Introduction To Magnetic Particle Testing

Introduction to
Magnetic Particle Inspection
From NDT Resources 1 of 58

Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection
Introduction
Introduction
Basic Concepts
History of MPI
Physics
Magnetism
Magnetic Mat'ls
Magnetic Domains
Magnetic Fields
Electromag. Fields
Field From a Coil
Mag Properties
Hysteresis Loop
Permeability
Field Orientation
Magnetization of Mat'ls
Magnetizing Current
Longitudinal Mag Fields
Circular Mag Fields
Demagnetization
Measuring Mag Fields
Equipment & Materials

Portable Equipment
Stationary Equipment
Lights
Field Strength Indicators
Magnetic Particles
Suspension Liquids
Testing Practices
Dry Particles
Wet Suspension
Magnetic Rubber
Continuous & Residual Magnetization
Field Direction & Intensity
Process Control
Particle Concentration
Suspension Contamination
Electrical System
Lighting
Eye Considerations
Example Indications
Visible, Dry Indications
Fluorescent, Wet Indications
Quiz

Introduction to Magnetic Particle Testing
Introduction
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a nondestructive testing method used for defect
detection. MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply, and part surface preparation is not as
critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These characteristics make MPI one of the most
widely utilized nondestructive testing methods.
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e.iron filings) to detect flaws in
components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the component
being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or
some of their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level
that will allow the inspection to be effective.
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including castings, forgings, and
weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a
component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle
inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and
aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle
inspection may be used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.
Basic Principles
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can be

considered as a combination of two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage
testing and visual testing. Consider the case of a bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and
around the magnet. Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called
a pole. A pole where a magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole and a
pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.
When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets with
magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not
broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The
magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters at the south pole. The magnetic field spreads
out when it encounters the small air gap created by the crack because the air cannot support
as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads out, it
appears to leak out of the material and, thus is called a flux leakage field.

If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and
cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet, but also at the poles at the edges of the
crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the basis
for magnetic particle inspection.
The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to be
inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage
field. After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet
suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will be
attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that the
inspector can detect.
History of Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetism is the ability of matter to attract

other matter to itself. The ancient Greeks were
the first to discover this phenomenon in a
mineral they named magnetite. Later on
Bergmann, Becquerel, and Faraday discovered
that all matter including liquids and gasses were
affected by magnetism, but only a few
responded to a noticeable extent.
The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect
an object took place as early as 1868. Cannon
barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing
the barrel then sliding a magnetic compass along
the barrel's length. These early inspectors were
able to locate flaws in the barrels by monitoring
the needle of the compass. This was a form of
nondestructive testing but the term was not
commonly used until some time after World War I.

In the early 1920’s, William Hoke realized that magnetic particles (colored metal shavings)
could be used with magnetism as a means of locating defects. Hoke discovered that a surface
or subsurface flaw in a magnetized material caused the magnetic field to distort and extend
beyond the part. This discovery was brought to his attention in the machine shop. He noticed
that the metallic grindings from hard steel parts (held by a magnetic chuck while being
ground) formed patterns on the face of the parts which corresponded to the cracks in the
surface. Applying a fine ferromagnetic powder to the parts caused a build up of powder over
flaws and formed a visible indication. The image shows a 1928 Electyro-Magnetic Steel
Testing Device (MPI) made by the Equipment and Engineering Company Ltd. (ECO) of
Strand, England.
In the early 1930’s, magnetic particle inspection was quickly replacing the oil-and-whiting
method (an early form of the liquid penetrant inspection) as the method of choice by the
railroad industry to inspect steam engine boilers, wheels, axles, and tracks. Today, the MPI
inspection method is used extensively to check for flaws in a large variety of manufactured
materials and components. MPI is used to check materials such as steel bar stock for seams
and other flaws prior to investing machining time during the manufacturing of a component.
Critical automotive components are inspected for flaws after fabrication to ensure that
defective parts are not placed into service. MPI is used to inspect some highly loaded
components that have been in-service for a period of time. For example, many components of
high performance racecars are inspected whenever the engine, drive train or another system
undergoes an overhaul. MPI is also used to evaluate the integrity of structural welds on
bridges, storage tanks, and other safety critical structures.
Magnetism
Magnets are very common items in the workplace and

household. Uses of magnets range from holding pictures on
the refrigerator to causing torque in electric motors. Most
people are familiar with the general properties of magnets
but are less familiar with the source of magnetism. The
traditional concept of magnetism centers around the
magnetic field and what is know as a dipole. The term
"magnetic field" simply describes a volume of space where
there is a change in energy within that volume. This change
in energy can be detected and measured. The location
where a magnetic field can be detected exiting or entering a
material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic poles have
never been detected in isolation but always occur in pairs, hence the name dipole. Therefore,
a dipole is an object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a second, equal but opposite,
magnetic pole on the other.
A bar magnet can be considered a dipole with a north pole at one end and south pole at the
other. A magnetic field can be measured leaving the dipole at the north pole and returning the
magnet at the south pole. If a magnet is cut in two, two magnets or dipoles are created out of
one. This sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to the atomic level. Therefore, the
source of magnetism lies in the basic building block of all matter...the atom.

The Source of Magnetism
All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons.
The protons and neutrons are located in the atom's nucleus and the electrons are in constant
motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge and produce a
magnetic field as they move through space. A magnetic field is produced whenever an
electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the magnetic moment.
This may be hard to visualize on a subatomic scale but consider electric current flowing
through a conductor. When the electrons (electric current) are flowing through the conductor,
a magnetic field forms around the conductor. The magnetic field can be detected using a
compass. The magnetic field will place a force on the compass needle, which is another
example of a dipole.
Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way by a magnetic
field. However, not all materials react the same way. This will be explored more in the next
section.
Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic Materials
When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material's
electrons will be affected. This effect is known as Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction.
However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an external magnetic field.
This reaction is dependent on a number of factors, such as the atomic and molecular structure
of the material, and the net magnetic field associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments
associated with atoms have three origins. These are the electron orbital motion, the change in
orbital motion caused by an external magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.
In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Electrons in a pair spin in opposite directions. So,
when electrons are paired together, their opposite spins
cause their magnetic fields to cancel each other.
Therefore, no net magnetic field exists. Alternately,
materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net
magnetic field and will react more to an external field.
Most materials can be classified as diamagnetic,
paramagnetic or .ferromagnetic.
Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.
Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not
retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Diamagnetic materials are
solids with all paired electron resulting in no permanent net magnetic moment per atom.
Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron orbits under the influence
of an external magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic table, including copper, silver,
and gold, are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These
materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due to
the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the realignment of the electron orbits

caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium,

molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.
Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external magnetic

field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic
properties after the external field has been removed. Ferromagnetic materials have some
unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net magnetic moment. They get their strong
magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In these domains, large
numbers of atom's moments (1012 to 1015) are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force
within the domain is strong. When a ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnitized state, the
domains are nearly randomly organized and the net magnetic field for the part as a whole is
zero. When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned to produce a strong
magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic
materials. Components with these materials are commonly inspected using the magnetic
particle method.
Magnetic Domains
Ferromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties not only because their atoms carry a
magnetic moment but also because the material is made up of small regions known as
magnetic domains. In each domain, all of the atomic dipoles are coupled together in a
preferential direction. This alignment develops as the material develops its crystalline
structure during solidification from the molten state. Magnetic domains can be detected using
Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) and images of the domains like the one shown below
can be constructed.
Magnetic Force Microscopy

(MFM) image showing the
magnetic domains in a piece
of heat treated carbon steel.
During solidification, a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the
magnetic force within the domain is strong in one direction. Ferromagnetic materials are said
to be characterized by "spontaneous magnetization" since they obtain saturation
magnetization in each of the domains without an external magnetic field being applied. Even
though the domains are magnetically saturated, the bulk material may not show any signs of
magnetism because the domains develop themselves and are randomly oriented relative to
each other.
Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the material
are aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong external magnetic field or by

passing electrical current through the material. Some or all of the domains can become
aligned. The more domains that are aligned, the stronger the magnetic field in the material.
When all of the domains are aligned, the material is said to be magnetically saturated. When a
material is magnetically saturated, no additional amount of external magnetization force will
cause an increase in its internal level of magnetization.
Unmagnetized Material Magnetized Material
Magnetic Field Characteristics
Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet
As discussed previously, a magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of space.

The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph below. A
magnetograph can be created by placing a piece of paper over a magnet and sprinkling the
paper with iron filings. The particles align themselves with the lines of magnetic force
produced by the magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the magnetic field exits the
material at one pole and reenters the material at another pole along the length of the magnet.
It should be noted that the magnetic lines of force exist in three dimensions but are only seen
in two dimensions in the image.

It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the length of the magnet but
that the poles are concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where the exit poles are
concentrated is called the magnet's north pole and the area where the entrance poles are
concentrated is called the magnet's south pole.
Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets
Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more common is the horseshoe (U)
magnet. The horseshoe magnet has north and south poles just like a bar magnet but the
magnet is curved so the poles lie in the same plane. The magnetic lines of force flow from
pole to pole just like in the bar magnet. However, since the poles are located closer together
and a more direct path exists for the lines of flux
to travel between the poles, the magnetic field is
concentrated between the poles.
If a bar magnet was placed across the end of a

horseshoe magnet or if a magnet was formed in
the shape of a ring, the lines of magnetic force
would not even need to enter the air. The value
of such a magnet where the magnetic field is
completely contained with the material probably
has limited use. However, it is important to
understand that the magnetic field can flow in
loop within a material. (See section on circular
magnetism for more information).
General Properties of Magnetic Lines of

Force
Magnetic lines of force have a number of

important properties, which include:
• They seek the path of least resistance

between opposite magnetic poles. In a
single bar magnet as shown to the right,
they attempt to form closed loops from
pole to pole.
• They never cross one another.
• They all have the same strength.
• Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area of higher
permeability to an area of lower permeability.
• Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles.
• They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement
occurs.
• They flow from the south pole to the north pole within a material and north pole to
south pole in air.

Electromagnetic Fields
Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. In 1820,
Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current
flowing through a wire caused a nearby compass to deflect. This
indicated that the current in the wire was generating a magnetic
field. Oersted studied the nature of the magnetic field around the
long straight wire. He found that the magnetic field existed in
circular form around the wire and that the intensity of the field
was directly proportional to the amount of current carried by the
wire. He also found that the strength of the field was strongest
next to the wire and diminished with distance from the conductor
until it could no longer be detected. In most conductors, the
magnetic field exists only as long as the current is flowing (i.e.
an electrical charge is in motion). However, in ferromagnetic
materials the electric current will cause some or all of the
magnetic domains to align and a residual magnetic field will
remain.
Oersted also noticed that the direction of the magnetic field was
dependent on the direction of the electrical current in the wire. A
three-dimensional representation of the magnetic field is shown
below. There is a simple rule for remembering the direction of
the magnetic field around a conductor. It is called the right-
hand rule. If a person grasps a conductor in one's right hand
with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers will circle the conductor in
the direction of the magnetic field.
A word of caution about the right-hand rule

For the right-hand rule to work, one important thing that must
be remembered about the direction of current flow. Standard
convention has current flowing from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal. This convention is credited to
Benjamin Franklin who theorized that electric current was
due to a positive charge moving from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal. However, it was later discovered that it
is the movement of the negatively charged electron that is
responsible for electrical current. Rather than changing
several centuries of theory and equations, Franklin's
convention is still used today.

Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil
When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a coil, a
magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along its longitudinal
axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil. The magnetic field circling each
loop of wire combines with the fields from the other loops to produce a concentrated field
down the center of the coil. A loosely wound coil is illustrated below to show the interaction
of the magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil
when it is wound tighter.
The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current but also with
each loop that is added to the coil. A long, straight coil of wire is called a solenoid and can be
used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. The
concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic
materials for inspection using the magnetic particle testing method. Please be aware that the
field outside the coil is weak and is not suitable for magnetizing ferromagnetic materials.
Quantifying Magnetic Properties

(Magnetic Field Strength, Flux Density, Total Flux and
Magnetization)
Until now, only the qualitative features of the magnetic field

have been discussed. However, it is necessary to be able to
measure and express quantitatively the various characteristics
of magnetism. Unfortunately, a number of unit conventions
are used (as shown in the table below). SI units will be used
in this material. The advantage of using SI units is that they
are traceable back to an agreed set of four base units - meter,
kilogram, second, and Ampere.

SI Units SI Units CGS Units

Quantity
(Sommerfeld) (Kennelly) (Gaussian)
Field H A/m A/m oersteds
Flux Density
Β tesla tesla gauss
(Magnetic Induction)
Flux φ weber weber maxwell
Magnetization M A/m - erg/Oe-cm3
The units for magnetic field strength H are ampere/meter. A magnetic field strength of 1
ampere/meter is produced at the center of a single circular conductor with a one meter
diameter carrying a steady current of 1 ampere.
The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a given area at a right angle
is known as the magnetic flux density, B. The flux density or magnetic induction has the
tesla as its unit. One tesla is equal to 1 Newton/(A/m). From these units, it can be seen that
the flux density is a measure of the force applied to a particle by the magnetic field. The
Gauss is the CGS unit for flux density and is commonly used by US industry. One gauss
represents one line of flux passing through one square centimeter of air oriented 90 degrees to
the flux flow.
The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic flux, φ. The
strength of the flux is determined by the number of magnetic domains that are aligned within
a material. The total flux is simply the flux density applied over an area. Flux carries the unit
of a weber, which is simply a tesla- meter2.
The magnetization is a measure of the extent to which an object is magnetized. It is a measure

of the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the object. Magnetization carries the same
units as a magnetic field: amperes/meter.
Conversion between CGS and SI magnetic units.
The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties
A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by
studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced
magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H
loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below.

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the
magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously
magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is
increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H+), the
stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic
domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very
little increase in magnetic flux. The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation.
When H is reduced to zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it
can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material even though the magnetizing
force is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the
remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains
remain aligned but some have lost their alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the
curve moves to point "c", where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of
coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains
so that the net flux within the material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual
magnetism from the material is called the
coercive force or coercivity of the material.
As the magnetizing force is increased in the

negative direction, the material will again
become magnetically saturated but in the
opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to
zero brings the curve to point "e." It will
have a level of residual magnetism equal to
that achieved in the other direction.
Increasing H back in the positive direction
will return B to zero. Notice that the curve
did not return to the origin of the graph
because some force is required to remove the
residual magnetism. The curve will take a
different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where it with complete the loop.

From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be
determined.
1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation

induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a
certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after
achieving saturation. (The value of B at point b on the hysteresis curve.)
2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a
material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and
retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point.
However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value
when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.
3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a
magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point c
on the hysteresis curve.)
4. Permeability, μ - A property of a material that describes the ease with which a
magnetic flux is established in the component.
5. Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the
establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an
electrical circuit.
Permeability
As previously mentioned, permeability is a material property that describes the ease with
which a magnetic flux is established in a component. It is the ratio of the flux density to the
magnetizing force and is represented by the following equation:
μ = Β/Η
It is clear that this equation describes the slope of the curve at any point on the hysteresis
loop. The permeability value given in papers and reference materials is usually the maximum
permeability or the maximum relative permeability. The maximum permeability is the point
where the slope of the B/H curve for the unmagnetized material is the greatest. This point is
often taken as the point where a straight line from the origin is tangent to the B/H curve.
The relative permeability is arrived at by taking the ratio of the material's permeability to the
permeability in free space (air).
μ(relative) = μ(material) / μ(air)

where: μ(air) = 1.256 x 10-6 H/m
The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being magnetized. The
hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the graph.
Relative to other materials, a material with a wider hysteresis loop has:

• Lower Permeability
• Higher Retentivity
• Higher Coercivity
• Higher Reluctance
• Higher Residual Magnetism
Relative to other materials, a material with the

narrower hysteresis loop has:
• Higher Permeability
• Lower Retentivity
• Lower Coercivity
• Lower Reluctance
• Lower Residual Magnetism.
In magnetic particle testing, the level of

residual magnetism is important. Residual magnetic fields are affected by the permeability,
which can be related to the carbon content and alloying of the material. A component with
high carbon content will have low permeability and will retain more magnetic flux than a
material with low carbon content.
In the two B-H loops above, which one would indicative of a low carbon steel? Answer
Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability
To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to understand that
the orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very important. There are
two general types of magnetic fields that can be established within a component.
A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that

run parallel to the long axis of the part. Longitudinal
magnetization of a component can be accomplished using the
longitudinal field set up by a coil or solenoid. It can also be
accomplished using permanent magnets or electromagnets.
A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run

circumferentially around the perimeter of a part. A circular
magnetic field is induced in an article by either passing current
through the component or by passing current through a
conductor surrounded by the component.
The type of magnetic field established is determined by the method used to magnetize the
specimen. Being able to magnetize the part in two directions is important because the best
detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to
the longest dimension of the defect. This orientation creates the largest disruption of the
magnetic field within the part and the greatest flux leakage at the surface of the part. As can

be seen in the image below, if the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will see
little disruption and no flux leakage field will be produced.
An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is necessary to
form an indication. Since defects may occur in various and unknown directions, each part is
normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other. If the component below
is considered, it is known that passing current through the part from end to end will establish
a circular magnetic field that will be 90 degrees to the direction of the current. Therefore,
defects that have a significant dimension in the direction of the current (longitudinal defects)
should be detectable. Alternately, transverse-type defects will not be detectable with circular
magnetization.
Watch this short movie showing the effect of field direction on indication visibility. (775 KB
mov)
Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Materials
There are a variety of methods that can be used to establish a magnetic field in a component
for evaluation using magnetic particle inspection. It is common to classify the magnetizing
methods as either direct or indirect.

Magnetization Using Direct Induction

(Direct Magnetization)
With direct magnetization, current is passed

directly through the component. Recall that
whenever current flows, a magnetic field is
produced. Using the right-hand rule, which
was introduced earlier, it is known that the
magnetic lines of flux form normal to the
direction of the current and form a circular
field in and around the conductor. When
using the direct magnetization method, care
must be taken to ensure that good electrical
contact is established and maintained
between the test equipment and the test
component. Improper contact can result in
arcing that may damage the component. It is also possible to overheat components in areas of
high resistance such as the contact points and in areas
of small cross-sectional area.
There are several ways that direct magnetization is

commonly accomplished. One way involves clamping
the component between two electrical contacts in a
special piece of equipment. Current is passed through
the component and a circular magnetic field is
established in and around the component. When the
magnetizing current is stopped, a residual magnetic
field will remain within the component. The strength
of the induced magnetic field is proportional to the
amount of current passed through the component.
A second technique involves using clamps or prods,

which are attached or placed in contact with the component. Electrical current flows through
the component from contact to contact. The current sets up a circular magnetic field around
the path of the current.
Magnetization Using Indirect Induction (Indirect Magnetization)
Indirect magnetization is accomplished by using a strong external magnetic field to establish

a magnetic field within the component. As with direct magnetization, there are several ways
that indirect magnetization can be accomplished.
The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of establishing a magnetic field.
However, their use is limited due to lack of control of the field strength and the difficulty of
placing and removing strong permanent magnets from the component.

Electromagnets in the form of an adjustable horseshoe magnet (called a yoke) eliminate the
problems associated with permanent magnets and are used extensively in industry.
Electromagnets only exhibit a magnetic flux when electric current is flowing around the soft
iron core. When the magnet is placed on the component, a magnetic field is established
between the north and south poles of the magnet.
Another way of indirectly inducting a magnetic field in a material is by using the magnetic
field of a current carrying conductor. A circular magnetic field can be established in
cylindrical components by using a central conductor. Typically, one or more cylindrical
components are hung from a solid copper bar running through the inside diameter. Current is
passed through the copper bar and the resulting circular magnetic field establishes a magnetic
field within the test components.
The use of coils and solenoids is a third method of indirect magnetization. When the length
of a component is several times larger than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic field can be
established in the component. The component is placed longitudinally in the concentrated
magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization technique is often
referred to as a "coil shot."
Magnetizing Current
As seen in the previous pages, electric current is often used to establish the magnetic field in
components during magnetic particle inspection. Alternating current and direct current are the
two basic types of current commonly used. Current from single phase 110 volts, to three
phase 440 volts, are used when generating an electric field in a component. Current flow is
often modified to provide the appropriate field within the part. The type of current used can
have an effect on the inspection results, so the types of currents commonly used will be
briefly reviewed.
Direct Current
Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A battery is the
most common source of direct current. As previously mentioned, current is said to flow from
the positive to the negative terminal. In actuality, the electrons flow in the opposite direction.
DC is very desirable when inspecting for subsurface defects because DC generates a
magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagnetic materials, the
magnetic field produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the

component. Conversely, the field produced using alternating current is concentrated in a thin
layer at the surface of the component.
Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second. In the
United States, 60 cycle current is the commercial norm but 50 cycle current is common in
many countries. Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use
of it for magnetic particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field
in ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field will be limited to narrow region at the surface
of the component. This phenomenon is known as the "skin effect" and occurs because
induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does not allow the
domains below the surface time to align. Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only
when the inspection is limited to surface defects.
View a short video on the AC versus DC. (195 KB mov)
Rectified Alternating Current
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection applications call for the
detection of subsurface defects. However, the convenient access to AC, drives its use beyond
surface flaw inspections. Luckily, AC can be converted to current that is very much like DC
through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be
converted to a one directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified current are
described below.

Half Wave Rectified

Alternating Current (HWAC)
When single phase alternating current is passed

through a rectifier, current is allowed to flow in only
one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is
blocked out so that a one directional, pulsating
current is produced. The current rises from zero to a
maximum and then returns to zero. No current
flows during the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out. The HWAC repeats at same rate
as the unrectified current (60 hertz typical). Since half of the current is blocked out, the
amperage is half of the unaltered AC.
This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The pulsation of
the HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the particles and giving
them added mobility. This added mobility is especially important when using dry particles.
The pulsation is reported to significantly improve inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often
used to power electromagnetic yokes.
Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)
Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than blocking it
out. This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the pulses. Filtering is usually
performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current. While particle
mobility is not as good as half-wave AC due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the
subsurface magnetic field is improved.
Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current
Three phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has more
favorable power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type of electrical current
is also highly desirable for magnetic particle testing because when it is rectified and filtered,
the resulting current very closely resembles direct current. Stationary magnetic particle
equipment wired with three phase AC will usually have the ability to magnetize with AC or
DC (three phase full wave rectified), providing the inspector with the advantages of each
current form.
Longitudinal Magnetic Fields – Distribution and Intensity
When the length of a component is several times larger than its diameter, a longitudinal
magnetic field can be established in the component. The component is often placed
longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid.
This magnetization technique is often referred to as a "coil shot."
The magnetic field travels through the component from end to end with some flux loss along
its length as shown in the image to the right. Keep in mind that the magnetic lines of flux
occur in three dimensions and are only shown in 2D in the image. The magnetic lines of flux
are much denser inside the ferromagnetic material than in air because ferromagnetic materials
have much higher permeability than does air. When the concentrated flux within the material
comes to the air at the end of the component, it must spread out since the air can not support

as many lines of flux per unit volume. To keep from crossing as they spread out, some of the
magnetic lines of flux are forced out the side of the component.
When a component is magnetized along its complete length, the flux loss is small along its
length. Therefore, when a component is uniform in cross section and magnetic permeability,
the flux density will be relatively uniform throughout the component. Flaws that run normal
to the magnetic lines of flux will disturb the flux lines and often cause a leakage field at the
surface of the component.
When a component with considerable length is magnetized using a solenoid, it is possible to

magnetize only a portion of the component. Only the material within the solenoid and about
the same width on each side of the solenoid will be strongly magnetized. At some distance
from the solenoid, the magnetic lines of force will abandon their longitudinal direction, leave
the part at a pole on one side of the solenoid and return to the part at a opposite pole on the
other side of the solenoid. This occurs because the magnetizing force diminishes with
increasing distance from the solenoid. As a result, the magnetizing force may only be strong
enough to align the magnetic domains within and very near the solenoid. The unmagnetized
portion of the component will not support as much magnetic flux as the magnetized portion
and some of the flux will be forced out of the part as illustrated in the image below.
Therefore, a long component must be magnetized and inspected at several locations along its
length for complete inspection coverage.
Solenoid - An electrically energized coil of insulated wire, which produces a magnetic field
within the coil

Circular Magnetic Fields – Distribution and Intensity
As discussed previously, when current is passed through a solid conductor, a magnetic field
forms in and around the conductor. The following statements can be made about the
distribution and intensity of the magnetic field.
• The field strength varies from zero at the center of the component to a maximum at
the surface.
• The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the
conductor increases when the current strength is held constant. (However, a larger
conductor is capable of carrying more current.)
• The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current
strength. Inside the conductor, the field strength is dependent on the current strength,
magnetic permeability of the material, and if magnetic, the location on the B-H curve.
• The field strength outside the conductor decreases with distance from the conductor.
In the images below, the magnetic field strength is graphed versus distance from the center of
the conductor. It can be seen that in a nonmagnetic conductor carrying DC, the internal field
strength rises from zero at the center to a maximum value at the surface of the conductor. The
external field strength decrease with distance from the surface of the conductor. When the
conductor is a magnetic material, the field strength within the conductor is much greater than
it was in the nonmagnetic conductor. This is due to the permeability of the magnetic material.
The external field is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current level and
conductor radius are the same.
The magnetic field distribution in and

around a solid conductor of a
around a solid conductor of a magnetic
nonmagnetic material carrying direct
material carrying direct current.
current.
When the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic field strength rises
from zero at the center to a maximum at the surface. However, the field is concentrated in a
thin layer near the surface of the conductor. This is known as the "skin effect." The skin
effect is evident in the field strength versus distance graph for a magnetic conductor shown to
the right. The external field decreases with increasing distance from the surface as it does

with DC. It should be remembered that with AC the field is constantly varying in strength
and direction.
In a hollow circular conductor there is no magnetic field in the void area. The magnetic field
is zero at the inside wall surface and rises until it reaches a maximum at the outside wall
surface. As with a solid conductor, when the conductor is a magnetic material, the field
strength within the conductor is much greater than it was in the nonmagnetic conductor due
to the permeability of the magnetic material. The external field strength decreases with
distance from the surface of the conductor. The external field is exactly the same for the two
materials provided the current level and conductor radius are the same.

around a solid conductor of a magnetic
material carrying alternating current.

around a hollow conductor of a
around a hollow conductor of a magnetic
nonmagnetic material carrying direct
material carrying direct current.
current.

When AC is passed through a hollow circular conductor, the skin effect concentrates the
magnetic field at the outside diameter of the component.

The magnetic field distribution in and around a nonmagnetic central
around a hollow conductor of a magnetic conductor carrying DC inside a hollow
material carrying alternating current. conductor of a magnetic material .
As can be seen in the field distribution images, the field strength at the inside surface of
hollow conductor carrying a circular magnetic field produced by direct magnetization is very
low. Therefore, the direct method of magnetization is not recommended when inspecting the
inside diameter wall of a hollow component for shallow defects. The field strength increases
rather rapidly as one moves in from the ID, so if the defect has significant depth, it may be
detectable. However, a much better method of magnetizing hollow components for inspection
of the ID and OD surfaces is with the use of a central conductor. As can be seen in the field
distribution image to the right, when current is passed through a nonmagnetic central
conductor (copper bar), the magnetic field produced on the inside diameter surface of a
magnetic tube is much greater and the field is still strong enough for defect detection on the
OD surface.
Demagnetization
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize the

component. Remanent magnetic fields can:
• affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.

• interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.
• create a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may cause
the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.
• cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase wear.
Removal of a field may be accomplished in several ways. This random orientation of the
magnetic domains can be achieved most effectively by heating the material above its curie
temperature. The curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770oC or 1390oF. When steel is
heated above its curie temperature, it will become austenitic and loses its magnetic properties.
When it is cooled back down, it will go through a reverse transformation and will contain no

residual magnetic field. The material should also be placed with it long axis in an east-west
orientation to avoid any influence of the Earth's
magnetic field.
It is often inconvenient to heat a material above it

curie temperature to demagnetize it, so another
method that returns the material to a nearly
unmagnetized state is commonly used. Subjecting the
component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic
field will return the dipoles to a nearly random
orientation throughout the material. This can be
accomplished by pulling a component out and away
from a coil with AC passing through it. The same can
also be accomplished using an electromagnetic yoke
with AC selected. Also, many stationary magnetic
particle inspection units come with a demagnetization
feature that slowly reduces the AC in a coil in which
the component is placed.
A field meter is often used to verify that the residual flux has been removed from a
component. Industry standards usually require that the magnetic flux be reduced to less than
3 gauss after completing a magnetic particle inspection.
Measuring Magnetic Fields
When performing a magnetic particle inspection, it is very important to be able to determine

the direction and intensity of the magnetic field. As discussed previously, the direction of the
magnetic field should be between 45 and 90 degrees to the longest dimension of the flaw for
best detectability. The field intensity must be high enough to cause an indication to form, but
not too high to cause nonrelevant indications to mask relevant indications. To cause an
indication to form, the field strength in the object must produce a flux leakage field that is
strong enough to hold the magnetic particles in place over a discontinuity. Flux measurement
devices can provide important information about the field strength.
Since it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the devices
measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material. There are a number of different
devices that can be used to detect and measure an external magnetic
field. The two devices commonly used in magnetic particle
inspection are the field indicator and the Hall-effect meter, which is
also called a gauss meter. Pie gauges and shims are devices that are
often used to provide an indication of the field direction and strength
but do not actually yield a quantitative measure. They will be
discussed in a later section.
Field Indicators
Field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron
vane that is deflected by a magnetic field. The X-ray image below
shows the inside working of a field meter looking in from the side.
The vane is attached to a needle that rotates and moves the pointer

for the scale. Field indicators can be adjusted and calibrated so that quantitative information
can be obtained. However, the measurement range of field indicators is usually small due to
the mechanics of the device. The one shown to the right has a range from plus 20 gauss to
minus 20 gauss. This limited range makes them best suited for measuring the residual
magnetic field after demagnetization.
A field indicator is shown checking for residual magnetism in this movie. (194 MB mov)
Hall-Effect (Gauss/Tesla) Meter
A Hall-effect meter is an electronic device that provides a digital readout of the magnetic
field strength in gauss or tesla units. The meters use a very small conductor or semiconductor
element at the tip of the probe.
Electric current is passed through the conductor. In a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the
moving electrons which tends to push them to one side of the conductor. A buildup of charge
at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable
voltage between the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse
voltage is called the Hall-effect after Edwin H. Hall, who discovered it in 1879.

The voltage generated Vh can be related to the external magnetic field by the following
equation.
Vh = I B Rh / b
Where:
Vh is the voltage generated.
I is the applied direct current.
B is the component of the magnetic field that is at a right angle to the direct current in the
Hall element.
Rh is the Hall Coefficient of the Hall element.
b is the thickness of the Hall element.
Probes are available with either tangential (transverse) or axial sensing elements. Probes can
be purchased in a wide variety of sizes and configurations and with different measurement
ranges. The probe is placed in the magnetic field such that the magnetic lines of force
intersect the major dimensions of the sensing element at a right angle. Placement and
orientation of the probe is very important and will be discussed in a later section.
Portable Magnetizing Equipment for Magnetic Particle

Inspection
To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become familiar with
the different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to generate them. As discussed
previously, one of the primary requirements for detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic material
is that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept the defect at a 45 to 90 degree
angle. Flaws that are normal (90 degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest
indications because they disrupt more of the magnet flux.
Magnetic Fields:
A field of force that exists around a magnetic body or a current carrying conductor.
Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to be able to establish a

magnetic field in at least two directions. A variety of equipment exists to establish the
magnetic field for MPI. One way to classify equipment is based on its portability. Some
equipment is designed to be portable so that inspections can be made in the field and some is
designed to be stationary for ease of inspection in the laboratory or manufacturing facility.
Portable equipment will be discussed first.

Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic particle inspection as the source of magnetism.
The two primary types of permanent magnets are bar magnets
and horseshoe (yoke) magnets. These industrial magnets are
usually very strong and may require significant strength to
remove them from a piece of metal. Some permanent magnets
require over 50 pounds of force to remove them from the
surface. Because it is difficult to remove the magnets from the
component being inspected, and sometimes difficult and
dangerous to place the magnets, their use is not particularly
popular. However, permanent magnets are sometimes used by
divers for inspection in underwater environments or other areas,
such as explosive environments, where electromagnets cannot
be used. Permanent magnets can also be made small enough to
fit into tight areas where electromagnets might not fit.
Electromagnets
Today, most of the equipment used to create the magnetic field
used in MPI is based on electromagnetism. That is, using an
electrical current to produce the magnetic field. An
electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment that
is used to establish a magnetic field. It is
basically made by wrapping an electrical coil
around a piece of soft ferromagnetic steel. A
switch is included in the electrical circuit so that
the current and, therefore, the magnetic field can
be turned on and off. They can be powered with
alternating current from a wall socket or by
direct current from a battery pack. This type of
magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in
a local area where the poles of the magnet touch
the part being inspected. Some yokes can lift
weights in excess of 40 pounds.
Portable yoke with battery pack

Portable magnetic particle kit
View a short movie on portable magnetic yokes. (716 KB mov)

Prods
Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed
against the surface of the component being
inspected to make contact for passing electrical
current through the metal. The current passing
between the prods creates a circular magnetic
field around the prods that can be used in
magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically
made from copper and have an insulated handle to
help protect the operator. One of the prods has a
trigger switch so that the current can be quickly
and easily turned on and off. Sometimes the two
prods are connected by any insulator (as shown in
the image) to facilitate one hand operation. This is referred to as a dual prod and is commonly
used for weld inspections.
If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component surface, electrical
arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. For this reason, the use of prods are
not allowed when inspecting aerospace and other critical components. To help prevent arcing,
the prod tips should be inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered with
scale or other contaminant, or damaged.
The following applet shows two prods used to create a current through a conducting part. The
resultant magnetic field roughly depicts the patterns expected from an magnetic particle
inspection of an unflawed surface. The user is encouraged to manipulate the prods to orient
the magnetic field to "cut across" suspected defects.
Portable Coils and Conductive Cables

Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within a
component. When a preformed coil is used, the component is placed against the inside
surface on the coil. Coils typically have three or five turns of a copper cable within the
molded frame. A foot switch is often used to energize the coil. Conductive cables are
wrapped around the component. The cable used is typically 00 extra flexible or 0000 extra
flexible. The number of wraps is determined by the magnetizing force needed and of course,
the length of the cable. Normally, the wraps are kept as close together as possible. When
using a coil or cable wrapped into a coil, amperage is usually expressed in ampere-turns.
Ampere-turns is the amperage shown on the amp meter times the number of turns in the coil.

Portable Coil Conductive Cable
Watch these short movies showing a cable being used to establish magnetic fields in parts.
Cable wrapped around part (690 KB mov). Cable wrapped through the part (425 KB mov).
Portable Power Supplies

Portable power supplies are used to provide the necessary electricity to the prods, coils or
cables. Power supplies are commercially available in a variety of sizes. Small power supplies
generally provide up to 1,500A of half-wave direct current or alternating current when used
with a 4.5 meter 0000 cable. They are small and light enough to be carried and operate on
either 120V or 240V electrical service. When more power is necessary, mobile power
supplies can be used. These units come with wheels so that they can be rolled where needed.
These units also operate on 120V or 240V electrical service and can provide up to 6,000A of
AC or half-wave DC when 9 meters or less of 0000 cable is used.
The features of a portable power supply are explained in this short movie (800KB mov).
Stationary Equipment for Magnetic Particle Inspection
Stationary magnetic particle inspection

equipment is designed for use in laboratory or
production environment. The most common
stationary system is the wet horizontal (bench)
unit. Wet horizontal units are designed to allow
for batch inspections of a variety of
components. The units have head and tail
stocks (similar to a lathe) with electrical
contact that the part can be clamped between.
A circular magnetic field is produced with
direct magnetization. The tail stock can be
moved and locked into place to accommodate
parts of various lengths. To assist the operator in clamping the parts, the contact on the
headstock can be moved pneumatically via a foot switch.
Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved into place so the indirect
magnetization can be used to produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have five
turns and can be obtained in a variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle solution is collected

and held in a tank. A pump and hose system is used to apply the particle solution to the
components being inspected. Either the visible or fluorescent particles can be used. Some of
the systems offer a variety of options in electrical current used for magnetizing the
component. The operator has the option to use AC, half wave DC, or full wave DC. In some
units, a demagnetization feature is built in, which uses the coil and decaying AC.
To inspect a part using a head-shot, the part is

clamped between two electrical contact pads. The
magnetic solution, called a bath, is then flowed over
the surface of the part. The bath is then interrupted
and a magnetizing current is applied to the part for a
short duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5 seconds.
(Precautions should be taken to prevent burning or
overheating of the part.) A circular field flowing
around the circumference of the part is created.
Leakage fields from defects then attract the particles
to form indications.
When the coil is used to establish a longitudinal

magnetic field within the part, the part is placed on
the inside surface of the coil. Just as done with a head
shot, the bath is then flowed over the surface of the
part. A magnetizing current is applied to the part for a
short duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5 seconds, just after
coverage with the bath is interrupted. (Precautions
should be taken to prevent burning or overheating of
the part.) Leakage fields from defects attract the
particles to form visible indications.
The wet horizontal unit can also be used to establish

a circular magnetic field using a central conductor.
This type of a setup is used to inspect parts that have
an open center, such as gears, tubes, and other ring-
shaped objects. A central conductor is an electrically
conductive bar that is usually made of copper or
aluminum. The bar is inserted through the opening
and the bar is then clamped between the contact
pads. When current is passed through the central
conductor, a circular magnetic field flows around the
bar and enters into the part or parts being inspected.

Multidirectional Equipment for Magnetic Particle

Inspection
Multidirectional units allow the

component to be magnetized in two
directions, longitudinally and
circumferentially, in rapid succession.
Therefore, inspections are conducted
without the need for a second shot. In
multidirectional units, the two fields are
balanced so that the field strengths are
equal in both directions. These quickly
changing balanced fields produce a
multidirectional field in the component
providing detection of defects lying in
more than one direction.
Just as in conventional wet-horizontal

systems, the electrical current used in
multidirectional magnetization may be
alternating, half-wave direct, or full-
wave. It is also possible to use a
combination of currents depending on the test applications. Multidirectional magnetization
can be used for a large number of production applications, and high volume inspections.
To determine adequate field strength and balance of the rapidly changing fields, technique
development requires a little more effort when multidirectional equipment is used. It is
desirable to develop the technique using a component with known defects oriented in at least
two directions, or a manufactured defect standard. Quantitative Quality Indicators (QQI) are
also often used to verify the strength and direction of magnetic fields.
Lights for Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection can be

performed using particles that are highly
visible under white light conditions or
particles that are highly visible under
ultraviolet light conditions. When an
inspection is being performed using the
visible color contrast particles, no special
lighting is required as long as the area of
inspection is well lit. A light intensity of at
least 1000 lux (100 fc) is recommended
when visible particles are used, but a variety
of light sources can be used.
When fluorescent particles are used, special

ultraviolet light must be used. Fluorescence
is defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and during exposure to radiation.

Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are coated with a material that
produces light in the visible spectrum when exposed to near-ultraviolet light. This "particle
glow" provides high contrast indications on the component anywhere particles collect.
Particles that fluoresce yellow-green are most common because this color matches the peak
sensitivity of the human eye under dark conditions. However, particles that fluoresce red,
blue, yellow, and green colors are available.
Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light or "black light" is light in the 1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100 to 400nm)
wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form of light that is
invisible to the human eye. Wavelengths above 4,000A fall into the visible light spectrum and
are seen as the color violet. UV is separated according to wavelength into three classes: A, B,
and C. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy that is carried in the light and the more
dangerous it is to the human cells.
Class Wavelength Range

UV-A 3,200–4,000 Angstroms
UV-B 2,800–3,200 Angstroms
UV-C 2,800–1,000 Angstroms
The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is between 3,500 and 3,800A
with a peak wavelength at about 3,650A. This wavelength range is used because it is in the
UV-A range, which is the safest to work with. UV-B will do an effective job of causing
substances to fluoresce, however, it should not be used because harmful effects such as skin
burns and eye damage can occur. This wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created
during the welding process. UV-C (1,000 to 2,800A) is even more dangerous to living cells
and is used to kill bacteria in industrial and medical settings.
The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is obtained by filtering the ultraviolet light
generated by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide range of wavelengths. The
short wavelengths of 3,120 to 3,340A are produced in low levels. A peak wavelength of
3650A is produced at a very high intensity. Wavelengths in the visible violet range (4050A to
4350A), green-yellow (5460A), yellow (6220A) and orange (6770A) are also usually
produced. The filter allows only radiation in the range of 3200 to 4000A and a little visible
dark purple to pass.
Basic Ultraviolet Lights
UV bulbs come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The

more common types are the low pressure tube, high
pressure spot, the high pressure flood types. The
tubular black light is similar in construction to the
tubular fluorescent lights used for office or home
illumination. These lights use a low pressure
mercury vapor arc. Tube lengths of 6 to 48 inches
are common. The low pressure bulbs are most often
used to provide general illumination to large areas
rather than for illumination of components to be
inspected. These bulbs generate a relatively large

amount of white light, which is concerning since inspection specifications require less than
two foot-candles of white light at the inspection surface.
Flood lights are also used to illuminate the inspection area, since they provide even
illumination over a large area. Intensity levels for flood lamps are relatively low because the
energy is spread over a large area. They generally do not generate the required UV light
intensity at the given distance that specifications require.
Spot lights, on the other hand, provide concentrated energy that can be directed to the area of
inspection. A spot light will generate a six inch diameter circle of high intensity light when
held fifteen inches from the inspection surface. One hundred watt mercury vapor lights are
most commonly used, but higher wattages are available.
In the high pressure mercury vapor spot or flood lamps, UV light is generated by a quartz
tube inside the bulb. This tube contains two electrodes that establish an arc. The distance
between electrodes is such that a starting electrode must be used. A resister limits the current
to the starting electrode that establishes the initial arc that vaporizes the mercury in the tube.
Once this low level arc is established and the mercury is vaporized, the arc between the main
electrodes is established. It takes approximately five minutes to "warm up" and establish the
arc between the main electrodes. This is why specifications require a "warm up time" before
using the high pressure mercury vapor lights. Flood and spot black lights produce large
amounts of heat and should be handled with caution to prevent burns. This condition has been
eliminated by newer designs that include cooling fans. The arc in the bulb can be upset when
exposed to an external magnetic field, such as that generated by a coil. Care should be taken
not to bring the lamp close to strong magnetic fields, but if the arc is upset and extinguished,
it must be allowed to cool before it can be safely restarted.
High Intensity Ultraviolet Lights
The 400 watt metal halide bulbs or "super lights"

can be found in some facilities. This super bright
light will provide adequate lighting over an area of
up to ten times that covered by the 100 watt bulb.
Due to their high intensity, excessive light reflecting
from the surface of a component is a concern.
Moving the light a greater distance from the
inspection area will generally reduce this glare.
Another type of high intensity light available is the
micro-discharge light. This particular light produces
up to ten times the amount of UV light conventional
lights produce. Readings of up to 60,000 uW/cm2 at
15 inches can be achieved.
Magnetic Field Indicators
Determining whether a magnetic field is of adequate strength and in the proper direction is
critical when performing magnetic particle testing. As discussed previously, knowing the
direction of the field is important because the field should be as close to perpendicular to the
defect as possible and no more than 45 degrees from normal. Being able to evaluate the field
direction and strength is especially important when inspecting with a multidirectional

machine, because when the fields are not balanced properly, a vector field will be produced
that may not detect some defects.
There is actually no easy-to-apply method that permits an exact measurement of field

intensity at a given point within a material. In order to measure the field strength, it is
necessary to intercept the flux lines. This is impossible without cutting into the material and
cutting the material would immediately change the field within the part. However, cutting a
small slot or hole into the material and measuring the leakage field that crosses the air gap
with a Gauss meter is probably the best way to get an estimate of the actual field strength
within a part. Nevertheless, there are a number of tools and methods available that are used to
determine the presence and direction of the field surrounding a component.
Gauss Meter or Hall Effect Gage
A Gauss meter with a Hall Effect probe is commonly used to measure the tangential field
strength on the surface of the part. As discussed in some detail on the "Measuring Magnetic
Fields" page, the Hall effect is the transverse electric field created in a conductor when placed
in a magnetic field. Gauss meters, also called Tesla meters, are used to measure the strength
of a field tangential to the surface of the magnetized test object. The meters measure the
intensity of the field in the air adjacent to the component when a magnetic field is applied.
The advantages of Hall effect devices are: they provide a quantitative measure of the strength
of magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece, they can be used for
measurement of residual magnetic fields, and they can be used repetitively. Their main
disadvantages are that they must be periodically calibrated and they cannot be used to
establish the balance of fields in multidirectional applications.
Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI)
The Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) or Artificial Flaw Standard is often the preferred
method of assuring proper field direction and adequate field strength. The use of a QQI is
also the only practical way of ensuring balanced field intensity and direction in multiple-
direction magnetization equipment. QQIs are often used in conjunction with a Gauss meter to
establish the inspection procedure for a particular component. They are used with the wet
method only, and like other flux sharing devices, can only be used with continuous
magnetization.
The QQI is a thin strip of either 0.002 or 0.004 inch thick AISI 1005 steel. A photoetch
process is used to inscribe a specific pattern, such as concentric circles or a plus sign. QQIs
are nominally 3/4 inch square, but miniature shims are also available. QQIs must be in
intimate contact with the part being evaluated. This is accomplished by placing the shim on a
part etched side down, and taping or gluing it to the surface. The component is then
magnetized and particles applied. When the field strength is adequate, the particles will
adhere over the engraved pattern and provide information about the field direction. When a
multidirectional technique is used, a balance of the fields is noted when all areas of the QQI
produce indications.
Some of the advantages of QQIs are: they can be quantified and related to other parameters,
they can accommodate virtually any configuration with suitable selection, and they can be
reused with careful application and removal practices. Some of the disadvantages are: the

application process is somewhat slow, the parts must be clean and dry, shims cannot be used
as a residual magnetism indicator as they are a flux sharing device, they can be easily
damaged with improper handling, and they will corrode if not cleaned and properly stored.
Above left is a photo of a typical QQI shim. The photo on the right shows the indication
produced by the QQI when it is applied to the surface a part and a magnetic field is
established that runs across the shim from right to left.
Pie Gage
The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or eight sections by
nonferromagnetic material. The divisions serve as artificial defects that radiate out in
different directions from the center. The diameter of the gage is 3/4 to 1 inch. The divisions
between the low carbon steel pie sections are to be no greater than 1/32 inch. The sections are
furnace brazed and copper plated. The gage is placed on the test piece copper side up and the
test piece is magnetized. After particles are applied and the excess removed, the indications
provide the inspector the orientation of the magnetic field.
The principal application is on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel castings where dry
powder is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is not recommended for precision parts
with complex shapes, for wet-method applications, or for proving field magnitude. The gage
should be demagnetized between readings.
Several of the main advantages of the pie gage are that it is easy to use and it can be used
indefinitely without deterioration. The pie gage has several disadvantages, which include: it
retains some residual magnetism so indications will prevail after removal of the source of

magnetization, it can only be used in relatively flat areas, and it cannot be reliably used for
determination of balanced fields in multidirectional magnetization.
Watch this short movie to see a Pie field gage in action (600KB mov).
Slotted Strips
Slotted strips, also known as Burmah-Castrol Strips, are pieces of highly permeable
ferromagnetic material with slots of different widths. They are placed on the test object as it
is inspected. The indications produced on the strips give the inspector a general idea of the
field strength in a particular area.
Advantages of these strips are: they are relatively easily applied to the component, they can
be used successfully with either the wet or dry method when using the continuous
magnetization, they are repeatable as long as orientation to the magnetic field is maintained,
and they can be used repetitively. Some of the disadvantages are that they cannot be bent to
complex configuration and they are not suitable for multidirectional field applications since
they indicate defects in only one direction.
Magnetic Particles
As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection are a key
ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to defects. Particles start out as
tiny milled (a machining process) pieces of iron or iron oxide. A pigment (somewhat like
paint) is bonded to their surfaces to give the particles color. The metal used for the particles
has high magnetic permeability and low retentivity. High magnetic permeability is important
because it makes the particles attract easily to small magnetic leakage fields from
discontinuities, such as flaws. Low retentivity is important because the particles themselves
never become strongly magnetized so they do not stick to each other or the surface of the
part. Particles are available in a dry mix or a wet solution.
Dry Magnetic Particles
Dry magnetic particles can typically be purchased in

red, black, gray, yellow and several other colors so
that a high level of contrast between the particles
and the part being inspected can be achieved. The
size of the magnetic particles is also very important.
Dry magnetic particle products are produced to
include a range of particle sizes. The fine particles
are around 50 μm (0.002 inch) in size, and are about
three times smaller in diameter and more than 20
times lighter than the coarse particles (150 μm or
0.006 inch). This make them more sensitive to the
leakage fields from very small discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be made
exclusively of the fine particles. Coarser particles are needed to bridge large discontinuities
and to reduce the powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface
contamination, such as remnant dirt or moisture, and get trapped in surface roughness
features. It should also be recognized that finer particles will be more easily blown away by
the wind; therefore, windy conditions can reduce the sensitivity of an inspection. Also,

reclaiming the dry particles is not recommended because the small particles are less likely to
be recaptured and the "once used" mix will result in less sensitive inspections.
The particle shape is also important. Long, slender

particles tend align themselves along the lines of
magnetic force. However, research has shown that if
dry powder consists only of long, slender particles,
the application process would be less than desirable.
Elongated particles come from the dispenser in
clumps and lack the ability to flow freely and form
the desired "cloud" of particles floating on the
component. Therefore, globular particles are added
that are shorter. The mix of globular and elongated
particles result in a dry powder that flows well and
maintains good sensitivity. Most dry particle mixes have particles with L/D ratios between
one and two.
Wet Magnetic Particles
Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet
magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the
suspension provides the particles with more mobility and makes it possible for smaller
particles to be used since dust and adherence to surface contamination is reduced or
eliminated. The wet method also makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a relatively
large area.
Wet method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in a number of
ways. One way is that both visible and fluorescent particles are available. Most
nonfluorescent particles are ferromagnetic iron oxides, which are either black or brown in
color. Fluorescent particles are coated with pigments that fluoresce when exposed to
ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce green-yellow are most common to take advantage of
the peak color sensitivity of the eye but other fluorescent colors are also available. (For more
information on the color sensitivity of the eye...see the material on penetrant inspection.)
The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the dry method
for the reasons mentioned above. The particles are typically 10 μm (0.0004 inch) and smaller
and the synthetic iron oxides have particle diameters around 0.1 μm (0.000004 inch). This
very small size is a result of the process used to form the particles and is not particularly

desirable, as the particles are almost too fine to settle out of suspension. However, due to
their slight residual magnetism, the oxide particles are present mostly in clusters that settle
out of suspension much faster than the individual particles. This makes it possible to see and
measure the concentration of the particles for process control purposes. Wet particles are also
a mix of long slender and globular particles.
The carrier solutions can be water or oil-based. Water-based carriers form quicker
indications, are generally less expensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off no
petrochemical fumes, and are easier to clean from the part. Water-based solutions are usually
formulated with a corrosion inhibitor to offer some corrosion protection. However, oil-based
carrier solutions offer superior corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement protection to those
materials that are prone to attack by these mechanisms.
Suspension Liquids
Suspension liquids used in the wet magnetic

particle inspection method can be either a well
refined light petroleum distillate or water
containing additives. Petroleum-based liquids
are the most desirable carriers because they
provided good wetting of the surface of metallic
parts. However, water-based carriers are used
more because of low cost, low fire hazard, and
the ability to form indications quicker than
solvent-based carriers. Water-based carriers
must contain wetting agents to disrupt surface films of oil that may exist on the part and to
aid in the dispersion of magnetic particles in the carrier. The wetting agents create foaming as
the solution is moved about, so anti-foaming agents must be added. Also, since water
promotes corrosion in ferrous materials, corrosion inhibitors are usually added as well.
Petroleum based carriers are primarily used in systems where maintaining the proper particle
concentration is a concern. The petroleum based carriers require less maintenance because
they evaporate at a slower rate than the water-based carriers. Therefore, petroleum based
carriers might be a better choice for a system that gets only occasional use or when regularly
adjusting the carrier volume is undesirable. Modern solvent carriers are specifically designed
with properties that have flash points above 200oF and keep nocuous vapors low. Petroleum
carriers are required to meet certain specifications such as AMS 2641.
Dry Particle Inspection
In this magnetic particle testing technique, dry particles are dusted onto the surface of the test
object as the item is magnetized. Dry particle inspection is well suited for the inspections
conducted on rough surfaces. When an electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC or half wave
DC current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides mobility to the powder. The
primary applications for dry powders are unground welds and rough as-cast surfaces.
Dry particle inspection is also used to detect shallow subsurface cracks. Dry particles with
half wave DC is the best approach when inspecting for lack of root penetration in welds of
thin materials. Half wave DC with prods and dry particles is commonly used when inspecting
large castings for hot tears and cracks.

Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles
Prepare the part surface - the surface should be

relatively clean but this is not as critical as it is with
liquid penetrant inspection. The surface must be free
of grease, oil or other moisture that could keep
particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint,
rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can
sometimes be left in place with adequate results.
Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076
mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint) and
0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic
coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any
loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
Apply the magnetizing force - Use permanent
magnets, an electromagnetic yoke, prods, a coil or
other means to establish the necessary magnetic flux.
Dust on the dry magnetic particles - Dust on a
light layer of magnetic particles.
Gently blow off the excess powder - With the
magnetizing force still applied, remove the excess powder from the surface with a few gentle
puffs of dry air. The force of the air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particles
but not strong enough to dislodge particles held by a magnetic flux leakage field.
Terminate the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated with an
electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should be terminated. If
permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in place.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.
Wet Suspension Inspection
Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection,

more commonly known as wet magnetic
particle inspection, involves applying the
particles while they are suspended in a liquid
carrier. Wet magnetic particle inspection is
most commonly performed using a
stationary, wet, horizontal inspection unit but
suspensions are also available in spray cans
for use with an electromagnetic yoke. A wet
inspection has several advantages over a dry
inspection. First, all of the surfaces of the
component can be quickly and easily
covered with a relatively uniform layer of particles. Second, the liquid carrier provides
mobility to the particles for an extended period of time, which allows enough particles to
float to small leakage fields to form a visible indication. Therefore, wet inspection is
considered best for detecting very small discontinuities on smooth surfaces. On rough
surfaces, however, the particles (which are much smaller in wet suspensions) can settle in the
surface valleys and lose mobility, rendering them less effective than dry powders under these
conditions.

Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions
Prepare the part surface - Just as is required with dry particle inspections, the surface
should be relatively clean. The surface must be free of grease, oil and other moisture that
could prevent the suspension from wetting the surface and preventing the particles from
moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity, but can
sometimes be left in place with adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch
(0.076 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a
ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or
scale must be removed.
Apply the suspension - The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the surface of the
part. Usually, the stream of suspension is diverted from the part just before the magnetizing
field is applied.
Apply the magnetizing force - The magnetizing force should be applied immediately after
applying the suspension of magnetic particles. When using a wet horizontal inspection unit,
the current is applied in two or three short busts (1/2 second) which helps to improve particle
mobility.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered. Surface
discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The indications from subsurface flaws will be
less defined and lose definition as depth increases.
Inspection Using Magnetic Rubber
The magnetic rubber technique was developed for detecting very fine cracks and is capable of
revealing finer cracks than other magnetic techniques. Additionally, the technique can be use
to examine difficult to reach areas, such as the threads on the inside diameter of holes, where
the molded plugs can be removed and examined under ideal conditions and magnification if
desired. The tradeoff, of course, is that inspection times are much longer.
The techniques uses a liquid (uncured) rubber containing suspended magnetic particles. The
rubber compound is applied to the area to be inspected on a magnetized component.
Inspections can be performed using either an applied magnetic field, which is maintained
while the rubber sets (active field), or the residual field from magnetization of the component
prior to pouring the compound. A dam of modeling clay is often used to contain the
compound in the region of interest. The magnetic particles migrate to the leakage field caused
by a discontinuity. As the rubber cures, discontinuity indications remain in place on the
rubber.
The rubber is allowed to completely set, which takes from 10 to 30 minutes. The rubber cast
is removed from the part. The rubber conforms to the surface contours and provides a reverse
replica of the surface. The rubber cast is examined for evidence of discontinuities, which
appear as dark lines on the surface of the molding. The molding can be retained as a
permanent record of the inspection.
Magnetic rubber methods requires similar magnetizing systems used for dry method
magnetic particle tests. The system may include yokes, prods, clamps, coils or central
conductors. Alternating, direct current, or permanent magnets may be used to draw the
particles to the leakage fields. The direct current yoke is the most common magnetization
source for magnetic rubber inspection.

Continuous and Residual Magnetization Techniques

In magnetic particle inspection, the magnetic particles can either be applied to the component
while the magnetizing force is applied, or after it has
been stopped. Continuous magnetization describes
the technique where the magnetizing force is applied
and maintained while the magnetic particles are
dusted or flowed onto the surface of the component.
In a wet horizontal testing unit, the application of
the particles is stopped just before the magnetizing
force is applied; but, since particles are still flowing
over and covering the surface, this is considered
continuous magnetization. Residual magnetization,
on the other hand, describes the technique where the
magnetizing force is applied to magnetize the
component and then stopped before applying the
magnetic particles. Only the residual field of the magnetized component is used to attract
magnetic particles and produce an indication.
The continuous technique is generally chosen when maximum sensitivity is required because
it has two distinct advantages over the residual technique. First, the magnetic flux will be
highest when current is flowing and, therefore, leakage fields will also be strongest. Field
strength in a component depends primarily on two variables: the applied magnetic field
strength and the permeability of the test object. Viewing the upper right portion of the
hysteresis loop below, it is evident that the magnetic flux will be the strongest when the
magnetizing force is applied. If the magnetizing force is strong enough, the flux density will
reach the point of saturation. When the magnetizing force is removed, the flux density will
drop to the retentivity point. The two gray traces show the paths the flux density would
follow if the magnetizing force was applied and removed at levels below that required to
reach saturation. It can be seen that the flux density is always highest while the magnetizing
current is applied. This is independent of the permeability of a material.

Field Direction and Intensity

Field Direction
As discussed previously, determining the direction of the field is important when conducting
a magnetic particle inspection because the defect must produce a significant disturbance in
the magnetic field to produce an indication. It is difficult to detect discontinuities that
intersect the magnetic field at an angle less than 45o. When the orientation of a defect is not
well established, components should be magnetized in a minimum of two directions at
approximately right angles to each other. Depending on the geometry of the component, this
may require longitudinal magnetization in two or more directions, multiple longitudinal and
circular magnetization or circular magnetization in multiple directions. Determining strength
and direction of the fields is especially critical when inspecting with a multidirectional
machine. If the fields are not balanced, a vector field will be produced that may not detect
some defects.
Depending on the application, pie gages, QQI's, or a gauss meter can be used to check the
field direction. The pie gage is generally only used with dry powder inspections. QQI shims
can be used in a variety of applications but are the only method recommended for use in
establishing balanced fields when using multidirectional equipment.
Field Strength
The applied magnetic field must have sufficient strength to produce a satisfactory indication,
but not so strong that it produces nonrelevant indications or limits particle mobility. If the
magnetizing current is excessively high when performing a wet fluorescent particle
inspection, particles can be attracted to the surface of the part and not be allowed to migrate
to the flux leakage fields of defects. When performing a dry particle inspection, an excessive
longitudinal magnetic field will cause furring. Furring is when magnetic particles build up at
the magnetic poles of a part. When the field strength is excessive, the magnetic field is forced
out of the part before reaching the end of the component and the poles along its length attract
particles and cause high background levels. Adequate field strength may be determined by:
• performing an inspection on a standard specimen that is similar to the test component

and has known or artificial defects of the same type, size, and location as those
expected in the test component. QQI shims can sometimes be used as the artificial
defects.
• using a gauss meter with a Hall effect probe to measure the peak values of the tangent
field at the surface of the part in the region of interest. Most specifications call for a
field strength of 30 to 60 gauss at the surface when the magnetizing force is applied.
• looking for light furring at the ends of pipes or bars when performing dry particle
inspections on these and other uncomplicated shapes.
Formulas for calculating current levels should only be used to estimate current requirements.
The magnetic field strength resulting from calculations should be assessed for adequacy using
one of the two method discussed above. Likewise, published current level information should
also be used only as a guide unless the values have been established for the specific
component and target defects of the inspection at hand.

Using a Pie Gage
A pie gage is placed copper side up and held in

contact with the component as the magnetic field
and particles are applied. Indications of the leakage
fields provide a visual representation of defect
direction within the component. Pie gages work well
on flat surfaces, but if the surface is concave or
convex, inaccurate readings may occur. The pie
gage is a flux sharing device and requires good
contact to provide accurate readings.
Using Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) Shims
Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) flaw shims are used to establish proper field direction
and to ensure adequate field strength during technique development. The QQI flaw shim is
the most efficient means of determining balance and effectiveness of fields. The QQI's are
also flux sharing devices and must be properly attach so as not to allow particles to become
trapped under the artificial flaw. Application using Super glue is the preferred way of
attaching the artificial flaw, but does not allow for reuse of the shims. Shims can also be
attached with tape applied to just the edge of the shim. It is recommended that the tape be
impervious to oil, not be fluorescent, and be 1/4 to 1/2 inch in width.
The QQI must be applied to locations on the component where the flux density may vary.
One example would be the center area of a yoke or Y shaped component. Oftentimes, the flux
density will be near zero in this area. If two legs of a Y are in contact with the pad in circular
magnetization, it must be determined if current is flowing evenly through each leg. A QQI on
each leg would be appropriate under such conditions.
QQI's can be used to establish system threshold values for a defect of a given size. By
attaching a QQI shim with three circles (40%, 30% and 20% of shim thickness) to the
component, threshold values for a specific area of the component, can be established. Begin
by applying current at a low amperage and slowly increasing it until the largest flaw is
obtained. The flux density should be verified and recorded using a Hall effects probe. The
current is then increased until the second circle is identified and the flux density is again
recorded. As the current is further increased, the third ring is identified and the current values
are recorded.
Hall Effects Gauss Meter

There are several types of Hall effects probes that can
be used to measure the magnetic field strength.
Transverse probes are the type most commonly used
to evaluate the field strength in magnetic particle
testing. Transverse probes have the Hall effect
element mounted in a thin, flat stem and they are used
to make measurements between two magnetic poles.
Axial probes have the sensing element mounted such
that the magnetic flux in the direction of the long axis
of the probe is measured.

To make a measurement with a transverse probe, the probe is positioned such that the flat
surface of the Hall effect element is transverse to the magnetic lines of flux. The Hall effect
voltage is a function of the angle at which the magnetic lines of flux pass through the sensing
element. The greatest Hall effect voltage occurs when the lines of flux pass perpendicularly
through the sensing element. If not perpendicular, the output voltage is related to the cosine
of the difference between 90 degrees and the actual angle. The peak field strength should be
measured when the magnetizing force is applied. The field strength should be measured in all
areas of the component to be inspected.
Particle Concentration and Condition
Particle Concentration
The concentration of particles in the suspension is a very important
parameter in the inspection process and must be closely controlled.
The particle concentration is checked after the suspension is
prepared and regularly monitored as part of the quality system
checks. ASTM E-1444-01 requires concentration checks to be
performed every eight hours or at ever shift change.
The standard process used to perform the check requires agitating
the carrier for a minimum of thirty minutes to ensure even particle
distribution. A sample is then taken in a pear-shaped 100 ml
centrifuge tube having a stem graduated to 1.0 ml in 0.05 ml
increments for fluorescent particles, and graduated to 1.5 ml. in 0.1
ml increments for visible particles. The sample is then demagnetized
so that the particles do not clump together while settling. The sample
must then remain undisturbed for a minimum of 60 minutes for a
petroleum-based carrier or 30 minutes for a water-based carrier,
unless shorter times have been documented to produce results
similar to the longer settling times. The volume of settled particles is
then read. Acceptable ranges are 0.1 to 0.4 ml for fluorescent
particles and 1.2 to 2.4 ml for visible particles. If the particle
concentration is out of the acceptable range, particles or the carrier
must be added to bring the solution back in compliance with the
requirement.
Particle loss is often attributed to "dragout." Dragout occurs because
the solvent easily runs off components and is recaptured in the holding tank. Particles, on the
other hand, tend to adhere to components, or be trapped in geometric features of the
component. These particles will be "drug out" or lost to the system and will eventually need
to be replaced.
Particle Condition
After the particles have settled, they should be examined for brightness and agglomeration.
Fluorescent particles should be evaluated under ultraviolet light and visible particles under
white light. The brightness of the particles should be evaluated weekly by comparing the
particles in the test solution to those in an unused reference solution that was saved when the
solution was first prepared. The brightness of the two solutions should be relatively the same.
Additionally, the particles should appear loose and not lumped together. If the brightness or
the agglomeration of the particles is noticeably different from the reference solution, the bath
should be replaced.

However, the permeability of the material is very important. High permeability materials do
not retain a strong magnetic field so flux leakage fields will be extremely weak or nonexistent
when the magnetizing force is removed. Therefore, materials with high magnetic
permeability are not suited for inspection using the residual technique. When the residual
technique is used to inspect materials with low permeability, care should be taken to ensure
that the residual field is of the necessary strength to produce an indication. Defects should be
relatively large and surface breaking to have a high probability of detection using the residual
method.
The second advantage of the continuous technique is that when current is used to generate the
magnetizing force, it can provide added particle mobility. Alternating or pulsed direct current
will cause the particles to vibrate and move slightly on the surface of the part. This movement
allows the particles to travel to leakage sites. More particles mean brighter indications
compared to those formed using the residual technique.
One disadvantage of the continuous method is that heating of the component occurs when
using direct magnetization. For example, when prods are used, they may create areas of
localized heating when the continuous technique is used. This may be acceptable on
components that will be further processed (removing this condition), but machined or in-
service components may be adversely affected by this condition.
While generally not recommended, the residual technique does have its uses. It is commonly
used in automated inspection systems to inspect materials with high retentivity. To speed
throughput, automated systems often magnetize the parts and then submerge them in an
agitated magnetic particle bath or pass them through a spray station. Closely controlled
automated systems provided good results using the residual magnetism technique.
Suspension Contamination
The suspension solution should also be examined for evidence of
contamination. Contamination primarily comes from inspected
components. Oils, greases, sand, and dirt will be introduced to the
system through components. If the area is unusually dusty, the system
will pickup dust or other contaminates from the environment.
This examination is performed on the carrier and particles collected for
concentration testing. The graduated portion of the tube is viewed
under ultraviolet and white light when fluorescent particles are being
used, and under white light when visible particles are being used. The
magnetic particles should be examined for foreign particles, such as dirt, paint chips and
other solids. Differences in color, layering or banding within the settled particles would
indicate contamination. Some contamination is to be expected but if the foreign matter
exceeds 30 percent of the settled solids, the solution should be replaced.
The liquid carrier portion of the solution should also be inspected for contamination. Oil in a
water bath and water in a solvent bath are the primary concerns. If the solution fluoresces
brightly when fluorescent particles are being used, this can be an indication that dye is being
dislodged from the particles by the mixing pump. While not technically contamination, this
condition should be further evaluated by allowing the collected sample bath to set for 10 to
12 hours and viewed under ultraviolet light. If a band that fluoresces brighter than the bulk of
particles is evident on top of the settled solids, the bath contains excessive unattached
fluorescent pigments and should be discarded.

Water Break Test
A daily water break check is required to evaluate the surface wetting performance of water-
based carriers. The water break check simply involves flooding a clean surface similar to
those being inspected and observing the surface film. If a continuous film forms over the
entire surface, sufficient wetting agent is present. If the film of suspension breaks (water
break) exposing the surface of the component, insufficient wetting agent is present and the
solution should be adjusted or replaced.
Electrical System Checks
Changes in the performance of the electrical system of a magnetic particle inspection unit can
obviously have an effect on the sensitivity of an inspection. Therefore, the electrical system
must be checked when the equipment is new, when a malfunction is suspected, or every six
months. Listed below are the verification tests required by ASTM E-1444-01.
Maximum Unit Output
A magnetic particle unit should be checked regularly (daily) to verify that the maximum
current output of its electrical system has not changed over time. This check is performed by
placing a large diameter (typically 1 inch or more) copper or aluminum bar between the
contacts and energizing the circuit with the current control set to the maximum value. The
maximum amperage as recorded by the system's ammeter should be noted and compared to
the value obtained when the unit was last certified or calibrated. A significant drop or gradual
decay indicates a problem with the unit that should be corrected.
Internal Short Test
The internal short circuit testing is required to determine the if current is "leaking past" the
test article. Internal electrical leakage will cause the test equipment to indicate current is
flowing through the component when it is actually bypassing the component. The process for
checking equipment for this condition is to energize the system with nothing between the
contact heads and the amperage set to the highest output. If the ammeter shows any current
flow, internal shorting should be suspected.
Ammeter Check
It is important that the ammeter provide consistent and correct readings. If the meter is
reading low, over magnetization will occur and possibly result in excessive background
fluorescence. If ammeter readings are high, flux density could be too low to produce
detectable indications. To verify ammeter accuracy, a calibrated ammeter is connected in
series with the output circuit and values are compared to the equipment's ammeter values.
Readings are taken at three output levels in the working range. The equipment meter is not to
deviate from the calibrated ammeter more than +/- 10 percent or 50 amperes, whichever is
greater. If the meter is found to be outside this range, the condition must be corrected. It
should be noted that when measuring half-wave rectified current, the readings should be
doubled.

Quick Break Test
A quick break circuit is primarily used in three-phase, full-wave rectified systems to ensure
longitudinal magnetic fields maintain their strength to the end of a component. Quick break
circuits cause the current to abruptly collapse or drop to zero at the end of the activation
cycle. By doing this, low frequency eddy currents are produced close to the surface of a
component. These eddy currents help extend the useable longitudinal field to the ends of the
component. To determine if a quick break system is functioning properly, an oscilloscope is
often used. By observing the sine wave of the current, it can be determined if current drops
abruptly when the circuit is interrupted.
Shot Timer Check
When a timer is used to control the shot duration, the timer must be calibrated. ASTM E-
1444 -01 requires the timer be calibrated to within +/- 0.1 second. A certified timer should be
used to verify the equipment timer is within the required tolerances.
Lighting
Magnetic particle inspection predominately relies on visual inspection to detect any

indications that form. Therefore, lighting is a very important element of the inspection
process. Obviously, the lighting requirements are different for an inspection conducted using
visible particles than they are for an inspection conducted using fluorescent particles. The
lighting requirements for each of these techniques, as well as how light measurements are
made, is discussed below.
Light Requirements When Using Visible Particles
Magnetic particle inspections that use visible particles can be conducted using natural or
artificial lighting. When using natural lighting, it is important to keep in mind that daylight
varies from hour to hour. Inspector must constantly stay aware of the lighting conditions and
make adjustments when needed. To improve the uniformity of lighting from one inspection to
the next, the use of artificial lighting is recommended. Artificial lighting should be white
whenever possible and white flood or halogen lamps are most commonly used. The light
intensity is required to be 100 foot-candles at the surface being inspected. It is advisable to
choose a white light wattage that will provide sufficient light, but avoid excessive reflected
light that could distract from the inspection.
Light Requirements When Using Fluorescent Particles
Ultraviolet Lighting
When performing a magnetic particle inspection using fluorescent particles, the condition of
the ultraviolet light and the ambient white light must be monitored. Standards and procedures
require verification of lens condition and light intensity. Black lights should never be used
with a cracked filter as the output of white light and harmful black light will be increased.
The cleanliness of the filter should also be checked regularly since a coating of solvent
carrier, oil, or other foreign material can reduce the intensity or light by as much as 50%. The
filter should be checked visually and cleaned as necessary before warming-up the light.

For UV lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is

1000mwatts/cm2 when measured at 15 inches from the filter face (requirements can vary
from 800 to 1200mwatts/cm2). The required check should be performed when a new bulb is
installed, at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is noticed, or every eight
hours if in continuous use. Regularly checking the intensity of UV lights is very important
because bulbs lose intensity over time. In fact, a bulb that is near the end of its operating life
will often have an intensity of only 25% of its original output. Black light intensity will also
be affected by voltage variations, so it is important to provide constant voltage to the light. A
bulb that produces acceptable intensity at 120 volts will produce significantly less at 110
volts.
Ambient White Lighting
When performing a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, it is important to keep white

light to a minimum as it will significantly reduce the inspectors ability to detect fluorescent
indications. Light levels of less than 2fc are required by most procedures and some
procedures require it to be less than 0.5fc at the inspection surface. Some specifications
require that a white light intensity measurement be made at 15 inches from a UV light source
to verify that the white light is being removed by the filter.
White Light for Indication Confirmation
While white light is held to a minimum in fluorescent inspections, procedures may require
that indications be evaluated under white light. The white light requirements for this
evaluation are the same as when performing an inspection with visible particles. The
minimum light intensity at the surface being inspected must be 100fc.
Light Measurement
Light intensity measurements are made using a radiometer. A radiometer is an instrument that
translates light energy into an electrical current. Light striking a silicon photodiode detector
causes a charge to build up between internal layers. When an external circuit is
connected to the cell, an electrical current is produced. This current is linear with respect to
incident light. Some radiometers have the ability to measure both white and UV light, while
others require a separate sensor for each measurement. The sensing area should always be
kept clean and free of materials that could reduce or obstruct light reaching the sensor.
Radiometers are relatively unstable instruments and readings often change considerably over
time. Therefore, they must be calibrated regularly. They should be calibrated at least every
six months. A unit should be checked to make sure its calibration is current before taking any
light readings.
Ultraviolet light measurements should be taken using a fixture to maintain a minimum

distance of 15 inches from the filter face to the sensor. The sensor should be centered in the
light field to obtain the peak reading. UV spot lights are often focused which causes intensity
readings to vary considerable over a small area. White lights are seldom focused and,
depending on the wattage, will often produce in excess of the 100fc at 15 inches.

Eye Consideration
Eye Adaptation
Just as lighting is an important consideration in the

inspection process, so is the eye's response to light.
Scientists have recently discovered that a special,
tiny group of cells at the back of the eye help tell the
brain how much light there is, causing the pupil to
get bigger or smaller. The change in pupil diameter
is not instantaneous, therefore, eyes must be given
time to adapt to changing lighting conditions. When
performing a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, the eye must be given time to adapt to
the darkness of the inspection booth before beginning to look for indications. Dark adaptation
time of at least one minute is required by most procedures. Some studies recommend
adaptation time of five minutes if entering an inspection area from direct sunlight. Inspectors
should carefully adhere to the required adaptation time as it is quite easy to overlook an
indication when an inspection is started before the eyes have adjusted to the darkened
conditions.
Eyeball Fluorescence
When ultraviolet light enters the human eye, the fluid that fills the eye fluoresces. This
condition is called eyeball fluorescence, and while it is considered harmless, it is annoying
and interferes with vision while it exists. When working around ultraviolet lights, one should
be careful not to look directly into lights and to hold spot lights to avoid reflection. UV light
will be reflected from surfaces just as white light will, so it is advisable to consider placement
of lights to avoid this condition. Special filtered glasses may be worn by the inspector to
remove all UV light from reaching the eyes but allowing yellow-green light from fluorescent
indications to pass. Technicians should never wear darkened or photochromatic glasses as
these glasses also filter or block light from fluorescent indications.
Examples of Visible Dry Magnetic Particle Indications
Eddy Current:
A current induced in a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field or moving in a
fixed one.
Ultrasonic:
The study and use of pressure waves that have a frequency in excess of 20,000 Hz and
therefore inaudible to the human ear.
One of the advantages that a magnetic particle inspection has over some of the other
nondestructive evaluation methods is that flaw indications generally resemble the actual flaw.
This is not the case with NDT methods such as ultrasonic and eddy current inspection, where
an electronic signal must be interpreted. When magnetic particle inspection is used, cracks on
the surface of the part appear as sharp lines that follow the path of the crack. Flaws that exist
below the surface of the part are less defined and more difficult to detect. Below are some
examples of magnetic particle indications produced using dry particles.

Indication of a crack in a saw blade Indication of cracks in a weldment
Indication of cracks originating at a fastener hole Before and after inspection pictures of cracks emanating from a hole

Indication of cracks running between attachment holes in a hinge
Examples of Fluorescent Wet Magnetic Particle Indications
The indications produced using the wet magnetic particles are more sharp than dry particle
indications formed on similar defects. When fluorescent particles are used, the visibility of
the indications is greatly improved because the eye is drawn to the "glowing" regions in the
dark setting. Below are a few examples of fluorescent wet magnetic particle indications.
Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of cracks in a drive shaft.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a bearing Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a crane hook
Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack at a sharp radius Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a casting

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of cracks at a fastener hole.

MT NDT Resources
1. Which of the following has a large b. Lower coercivity
susceptibility to magnetic field? c. Higher retentivity
d. All of the above
a. Ferromagnetic materials
b. Diamagnetic materials 9. A circular magnetic field has lines of force that
c. Paramagnetic materials run:
d. None of the above
a. Parallel to the long axis of the part
b. 90 degrees to the long axis of the part
2. A material with a wider hysteresis loop has: c. Circumferentially around the perimeter of the
part
a. Lower permeability
d. Opposite the waveform of the magnetic
b. Higher retentivity
particle machine used
c. Higher coercivity
d. All of the above 10. Magnetic particle inspection has several
advantages over liquid penetrant inspection
3. The central conductor technique is sometimes
which include:
used because it:
a. Components with thin coatings can be
a. Allows large diameter circular parts to be
inspected without removing the coating
completely inspected with one application of
b. Components can be inspected more rapidly
the magnetizing force
c. The technique is more portable
b. Produces a longitudinal field in circular parts
d. Both A and B
c. Establishes a magnetic field that extends from
the ID to the OD of a circular part
d. None of the above 11. When using the direct induction method:
4. When a ferromagnetic material is in a
unmagnetized state, the domains are: a. The part must be placed in the center of the
coil
a. Aligned in a north and south direction
b. Good electrical contact should be established
b. Aligned in a east and west direction
between the test equipment and test
c. Randomly organized
component
d. Balanced to produce a gauss rating of 2
c. The part may be tested in only one direction
5. Magnetic lines of force: d. It is not necessary to demagnetize the part
a. Have the same strength 12. When using both a circular and longitudinal
b. Seek the path of least resistance magnetic field, the circular field is usually
c. Decrease in density with increasing distance established first because:
from the poles
a. It is more difficult to establish a circular field
d. All of the above
b. It is easier to flip the domains of a circular
6. The area where the exit poles are concentrated field to a longitudinal field
is called the magnet’s: c. It is easier to measure a longitudinal field
a. South pole
b. North pole 13. A material with a wider hysteresis loop has:
c. Dipole
a. Lower reluctance
d. Flux density
b. Lower residual magnetism
7. The magnetic field circling each loop of wire c. Higher residual magnetism
in a coil combines with the fields from the d. Higher premeability
other loops to produce a concentrated field:
14. When performing a magnetic particle test with
a. Which is maximized around the outside of the a coil, the part should be placed:
coil
a. Along the outside edge the coil
b. Around each loop of the coil
b. Along the inside edge of the coil
c. Down the center of the coil
c. Centered in the coil
d. All of the above
8. A material with a narrower hysteresis loop
15. Magnetic lines of force:
has:
a. Form closed loops from pole to pole
a. Higher reluctance

b. Will shift 180 degrees when a direct current is d. Reduces inspection time
applied
c. Were discovered by Wilhelm Hurst 24. A property of a material that describes the ease
d. None of the above with which a magnetic flux is established in a
component is called:
16. A material is considered demagnetized when: a. Retentivity
a. Its residual magnetic field measures less than 5 b. Residual magnetism
gauss c. Coercive force
b. It no longer produces an indication d. Permeability
c. It’s no longer attracted to a magnet
d. Its residual magnetic field measures less than 3 25. The opposition that a ferromagnetic material
gauss shows to the establishment of a magnetic field
is called:
17. Dry magnetic particles: a. Retentivity
a. Cannot be reused b. Reluctance
b. Come in only one color c. Coercive force
c. Are all of uniform size d. Permeability
26. A material with a narrower hysteresis loop
18. When all the magnetic domains are aligned, has:
the material is said to be: a. Higher permeability
a. Magnetically saturated b. Lower retentivity
b. Partially magnetized c. Lower coercivity
c. Magnetically stable d. All of the above
d. Unmagnetized
27. A material with a wider hysteresis loop has:
19. A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic a. Higher reluctance
lines of force that run: b. Higher permeability
a. Parallel to the long axis of the part c. Lower retentivity
b. 90 degrees to the long axis of the part d. All of the above
c. Transverse to the long axis of the part
d. Opposite the waveform of the magnetic 28. Since all matter is composed of atoms:
particle machine used a. All parts can be tested with MPI if they are
heated to their curie temperature
20. Materials can be demagnetized by: b. All materials can be tested with a MPI
a. Heating above thier curie temperature regardless of temperature
b. Subjecting the component to a reversing and c. All materials are affected in some way by a
decreasing magnetic field magnetic field
c. Both A and B d. None of the above
29. Which type of current flows continuously in
21. When a magnetic field cuts across a crack: one direction at a constant voltage?
a. Electrons begin jumping back and forth across a. Direct current
the crack b. Alternating current
b. The crack begins to heat up c. Rectified alternating current
c. Magnetic poles form at the edges of the crack d. Half wave rectified alternating current
d. All of the above
30. Magnetic lines of force:
22. The number of magnetic lines of force cutting a. Almost never cross each other
thorugh a plane of a given area at a right angle b. Commonly cross each other
is known as the: c. Will shift 90 degrees when a direct current is
a. Magnetic flux leakage applied
b. Magnetic flux density d. Never cross each other
c. Magnetic ampere
d. None of the above 31. A material with a narrower hysteresis loop
has:
23. Multidirectional inspection equipment: a. Higher residual magnetism
a. Provides a more sensitive inspection b. Higher permeability
b. Provices a less sensitive inspection c. Lower residual magnetism
c. Can be used without the need for QQIs d. Higher retentivity

32. A location where a magnetic field can be 40. The force required to remove the residual
detected exiting or entering a material is magnetism from the material is called the:
called: a. Inverse force.
a. A magnetic pole b. Reciprocal force
b. A magnetic field c. Coercive force
c. A flux field d. Residual force
d. Polarity
41. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship
33. When the magnetizing current is stopped, a between the:
ferromagnetic material will: a. Induced magnetic flux density and the
a. remain magnetically saturated magnetizing force
b. become demagnetized b. Induced magnetic flux density and the electron
c. retain a residual magnetic field withing the force
component c. Electron flow and magnetic field strength
d. None of the above d. Flux density and number of coil turns
34. Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction states 42. The best detection of defects occurs:
that: a. When the magnetic field is 10% beyond its
a. The flow of electrons can be used to generate a saturation point
magnetic field b. When the hysteresis loop shifts from positive
b. The magnetic forces of the material’s electrons to negative
will be affected by an external magnetic field c. In a darkened room
c. Iron filings can be used to produce an d. When the lines of magnetic force are parallel
indication of a flaw to the longest dimension of the defect
d. Flux leakage is the byproduct of magnetic e. When the lines of magnetic force are
fields when testing aluminum alloys. perpendicular to the longest dimension of the
defect
35. When testing parts with magnetic particles, it
is best to magnetize the part: 43. Components generally must be demagnetized
a. In two directions at right angles to each other because residual magnetism can:
b. With AC whenever possible a. Affect machining and welding processes
c. With DC whenever possible b. Interfere with near by electronic components
d. With an amperage of at least 1000 amps c. Increase wear by attracting abrasive particles
d. All of the above
36. Which of the following has a very weak and
negative susceptibility to magnetic field? 44. The use of prods is sometimes restricted
a. Ferromagnetic materials because:
b. Diamagnetic materials a. they produce a relatively weak field
c. Paramagnetic materials b. There is a potential for arcing that could
d. None of the above damage parts
c. It is not possible to control the field orientation
37. A yoke establishes a magnetic field: d. None of the above
a. That can be constant or pulsed
b. Between the north and south poles of the yoke 45. Magnetic particle inspection can be performed
c. Equally in all directions around the poles on parts made from which materials?
d. Both A and B a. Iron, nickel, copper
b. Iron, nickel, cobalt
38. A volume of space where there is a change in c. Nickel, cobalt, copper
magnetic energy is called: d. Iron only
a. A magnetic field
b. A magnetic dipole 46. The magnetic flux density that remains in the
c. A magnetic pole material when the magnetizing force is zero is
d. A magnetic domain called:
a. Retentivity
39. A current carrying conductor induces a b. Residual magnetism
magnetic field: c. Coercive force
a. By direct induction d. Permeability
b. That is longitudinal
c. That is circular 47. Ferromagnetic materials are made up of small
d. By magnostriction polarized regions known as:

a. Photons d. A ferromagnetic material

b. Quarks
c. Electrons 50. Magnetic particle inspection uses small
d. Domains ferromagnetic particles similar to:
a. Copper filing
48. The amount of reverse magnetic field which b. Iron filings
must be applied to a magnetic material to c. Magnesium filings
reduce the magnetic flux to zero is called: d. Permanent Magnets
a. Retentivity
b. Residual magnetism
c. Coercive force 51. The number of magnetic lines of force cutting
d. Permeability through a plane of a given area at a right angle
is known as the:
49. An object that has a magnetic pole on one end a. Magnetic flux leakage
and a second equal but opposite magnetic pole b. Magnetic flux density
on the other is called a: c. Magnetic ampere
a. Dipole d. None of the above
b. Inductor
c. Capacitor
ANSWERS TO QB-MT-NDT RESOURCES

1. A 10. D 19. A 28. C 37. B 46. B
2. D 11. B 20. C 29. A 38. A 47. D
3. C 12. C 21. C 30. D 39. C 48. C
4. C 13. C 22. B 31. C 40. C 49. A
5. D 14. B 23. D 32. A 41. A 50. B
6. B 15. A 24. D 33. C 42. E 51. B
7. C 16. D 25. B 34. B 43. D
8. B 17. A 26. D 35. A 44. B
9. C 18. A 27. A 36. B 45. B

Introduction To Magnetic Particle Testing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To Magnetic Particle Testing

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To Magnetic Particle Testing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to

Magnetic Particle Inspection

From NDT Resources 1 of 58

Equipment & Materials

From NDT Resources 2 of 58

In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can be

From NDT Resources 3 of 58

History of Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetism is the ability of matter to attract

From NDT Resources 4 of 58

Magnets are very common items in the workplace and

From NDT Resources 5 of 58

The Source of Magnetism

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic Materials

From NDT Resources 6 of 58

caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium,

Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external magnetic

Magnetic Force Microscopy

From NDT Resources 7 of 58

Unmagnetized Material Magnetized Material

Magnetic Field Characteristics

Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet

As discussed previously, a magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of space.

From NDT Resources 8 of 58

Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets

If a bar magnet was placed across the end of a

General Properties of Magnetic Lines of

Magnetic lines of force have a number of

• They seek the path of least resistance

From NDT Resources 9 of 58

A word of caution about the right-hand rule

From NDT Resources 10 of 58

Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil

Quantifying Magnetic Properties

Until now, only the qualitative features of the magnetic field

From NDT Resources 11 of 58

SI Units SI Units CGS Units

The magnetization is a measure of the extent to which an object is magnetized. It is a measure

Conversion between CGS and SI magnetic units.

The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties

From NDT Resources 12 of 58

As the magnetizing force is increased in the

From NDT Resources 13 of 58

1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation

μ(relative) = μ(material) / μ(air)

Relative to other materials, a material with a wider hysteresis loop has:

From NDT Resources 14 of 58

Relative to other materials, a material with the

In magnetic particle testing, the level of

Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability

A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that

A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run

From NDT Resources 15 of 58

Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Materials

From NDT Resources 16 of 58

Magnetization Using Direct Induction

With direct magnetization, current is passed

There are several ways that direct magnetization is

A second technique involves using clamps or prods,