individual grains by touch.
Silt particles are not visible to the naked eye and are difficult to identify as individual grains by touch.
The grains may be identified by touching the tongue. A damp pat of silty soil will feel rough.
Clay particles are not visible to the naked eye and cannot be detected by touch or taste. A damp clay
pat has a smooth feel.

• Texture
The texture of a fine grained soil may vary from clay (plastic) to silt (non- plastic) with intermediate
combinations. The texture may be estimated by simple tests and may be accurately defined in
accordance with a standard classification by laboratory tests of grading and plasticity.

The simple tests used in field identification are:

(1) Dry strength test

This test involves using a pat of soil:
Low – pat can be powdered. This indicates low plasticity silty soil.
Medium – pat can be broken but not powdered. This indicates medium plasticity, clayey soil.
High – pat cannot be broken. This indicates a high plasticity heavy clay soil.

(2) Wet strength test

Uses a pat of wet soil.
Hard – Difficult to indent with thumb or pencil point (high clay content).
Stiff – Indented by thumb pressure. Difficult to remould.
Firm – Indented by moderate thumb pressure. Remoulded by firm pressure.
Soft – Easily indented and remoulded by light pressure.

(3) Dilatancy – shake test

Roll a wet pat of soil around in the palm of one hand and tap the back of it with the fingers of the other
hand (see Figure 3.10). Observe whether or not the pat of soil gets shiny and wet on the surface.
Then squeeze the pat of soil and note whether or not the wetness disappears, leaving a dull surface
on the soil. Alternately shake and squeeze the soil and decide whether the surface water appears and
disappears rapidly, slowly or not at all. Fine sands and silts have a rapid reaction while clays have
little or no reaction and simply get messy.

Figure 3.10

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 Chapter 3: What is Soil?

(4) Shine test

A moist pat of soil when stroked with the flat of a knife blade or the finger will show a smooth shiny
surface if clay is present. A rough dull surface indicates silt.

(5) Toughness test

Roll a wet pat of soil between the thumb and fingers into a thread or “worm”. It will be sticky at first but
continued kneading will gradually dry it out. The object of the test is to gauge the “toughness” of the
soil, when it gets so dry it begins to crack, when it is rolled into a worm 3.3 mm in diameter (see
Figure 3.11). If a worm cannot be formed at all, the soils is definitely a silt or fine sand. Plastic silts
and lean clays are weak and soft before they start cracking. Highly plastic solids take a long time to
dry out, and they get hard and waxy so that considerable pressure is required to form a worm. A
similar test is carried out in the laboratory to determine the plastic limit of a soil.

Figure 3.11

(6) Hand washing

Even when washing hands after tests, information can be gained which will help classify soil. After
handling silts, the fingers will feel dusty and gritty and rubbing the fingers together will almost clean
them. Water flowing gently from a tap will rinse off the soil. When clays are handled, a crust will form
on the fingers that cannot be rubbed off when dry. Water will not rinse it off and the hands must be
rubbed together under the water to cleanse them.

Laboratory classification
For detailed identification and classification of soils, the most commonly adopted procedures incorporate a
measure of particle size, distribution and plasticity. Tests used for the determination of these properties are:

Particle size distribution

The methods of determining particles size distribution involve two stages viz.:

(1) Sieving for the coarse soils;

(2) Sedimentation analysis for finer fractions.

• Sieve Analysis
A sieve analysis is carried out by passing a representative sample of the soil through a nest of sieves
beginning with the sieve with the largest opening. Water is used to wash material through the finer
sieves. The results are generally reported as the total percentage passing each sieve. Sieve sizes
commonly used are:
75 mm, 53 mm, 37.5 mm, 26.5 mm, 19.0 mm, 9.5 mm, 6.7 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 600 um, 425 um,
150 um, 75 um.
To determine the particle size distribution below this, sedimentation analysis is carried out.

• Sedimentation analysis
If a soil is dispersed in water and then allowed to settle, the finer particles will take longer to settle than
the coarse particles. This principle is used to determine the particle size distribution.

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To carry out a sedimentation analysis, a sample of the material passing the 2.36 mm sieve is first
treated with hydrogen peroxide to remove organic matter, and with hydrochloric acid to remove
carbonates and gypsum, since these substances may give false results. The soil is then dispersed in
a dilute aqueous solution of calgon which acts as a deflocculating agent. The particles are then
allowed to settle. At given time intervals from the initial dispersion, samples are taken from a given
depth below the surface. The sample of liquid will contain only those particles whose velocities have
been insufficient to carry them further in time. The samples are dried and weighed and the
percentages of different particle size are determined.

Table 3.3: Typical Sieve Analysis

A.S. Metric Weight Weight %

Sieve retained on passing sieve Passin
53 mm sieve (grams) (grams) g
37.5 mm
26.5 mm 0 431 100.0
19 mm 20 411 95.4
6.7 mm
2.36 mm 121 164 38.1
425 µm 86 78 18.1
150 µm 37 41 9.5
75 µm 15 26 6.0

Table 3.4: Particle Size Distribution Curve Particle Size – mm

• Hydrometer analysis
A simple and more convenient method of sedimentation analysis is the hydrometer method. This
method gives results which are accurate enough for most purposes. A suspension of the soil in water
containing sodium oxalate is prepared and washed through a 75 mm sieve as before. One litre of
suspension is placed in a measuring cylinder.

Readings are taken periodically with a hydrometer. The hydrometer is calibrated so that the
equipment particle diameter corresponding to the elapse of time at each hydrometer reading can be
obtained from a nomograph, and the percentage by mass of particles smaller than this particle’s
diameter, calculated.

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Particle size distribution curve

On completion of the analysis, the results (see Table 3.3) are represented on a Particle Size Distribution
Curve, the vertical scale representing percent-by-weight and the horizontal scale, grain sizes (see Table 3.4).
The steeper the slope of the curve, the more uniform all the grain sizes. Therefore, a vertical line
would represent a perfectly uniform sample. Recording the particle size distribution of soil samples by
this means enables simple, accurate classification.

Moisture content
Classification by particle size is satisfactory for granular soils, but the fine grain soils (silt and clay) can
exhibit drastically different behaviours even though they have equal grain-size distribution. Moisture
content influences the physical properties of any given soil, especially predominantly fine grain soils.
There are several physical relationships of soil and moisture content that have been established by
laboratory tests. After performing certain tests and determining the moisture content, soils may be
grouped by their physical characteristics.
The moisture content of a soil is the ratio of the weight of water within the soil, to the total weight of
the dry soil sample. It is found by weighing the soil wet, then drying and weighing it again; the difference
between the first and second weighing represents the weight of the water and the second weighing gives
the weight of the dry soil.
Moisture content is usually expressed as a percentage, and is found by dividing the weight of the
water by the weight of the dry sample. The relationship between air, water and soil can be expressed on
both a volume and a weight basis. This relationship is shown in Figure 3.12 with a given loose m3 of
damp soil – imagine the air, water and soil particles to be neatly sorted out by weight and volume.

Figure 3.12

Generally, there are three types of water or moisture recognised by soils engineers. The type and
amount of water occurring in a soil can have a great influence on its performance.
Gravitational water is free to move downward due to the force of gravity. It is water that can drain
naturally from a soil.
Capillary water is held in a soil by small pores or voids. It is considered free water but can be
removed only by lowering the water table or by evaporation.

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Hygroscopic water is present in a soil after gravitational and capillary water are removed. This water
is held by individual soil grains in the form of a very thin film having physical and chemical affinity for the
soil grains. It is also spoken of as “air-dry” moisture content.
Certain limits of soil consistency – Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Plasticity Index, and Shrinking Limit -
were developed by A. Atterburg, a Swedish Soils Scientist. They are discussed below and form the basis
for differentiation between highly plastic, slightly plastic and non-plastic materials.

Plasticity of soils
The finest fraction of soils (silts and clays) have a most significant effect on behaviour. In particular, the
proportions of these materials present and their nature must be determined as part of the classification
process. In general, sedimentation analysis as described above is too time consuming and expensive for
routine classification wash and simpler tests have been developed to provide information on the clay and
silt fraction. These tests define what are commonly termed consistency limits.
As moisture content of a soil is decreased the soil passes from the liquid state to the plastic state to
the solid state. The range of moisture contents over which the soil is plastic is used as a measure of the
plasticity index.
The points at which soil changes from one state to another are arbitrarily defined by simple tests
called Liquid Limit Test and Plastic Limit Test.
These tests are known as the Atterburg Limits and are the bases for differentiation between highly
plastic, slightly plastic and non-plastic soils.

• Liquid Limit (LL)

This is the moisture content at which a soil passes from a plastic to a liquid state. To illustrate this,
take a wet sample of a plastic soil and knead it between the fingers slightly and then place it in a small
bowl, flattening it out somewhat. Next, make a deep groove in the wet sample and then tap the bowl
on its bottom 10-20 times, watching the groove. If the faces of the groove remain the same distance
apart, pick up the sample, add some more water to it and repeat the process. When the faces of the
groove move together, the sample has become somewhat liquid and it is said to have reached its
Liquid Limit.
Although the above process is a somewhat simplified version of the Liquid Limit test, it gives us a
good illustration of a sample’s LL. The value of this test is that it indicates at which moisture content a
soil overcomes internal friction and cohesion by lubrication. High LL values, as determined by
laboratory tests, are associated with soils of high compressibility. The LL of a soil is directly
proportional to its compressibility.

• Plastic Limit (PL)

This condition exists when a soil changes from a semi-solid to plastic state. It is said to prevail when
the soil contains just enough moisture that a small amount of it can be rolled into a 3.3 mm diameter
thread without breaking.
The plastic limit of a soil is considered to have a number of significant meanings. It represents the
moisture content at which the particles will slide over each other yet still possess appreciable
cohesion. Also, the strength of a soil has been proved to decrease rapidly as the moisture content
increases beyond the PL. It is also the point where the soil sticks more readily to steel surfaces and
where best compaction is achieved with pure soils.

• Plasticity Index (PI)

This is the numerical difference be- tween a soil's plastic and liquid limits. Soils having high PI values
are quite compressible and have a high degree of cohesion. A soil with a zero PI is cohesionless, non-

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 Chapter 3: What is Soil?

plastic. Soil has little or no cohesion left when the moisture content is at the liquid limit, but it still has
considerable cohesion when the moisture content is at the plastic limit. Therefore, the PI offers a
means of measuring the compressibility and cohesion of a soil. The PI also indicates soil permeability.
The higher the PI, the lower the permeability, and vice versa. On many jobs the specifications will call
for material with a certain gradation, a maximum LL and a maximum PI.

• Shrinking Limit (SL)

As the soil is dried below the Plastic Limit it shrinks and gets brittle until finally all the particles are in
contact and the soil can shrink no further. This point is called the Shrinkage Limit. The soil still has
moisture within it but if any of this moisture is lost on further drying, air has to enter the soil to replace
it. The SL is the best moisture at which to compact many non-plastic soils. Soils containing enough
clay to give them a low Plasticity Index are best compacted somewhere between the SL and the PL.

The relationship between liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit and soil consistency are shown in
Figure 3.13.

Linear shrinkage
The linear shrinkage is the percentage decrease in length of a soil when it is dried after having been
moulded in a wet condition, usually at liquid limit. The results give an indication of the volume change
that may occur in a material with varying moistures.

Miniature abrasion loss

The test is a measure of the dry strength of non-cohesive and slightly cohesive mixture of sand and clay.
Four dry pats of the soil are abraded together and the resultant loss in weight of the pats reported as a
percent- age.
Clay materials give low values. Soil-aggregate for pavement construction should have a MAL of less
than 15%.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

The CBR is a penetration test for evaluation of the mechanical strength of road subgrades and base
courses. It was developed by the California Department of Transportation in the 1930’s.
The test is performed by measuring the pressure required to penetrate a soil sample with a circular
plunger of standard area for a specified distance, expressed as a percentage of a standard force. The
standard forces used in this method are 13200 and 19800 newtons for penetrations of 2.5 and 5.0 mm
respectively.
CBRs can be tested wet (soaked) or dry (unsoaked), although wet is the industry standard as it allows a
road to be designed to better cope with stresses placed on the subgrade after it has been subject to
significant amounts of moisture.
The CBR can also be used for measuring the load-bearing capacity of soils supporting similar structures
such as airport runways. A higher CBR correlates to a stronger material i.e. high quality crushed rock
has a CBR over 80.

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Compaction
What is compaction?
Compaction is the art of artificially densifying material by pressing the particles together, expelling air
from the mass and filling the voids. It is dependent on the lubrication of the soil particles by moisture. The
object in compacting a soil is to improve its properties, in particular to increase its strength and bearing
capacity, reduce its compressibility and decrease its ability to absorb water.

Figure 3.13

Moisture density relationship

By increasing the moisture content when a soil is being compacted, it has been found that the Dry
Density will rise to a maximum and then decrease.
If the soil is dry, inter granular friction pre- vents the particles sliding over each other.
The addition of moisture lubricates the points of contact of the soil particles and allows the particles to
be gradually forced into the dense state.
At the limit, the voids become filled with moisture and further addition of water displaces the soil
particles and a lower dry density results.
A typical Moisture Density Relationship is shown in Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14

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The Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) is the moisture content at which a specified amount of
compaction will produce the Maximum Dry Density (MDD).

Laboratory testing
Several methods of compacting soils in the laboratory have been established to enable the determination
of the Moisture Density Relationship and thus optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. The
tamping method has been adopted as standard by the Department of Transport and Main Roads (MRD)
as it is suitable for all soils. There are two tests used.

• The Standard (or Proctor) Compaction Test

The compactive effort, used in compacting the soil in a 105.0 mm diameter, 1000 cc mould, is
obtained with a 2.7 kg hammer falling through a height of 300 mm. The soil is compacted in 3 layers
with 25 blows applied per layer (Figure 3.15). The test is repeated at a number of different moisture
contents. Each time the mould is weighed and the bulk density determined. After the moisture has
been measured, the dry density is determined and plotted against moisture content.

Figure 3.15

• The Modified Compaction Test

As the use and efficiency of compacting equipment increased it was found that densities could be
obtained in excess of the ‘Standard’ maximum. A test using more tamping effort has therefore been
adopted. Basically the same as the Standard Test, the Modified Compaction Test uses the same
mould but a heavier hammer (4.9 kg) falling through a greater distance (450 mm) is used to pack the
soil into the mould. The soil is packed in 3 layers each receiving 42 blows of the hammer (see Figure
3.16). The compactive effort is thus increased by over 4 times.

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Figure 3.16

This increase in compactive effort causes an increase in the maximum density obtained and a
reduction in the optimum moisture content. The density increase are most marked where the air voids
are large, i.e. at lower moisture contents. This is shown clearly by Figure 3.17.
Figure 3.18 is a moisture density test result for a typical road making material and shows that the
material has a Maximum Dry Density (MDD) of 1875 kilogram per cubic meter at an Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) of 13.1%.

Figure 3.17

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Figure 3.18

Field testing
Regular field testing is done in order to ensure that the declared compaction densities are being
maintained throughout a particular construction job. These tests can also indicate the effectiveness of
the compaction equipment and construction methods being used. The test used by TMR is the Sand
Replacement method. Other methods commonly used are Water Balloon Method and Nuclear Method.

• Sand Replacement Method

This method covers the determination of the in-situ dry density of natural soil as well as compacted
soil. A density test is made by digging a 102 mm diameter hole 152 mm deep in the soil. All material
from the hole is carefully salvaged. The gross weight, moisture content, and oven dry weight of this
material is determined. The excavated hole is filled with sand of known density and the volume is
calculated from the weight of sand used to fill the hole. The density of compacted soil is determined by
dividing the dry weight of material removed from the hole by the volume of the hole.

• Nuclear Guage
Nuclear moisture/density gauges are testing devices that use low level radiation to measure the wet
density, dry density, and moisture content of soil and granular construction materials. These gauges
work by measuring either the "backscatter" or the "direct transmission" of radiation directed at a
material. "Backscatter" is the amount of radiation that is deflected by the material and is measured by
placing the gauge on the surface of the material. "Direct transmission" is the amount of radiation that
passes through the material and is measured by drilling a hole in the material and inserting the gauge.
The radioactive sources in the gauge are surrounded by shielding. It is only when the gauge is
mishandled or damaged that it becomes a significant radiological hazard to the operator. Extensive
experience with these gauges over many years indicates that radiation exposure to workers is
generally low and that accidents involving the gauges are infrequent. When these gauges are used
properly, radiation exposure of the general public is not an issue.

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Compaction standards
Compaction Standards are expressed as a percent (%) Relative Dry Density. The % Relative Dry
Density is given by the following equation.

Field  Dry  Density

%RelativeDry Density = ×100%
Max  Dry  Density

Typical – use this information to determine the water required for the job.

MDD 1875 kg/m³

Maximum Dry Density
OMC 13.1%
Optimum Maximum Content
Thus:
Water required per cubic metre = 13.1% x 1875 = 246 kg of water
= 246 l of water
This typical job mix:
6m wide x 500m long x 0.2m deep
= 600m³ x 246l/m³ = 147600 l.

Note: actual quantity for job will depend on actual moisture content of material, ambient conditions and
type of material.
Refer to Chapter 7 Calculations.

Additional information can be found in the 11AT series – www.ipwea.org.au/qld

KEY MESSAGES
• Understand the types and properties of soils
• When and how to use
• Ask if not sure

ACID SULFATE SOILS

Acid sulfate soils cover approximately 2.3 million hectares of land in Queensland and occur
naturally along the coast, usually where land elevation is less than 5 metres AHD. These soils
affect urban, transport, tourism, agricultural and industrial land uses. The exposure of ASS to
oxygen (e.g. by drainage, excavation or filling) results in production of sulfuric acid and toxic
quantities of aluminium and other heavy metals, informs that can be commonly released into
waterways. The acid corrodes concrete and steel infrastructure and, together with the metal
contaminants, can kill or damage fish, other aquatic organisms, native vegetation and crops.
Queensland has an Acid Sulfate Soils Investigation Team situated at the Department of Natural
Resources, Indooroopilly:
Phone 07 3896 9819 or
Fax 07 3896 9782
email: [email protected]

QASSIT carries out mapping, site investigation, laboratory testing, education and ASS research.

Be aware that ASS can be found in other parts of the State.

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