Overview of Theories Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow believed that man is

inherently good and argued that individuals possess a constantly gro 'hg inner drive that has great
potential. The needs hierarchy system, devised by Maslow (1954), is a commonly used scheme
for classifying human motives. It involves five categories of motives arranged with lower-level
needs on the bottom which must be satisfied first, before the higher level needs come into play
(Wallace, Goldstein and Nathan 1987, 277). The five general levels of needs as described by
Hamner and Organ are shown in the following hierarchical order.
Two major postulates can be derived from Maslow's need hierarchy. They are: (1) A satisfied
need is not a motivator of behaviour. (2) To the extent that lower-order needs become satisfied,
the next higher-order level of needs becomes the most prepotent determinant of behaviour
(Hamner and Organ 1978, 139). The extent that jobs incorporate elements that satJ.sfy some
higher order human needs determines their potential for motivating workers (Imel 1982, 3) . A
person's level of aspiration is closely related to the hierarchy of needs (Haimann 1973, 217), and
attitudes will determine the individual route which the person takes for the satisfaction of his
needs (Haimann 1973, 219). The ultimate need category described by Maslow was that of self-
actualization. This belief served as the basis for the assumptions of McGregor's Theory Y
viewpoint on motivation which was based on self-direction, self-control, motivation and maturity
(McGregor 1960, 47-48).

Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory Herzberg's motivation hygiene theory is often called the
two factor theory and focuses on those sources of motivation which are pertinent to the
accomplishment of work (Hall and Williams 1986, 6). Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction
and dissatisfaction were the products of two separate factors: motivating factors (satisfiers) and
hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) Satisfiers respectively: Dissatisfiers 1. Achievement 1. Company
Policy 2. Recognition 2. Supervision 3. Work itself 3. Working conditions 4. Responsibility 4.
Interpersonal relations 5. Advancement 5. Salary 6. Growth 6. Status 7. Job security 8. Personal
life (Herzberg, Mousner, and Snyderman, 1959, 59-83). Herzberg used the term "hygiene" in the
medical sense - the sense that it operates to remove hazards from the environment (Duttweiler
1986, 371). Herzberg identifies and compares the dynamics of hygiene and motivation as
illustrated below. The Dynamics of Hygiene *The psychological basis of hygiene needs is the
avoidance of pain from the environment - APE *There are infinite sources of pain in the
environment *Hygiene improvements have short-term effects *Hygiene needs are cyclical in
nature *Hygiene needs have an escalating zero point *There is no final answer to hygiene needs
The Dynamics of Motivation *The psychological basis of motivation is *The psychological
basis of motivation is the need for personal growth *There are limited sources of motivator
satisfaction *Motivator improvements have long-term effects *Motivators are additive in nature
*Motivator needs have a no escalating zero point *There are answers to motivator needs
(Herzberg 1976, 101) According to Herzberg, hygiene cannot motivate, and when used to
achieve this goal it can actually produce negative effects over the long run. A "hygienic"
environment prevents discontent with a job, but such an environment cannot lead the individual
beyond a minimal adjustment consisting of the absence of dissatisfaction. A positive "happiness"
seems to require some attainment of psychological growth (Herzberg 1966, 78, 89). The
hygienes have always been - and probably always will be - easier to measure, control, and
manipulate than the motivators. The motivators are more complex and subjective, and often too
elusive to measure. But to the extent that management concentrates on hygienes, while at the
same time neglecting motivators, workers are probably going to seek more of the hygienes
(Hamner and Organ 1978, 155). This has a negative effect on developing a motivated workforce.
The proper management of hygiene is an important first step in applying Herzberg's two factor
theory, which is shown in a five part process a shown below. 1. Identify type of hygiene 2. Give
hygiene for hygiene purposes The proper 3. Give hygiene for what hurts management of hygiene
I 4. Keep hygiene administration simple' 5. Give it and shut up about it Fig. 1. The five rules for
administering hygiene (Herzberg 1976, 93) . The fact that joh satisfaction is made up of two
unipolar traits is not unique, but it remains a difficult concept to grasp. The opposite of job
satisfaction would not be job dissatisfaction, but rather no job satisfaction; similarly, the opposite
of job dissatisfaction is no job dissatisfaction, not satisfaction with one's job (Herzberg 1976, 76)
. Herzberg also says, "A deprivation in hygiene factors can lead to job dissati 1.,:tion, but their
amelioration does not lead to job satisfaction." (Herzberg 1976, 61). Hersey describes hygiene
saying, "Hygiene factors, when satisfied, tend to eliminate dissatisfaction and work restriction,
but they do little to motivate an individual to superior performance or increased capacity."
(Hersey and Blanchard 1982, 59).
There are three primary psychological states that significantly affect worker satisfaction: 1.
Experienced meaningfulness of the work itself 2. Experienced responsibility for the work and its
outcomes 3. Knowledge of results, or performance feedback The more that work is designed to
enhance these states, the more satisfying the work will be (Wallace 1987, 275 and Burke 1987,
35). The dimension of job dissatisfaction differs psychologically from job satisfaction, but it is
also associated with an escalation phenomenon, or what some have called she principle of (rising
expectations): the more people receive, the more they want (Burke 1987, 33) . This clarifies
Herzberg's escalating zero point statement. Mathis said it this way, "Hygiene factors provide a
base which must be carefully considered if dissatisfaction is to be avoided. But, even if all of the
maintenance needs are taken care of, the people will still not necessarily be motivated to work
harder." (Mathis 1979, 55). Herzberg suggests that factors that lead to job satisfaction are
primarily intrinsic, whereas factors leading to job dissatisfaction are primarily extrinsic. The
cluster of intrinsic factors was found to include the work itself, achievement, advancement,
recognition, and responsibility. The cluster of extrinsic factors was found to include supervision,
interpersonal relations, working conditions, 4 3 10 11 salary, company policies, and
administration (Caston and Braoto 1985, 270) . At times, Herzberg seems to indicate that
intrinsic factors will not lead to job satisfaction if the extrinsic factors present in the work setting
are deficient (Caston and Braoto 1985, 281). An employee experiencing a state of intrinsic
motivation tends to be committed to the job and self-fulfillment through it (Aldag 1979, 11). In a
state of intrinsic motivation, the employee attributes job behaviors to outcomes which are
derived from the work itself. Such intrinsic outcomes are experienced by employees independent
of the involvement of others (Aldag 1979, 11 & 22) . McClelland's Need for Achievement
Theory McClelland has proposed a theory of motivation that is closely associated with learning
concepts. The theory proposes that when a need is strong in a person, its effect is to motivate the
person to use behavior which leads to satisfaction of the need. The main theme of McClelland's
theory is that needs are learned through copping with one's environment. Since needs are learned,
behavior which is rewarded tends to recur at a higher frequency (Gibson, Ivancevich and
Donnelly, 1979, 111-112). The need for achievement or n Ach involves the desire to
independently master objects, ideas and other people, and to increase one's self-esteem through
the exercise of one's 14 12 talent. (Wallace, Goldstein and Nathan 1987, 289) Based on research
results, McClelland developed a descriptive set of factors which reflect a high need for
achievement. These are: 1. Achievers like situations in which they take personal responsibility
for finding solutions to problems. 2. Achievers haw, a tendency to set moderate achievement
goals and take "calculated risks." 3. Achievers want concrete feedback about how well they are
doing (McClelland and Johnson, 1984, 3). Motivation in the Workplace If the treatment of
employees is reasonably good but they express few positive attitudes toward their work and are
unwilling to extend any extra effort for the company, then the organization has a motivation
problem (Herzberg 1976, 94) . The effective manager must know what motivates someone to
perform and how to satisfy the needs of the employee (Ferguson 1987, 149). Hamner stated this
in another way by saying that in order to understand how to motivate their subordinates,
managers need to know what energizes human behavior (Hamner and Organ 1978, 137). We
must realize that different people want various things from their job and there are different
leadership styles; not one way or method of motivation will satisfy everyone (Stanton 1983,
208). Since motivation gives direction and intensity to human behavior (Frymier 1974, t5 13 16),
it follows that people will be highly motivated when they believe 1) that their behavior will lead
to certain rewards, 2) that these rewards are worthwhile and valuable, and 3) that they are able to
perform at a level that will result in the attainment of the rewards (Burke 1987, 34). Our problem
in the immediate future will be not the lack of opportunities for the really motivated, but the lack
of motivated people ready and able to take advantage of the opportunities (Rogers and Levey
1987, 10). Hersey relates that esteem and self-actualization seem to become more important as
people mature (Hersey and Blanchard 1982, 56). Hamner agrees by stating that the energizing
force of behavior shifts over a person's work life (Hamner and Organ 1978, 141). Therefore, in
order to motivate older workers higher level needs must be satisfied. Herzberg's theory can be
very helpful to a manager in deciding how to develop a motivated workforce. If worker
dissatisfaction is seen as the major problem, then the hygiene factors must be improved. But to
improve performance the manager must work on the motivators, and this means changing the
nature of the work to make it more challenging and intrinsically rewarding (Tosi, Rizzo, and
Carroll 1986, 223) . The components of an organizational reward system, such as money, fringe
benefits, and promotion, must be desired by the employee; that is, they must be positively valent
in the employee's ordering of preferences. The 6 14 employee must perceive that variations in
performanc( level will lead to variations in the amount of reward received (Hamner and Organ
1978, 146). Herzberg explains money as a motivator saying, "Because of its ubiquitous nature,
salary commonly shows up as a motivator as well as a hygiene. Although primarily a hygiene
factor, it also often takes on some of the properties of a motivator, with dynamics similar to those
of recognition for achievement." (Herzberg 1976, 71). Examples of extrinsic outcomes could
include pay increases, promotions, or fringe benefits. The extrinsically motivated employee tends
to feel a lack of control over on-the-job behavior (Aldag 1979, 21). Because human beings seek
to satisfy two basic need systems, the management of people involves two problems - the proper
management of hygiene needs and the proper management of the motivators (Herzberg 1976,
84). Comparison of Theories Herzberg argues that only the goal objectives associated with
Maslow's ego-status and self actualization needs provide motivation or satisfaction on the job.
Meeting the lower order needs simply reduces dissatisfaction; it does not provide satisfaction
(Burke 1987, 33). The relationship between Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's
motivation-hygiene theory have been compared by some researchers and have been depicted by
overlaying Herzberg's two-track continuum over Maslow's pyramid of needs. The stair step
representation shown by Hersey shows the relationship that exists between the Maslow and
Herzberg frameworks. MOTIVATORS ISelf-Actualization Esteem Social (Affiliation) I Safety
(Security) Physiological HYGIENE FACTORS 1 1 I Fig. 2. The Relationship Between the
Motivation-Hygiene Theory and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Hersey and Blanchard 1982, 60).
15 McClelland's concept of achievement motivation is also related to Herzberg's motivation-
hygiene theory. People with high achievement motivation tend to be interested in the motivators.
People with low achievement motivation are more concerned about the environment (Hersey and
Blanchard 1982, 61) . "Although not stated specifically in Maslow's need hierarchy, the need for
achievement underlies self-actualization." (Kast and Rosenzweig, 1970, 295). McClelland
proposed no lower order needs. While his need for achievement is not identical with Herzberg's
motivators, or Maslow's higher order needs, there are some similarities. 16 The major differences
is McClelland's emphasis on socially acquired needs (Gibson, Ivancevich and Donnelly 1979,
112). Maslow is helpful in identifying needs or motives and Herzberg provides us with insights
into the goals and incentives that tend to satisfy the needs (Hersey and Blanchard 1982, 59). One
major means of increasing an employee's level of intrinsic motivation is through changing the
work itself (Aldag 1979, 22). This can be done through job rehabilitation. Rehabilitating jobs is
called job enrichment (Herzberg 1976, 95). However, Aldag has said, "Employees dissatisfied
with extrinsic factors are unlikely to respond well to job enrichment attempts." (Aldag 1979,
101). Job enrichment, a significant intervention within OD (Organizational Development) and a
critical element of quality-of-work-life (QWL) projects, is a direct application of Herzberg's
theory and at least an indirect application of Maslow's theory (Burke 1987, 34). Summary and
Conclusions This literature review showed that there is a clear relationship between Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Herzberg's Two Factor Theory of Motivation and McClelland's need
for achievement theory. This relationship shows the overlap of higher level needs and motivators
and the corresponding overlap of hygiene and lower order needs. The lower order needs must be
met before higher order needs can 17 have any motivational force and Herzberg's parallel
hygiene factors rust be met to prevent job dissatisfaction. Maslow's higher order needs serve to
motivate people and are of an intrinsic nature ..111 corresponds to Herzberg's motivational
factors that ire also intrinsic in nature. Hersey said it clearly when he stated, "Management by
direction and control may not succeed because it is a questionable method for motivating people
whose physiological and safety needs are reasonably satisfied and whose social, esteem, and
self-actualization needs are becoming predominant." (Hersey 1982, 48). Further analysis of these
theories leads to the conclusion that when managers incorporate motivations:. elements in work
settings rather than simply eliminating adverse hygiene factors, they can expect to see higher
productivity and job satisfaction. This seems to be a paradox in many working environments
where a great deal of time, energy and effort is expended on extrinsic factors which do not lead
to job satisfaction/motivation, but only serve to reduce job dissatisfaction. The thrust of all of the
motivational theories reviewed is that managers should carefully review what they are
incorporating into reward systems. If the rewards are predominantly extrinsic factors then all that
can be hoped for are employees who are not dissatisfied with their work. Satisfying hygiene
needs is relatively simple, but the satisfaction is short-lived and these types of needs are not
additive in nature. Motivation can be achieved only by satisfying a very limited area of complex
needs, which are additive in nature and whose satisfaction results in much more long lasting
effect. What is actually required, therefore, is a two-way effort which is directed first at the
hygiene and then at the development of motivation (Haimann 1973, 224).