Deep Ecology

http://home.clara.net/heureka/gaia/deep-eco.htm

Nature is the first ethical teacher of man. -- Peter Kropotkin

Unless ye believe ye shall not understand. -- St Augustine

I was born a thousand years ago, born in the culture of bows and arrows ... born in an
age when people loved the things of nature and spoke to it as though it had a soul. --
Chief Dan George

The woods were formerly temples of the deities, and even now simple country folk
dedicate a tall tree to a God with the ritual of olden times; and we adore sacred groves
and the very silence that reigns in them no less devoutly than images that gleam in gold
and ivory. -- Pliny

In the stillness of the mighty woods, man is made aware of the divine. -- Richard St Barbe
Baker

There is no better way to please the Buddha than to please all sentient beings. -- Ladakhi
saying

Ecology and spirituality are fundamentally connected, because deep ecological

awareness, ultimately, is spiritual awareness. -- Fritjof Capra

Every social transformation ... has rested on a new metaphysical and ideological base;
or rather, upon deeper stirrings and intuitions whose rationalised expression takes the
form of a new picture of the cosmos and the nature of man. -- Lewis Mumford

... there is reason to hope that the ecology-based revitalist movements of the future will
seek to achieve their ends in the true Gandhian tradition. It could be that Deep Ecology,
with its ethical and metaphysical preoccupations, might well develop into such a
movement. -- Edward Goldsmith

The main hope for changing humanity's present course may lie ... in the development of a
world view drawn partly from ecological principles - in the so-called deep ecology
movement. -- Paul Ehrlich

The religious behaviour of man contributes to maintaining the sanctity of the world. --
Mircea Eliade
The Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess coined the phrase deep ecology to describe deep
ecological awareness. Deep ecology is the foundation of a branch of philosophy known
as ecophilosophy, Arne Naess prefers the term ecosophy, that deals with the ethics of
Gaia.

Fritjof Capra defined deep ecology by contrasting it with shallow ecology and showing
that it is a network concept:

Shallow ecology in anthropocentric, or human-centred. It views humans as above or

outside of nature, as the source of all value, and ascribes only instrumental, or 'use',
value to nature. Deep ecology does not separate humans - or anything else - from the
natural environment. It does see the world not as a collection of isolated objects but as a
network of phenomena that are fundamentally interconnected and interdependent. Deep
ecology recognizes the intrinsic value of all living beings and views human beings as just
one particular strand in the web of life.

Arne Naess formally defined deep ecology as Ecosophy T (N - norm, H - hypothesis).

 N1: Self-realization!
 H1: The higher the Self-realization attained by anyone, the broader and deeper the
identification with others.
 H2: The higher the level of Self-realization attained by anyone, the more its
further increase depends upon the Self-realization of others.
 H3: Complete Self-realization of anyone depends on that of all.
 N2: Self-realization for all living beings!
 H4: Diversity of life increases Self-realization potentials.
 N3: Diversity of life!
 H5: Complexity of life increases Self-realization potentials.
 N4: Complexity!
 H6: Life resources of the Earth are limited.
 H7: Symbiosis maximises Self-realization potentials under conditions of limited
resources.
 N5: Symbiosis!

Arne Naess was strongly influenced by Baruch Spinoza and Mahatma Gandhi. Self-
realisation is in the sense used by Gandhi.

Mahatma Gandhi gave meaning to Self-realisation in various contexts: 'Life is an

aspiration, Its mission is to strive after perfection, which is self-realisation'; commenting
on the Bhagavad Gita 'Man is not at peace with himself till he has become like unto God.
The endeavour to reach this state is the supreme, the only ambition worth having. And
this is self-realisation. This self-realisation is the subject of the Gita, as it is of all
scriptures ... to be a real devotee is to realise oneself. Self-realisation is not something
apart.' As Arne Naess notes for Gandhi '"To realise God," "to realise the Self" and "to
realise the Truth" are three expressions of the same development.'
Arne Naess on the influence of Gandhi:

As a student and admirer since 1930 of Gandhi's non-violent direct actions in bloody
conflicts, I am inevitably influenced by his metaphysics which to him personally
furnished tremendously powerful motivation and which contributed to keeping him going
until his death. His supreme aim was not India's political liberation. He led a crusade
against extreme poverty, caste suppression, and against terror in the name of religion.
The crusade was necessary, but the liberation of the individual human being was his
supreme aim. It is strange for many to listen to what he himself said about this ultimate
goal:

What I want to achieve - what I have been striving and pining to achieve these thirty
years - is self-realization, to see God face to face, to attain Moksha (Liberation). I live
and move and have my being in pursuit of that gaol. All that I do by way of speaking and
writing, and all my ventures in the political field, are directed to this same end.

Arne Naess on Spinoza, Self-realisation and the link with Gandhi:

Does Spinoza think of the sage as a meditative rather than socially and otherwise active
person? ...

My main argument is ... inspired by ... variety of Mahayana Buddhism ... The teaching
that the further along the path to supreme levels of freedom a human being proceeds, the
greater the identification and compassion and therefore the greater the effort to help
others along the same path. This implies activity of social and political relevance.
Gandhi, considering Buddhism to be a reformed Hinduism, furnishes a good example.
His mistakes were many, but he tried through meditation of sorts (combined with fasting)
to improve the quality of his action, especially the consistency in maintaining a broad
and lofty perspective. He deplored the followers in his ashrams who spurned outward
action and concentrated on metaphysics, meditation, and fasting. He conceived that as a
kind of spiritual egotism. He did not recognise yoga, the meditation and prayer as an
adequate way to insight, perfection and freedom. Advance towards the highest levels
require interaction with the terrifying complexities of social life.

In a formal study of Spinoza, Naess notes that 'the opposite of the process of self-
realization we give ... the name "alienation"'.

Camped out in Death Valley, California, during 1984, George Sessions and Arne Naess
draw up eight basic principles that describe deep ecology:

1. The well-being and flourishing of human and nonhuman life on Earth have value
in themselves. These values are independent of the usefulness of the nonhuman
world for human purposes.
2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realisation of these values
and are also values in themselves.
 3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity accept to satisfy vital
needs.
4. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial
decrease of the human population. The flourishing of nonhuman life demands
such a decrease.
5. Present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the
situation is rapidly rapidly worsening.
6. Policies must therefore be changed. These policies affect basic economic,
technological, and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be
deeply different from the present.
7. The ideological change is mainly in appreciating life quality rather than adhering
to to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound
awareness of the difference between big and great.
8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or
indirectly to try to implement the necessary change.

Wilderness, especially deserts, have a special place in communicating spiritual wisdom to

man. Moses carried the Ten Commandments down from a mountainside, Buddha
received enlightenment whilst meditating under a tree, John the Baptist carried out his
baptisms in the River Jordan, Jesus Christ formulated his basic tenets whilst wandering in
the desert, Henry David Thoreau camped out for two years in a wooden hut on the north
side of Walden Pond, George Sessions and Arne Naess drew up the eight principles of
deep ecology whist camped out in Death Valley.

Without a wilderness to retreat to we will lose a place of contemplation, a place from

which we can draw deep spiritual wisdom.

The Sea of Galilee is where Christ walked on water to go to the rescue of stricken
disciples. It is a place of peace and solitude, a place of reverence, a place where pilgrims
go. There are plans to turn the assumed spot into a major tourist attraction. A bridge will
be built just under the surface of the waves so that tourist can be photographed 'walking
on water'. Lands End, a wild and windy place at the most western end of Cornwall, had a
tourist attraction built, paths manicured, car parks built. Tintagel, allegedly the birth place
of King Arthur, was probably once an attractive place, now it has tacky tourist shops
selling even tackier gifts, King Arthur's filling station.

Deep ecology is consistent with a network, Gaian, ecological world-view. It arises

naturally from the network structure of life, from the Gaian hierarchical order. Its ethics
enables man to behave homeotelically towards the Gain order.

Arne Naess:

Care flows naturally if the 'self' is widened and deepened so that protection of free
Nature is felt and conceived as protection of ourselves ... Just as we need no morals to
make us breathe ... [so] if your 'self' in the wide sense embraces another being, you need
no moral exhortation to show care ... You care for yourself without feeling any moral
pressure to do it ... If reality is like it is experienced by the ecological self, our behaviour
naturally and beautifully follows norms of strict environmental ethics.

If we acquire deep ecological awareness we become intuitively aware, ineffable

knowledge, tribal wisdom, as Fritjof Capra says 'the connection between an ecological
perception of the world and corresponding behaviour is not a logical but a psychological
connection':

Logic does not lead us from the fact that we are an integral part of the web of life to
certain norms of how we should live. However if we have deep ecological awareness, or
experience, of being part of the web of life, then we will (as opposed to should) be
inclined to care for all living nature. Indeed, we can scarcely refrain from responding in
this way.

Wendell Berry:

People need more than to understand their obligations to one another and to earth; they
also need the feelings of such obligations.

As Arne Naess says 'The essence of deep ecology is to ask deeper questions.' It is only by
asking deep questions of today's industrialised, growth-oriented, greedy, materialistic
society that we will force a paradigm shift. To concentrate not on simple Cartesian
solutions to the causes of pollution, but to probe ever deeper to obtain a holistic view.

In the view of Arne Naess to ask deep questions is to lead to philosophy:

Persistent why's and how's lead to philosophy ... Every why- and how- string leads to
philosophy.

Arne Naess used Rachel Carson's Silent Spring as an example to illustrate deep
questioning:

In the movement instigated largely through the efforts of Rachel Carson and her friends,
the 'unecological' policies of industrial nations were sharply criticized. The foundation
of the criticism was not pollution, waste of resources and disharmony between
population and production rate in non-industrialized nations. The foundation rested on
answers to deeper questions of 'why?' and 'how?'. Consequently the recommended
policies also touched fundamentals such as man's attitude towards nature, industrial
man's attitude towards non-industrial cultures, and the ecological aspects of widely
different economic systems.

Medieval historian Lynn White illustrates the failure of the shallow approach to
ecological problems and the need for a deep ethical dimension:

I have not discovered anyone who publicly advocates pollution. Everybody says that he is
against it. Yet the crisis deepens because all specific measures to remedy it are either
undercut by 'legitimate' interest groups, or demands kinds of regional cooperation for
which our political system does not provide. We deserve our increasing pollution
because, according to our structure of values, so many other things have priority over
achieving a viable ecology. ... our structure of values ... is deep rooted in us ... Until it is
eradicated not only from our minds but also from our emotions, we shall doubtless be
unable to make fundamental changes in our attitudes and actions affecting ecology.

To probe deeper is to strip away the outer reality. It has close parallels with subatomic
physics and the inner world of deep meditation. As with Buddhism, the inner reality is to
achieve oneness with all reality.

Not surprisingly the early proponents of deep ecology and what may be loosely grouped
as the 'Deep Ecology School' are nearly all either environmentalists, philosophers, poets,
or Buddhists: Arne Naess (mountaineer, philosopher, sociologist and environmental
activist), George Sessions (philosopher), Bill Devall (sociologist, philosopher,
environmental activist and practitioner of aikido), Alan Drengson (philosopher and
practitioner of aikido), Michael Zimmerman (Buddhist leanings), Dolores LaChapelle
(mountaineer, teacher of T'ai Chi), Robert Aitken (poet and Zen Buddhist), Gary Snyder
(mountaineer, poet and Zen Buddhist), Michael Soule (conservationist, biologist and
Buddhist), John Seed (ecological activist with Buddhist leanings), Joanna Macy
(environmental and social activist, Buddhist), Jeremy Haywood (Buddhist), Paul Ehrlich
(ecologist), Fritjof Capra (polymath and practitioner of T'ai Chi), Edward Goldsmith
(polymath and ecophilosopher).

Arne Naess, born 1912, is Norway's leading philosopher. No ivory tower academic, Arne
Naess is more than happy to put his principles into action by joining an environmental
demonstration.

Erik Dammann:

As we have seen, a number of academics in several countries have already given up their
elite positions in order to make their knowledge available to [grassroots] movements and
to use their analytical faculties in investigating the possibilities for action on the
movements' premises. A Norwegian example is the philosopher Arne Naess who gave up
his professorship and emerged from academic isolation in order to be freer to participate
in the multitude of popular campaigns for ecology and social change. His fearless action
has added weight to these campaigns, and the well-known picture of the internationally
renowned professor calmly being carried away by the police from the protest camp at
Mardola has certainly given many good citizens a new understanding that activists are
not only 'hysterical extremists'. His books, especially Ecology, Society and Life-style,
have without doubt strengthened many of the more intellectually oriented campaigners in
their understanding of such things as the importance of a holistic approach and of value
priorities.

The Alta Confrontation, that took place in northern Norway, 14 January 1981, was the
largest protest ever seen in Norway, when large numbers of Lapps, joined by lawyers,
academics, chained themselves together to protest at the construction of large-scale dam
and power generation project. 600 police confronted more than 1,000 demonstrators.
Arne Naess was one of the protesters who had to be cut free.

During WWII Arne Naess was an active participant in the nonviolent resistance to Nazi
occupation. In the post-war years he was involved in the peace movement, then later in
the ecology movement. Arne Naess resigned his chair of philosophy at the University of
Oslo in 1969 to enable him to take a more activist role, or as he put it because he 'wanted
to live rather than function'. Arne Naess's ecophilosophical work dates from the
resignation of his professorship in 1969.

George Sessions and Bill Devall were the first to recognise the value of the work of Arne
Naess, and it was their heavy promotion that brought Naess to international attention.

Sessions writing of Devall gives an idea of the ecological commitment:

Bill put his deep ecology commitment into practice. He practices 'living in place' with a
very low-entropy, low consumption life style. For the last ten years, Bill has worked
relentlessly with environmental organisations and individually to save the Siskiyous
redwoods, Humboldt Bay and seacoast, and the entire North Coast area from further
degradation from US Forest Service, the timbering companies, developers, and others.
He was largely instrumental in setting up the Northcoast Environmental Centre, a
coalition of environmental groups (Sierra Club, Audubon, Friends of the Earth, Friends
of the River, etc.) and a model of its kind. Bill is a frequent contributor to Econews
(Newsletter of the Northeast Environmental Center).

Deep ecology had deep roots before Arne Naess gave the philosophy coherence by
coining the phrase and providing a formal framework.

George Sessions:

The philosophical roots of the Deep Ecology movement are found in the ecocentrism and
social criticisms of Henry David Thoreau, John Muir, D H Lawrence, Robinson Jeffers
and Aldous Huxley. Influential ecological/social criticism has been derived also from the
writings of George Orwell and Theodore Roszak, and from the critiques of the problems
created by the rise of civilizations written by the maverick historian Lewis Mumford.
Further inspiration for contemporary ecological consciousness and the Deep Ecology
movement can be traced to ecocentric religions and the ways of life of primal peoples
around the world, and to Taoism, Saint Francis of Assisi, the Romantic Nature-oriented
counterculture of the nineteenth century with its roots in Spinoza, and the Zen Buddhism
of Alan Watts and Gary Snyder.

Lynn White, who was highly critical of Christianity's role in today's ecological crisis
'Christianity bears a huge burden of guilt', saw the solution lay beyond the technological
dimension and involved addressing the spiritual or ethical dimension, the position vis-a-
vis man versus nature and his right to exploit:
What we do about ecology depends on our ideas of the man-nature relationship. More
science and more technology are not going to get us out of the present ecological crisis
until we find a new religion, or rethink our old one ... We shall continue to have a
worsening ecological crisis until we reject the Christian axiom that nature has no reason
for existence other than to serve man ... Since the roots of our trouble are so largely
religious, the remedy must be essentially religious whether we call it that or not.

More recently Christian Theologians and Biblical scholars, Father Robert Murray,
Margaret Barker, Vincent Rossi, have begun to question the traditional Biblical
interpretation that Man was granted dominion over all God's creatures, ie granted the
absolute right to exploit, and that instead there was a Cosmic Covenant and that Man's
role was to help maintain the cosmic order for all of God's Creation. An interpretation
that would have been recognisable to St Ephrem the Syrian, St Dionysius the Areopagite,
St Maximus the Confessor, Hildegard von Bingen and forms the world-view of
vernacular man and chthonic societies. Organisations like ARC and REEP are attempting
to reconnect mainstream religions with their environment.

Isaiah 24:4-6:

The earth mourns and withers,

the world languishes and withers;
the heavens languish together with the earth.
The earth lies polluted
under its inhabitants;
for they have transgressed the laws,
violated the statutes,
broken the everlasting covenant.
Therefore a curse devours the earth,
and its inhabitants suffer for their guilt;
therefore the inhabitants of the earth are scorched,
and few men are left.

In vernacular societies, spirituality and awareness of the natural world is part of everyday
existence.

The mountainous region of Ladakh has a Tibetan culture. Helena Norberg-Hodge, who
has spent some time living in Ladakh, describes the planting of seed at the start of the
season, before the seed is planted an astrologer is consulted to pick the right day and the
person with the right sign to sow the first seed:

Next, the spirits of the earth and water - the sadak and the Ihu - must be pacified: the
worms of the soil, the fish of the streams, the soul of the land. They can easily be
angered; the turning of a spade, the breaking of stones, even walking on the ground
above them can upset their peace. Before sowing, a feast is prepared in their honour. For
an entire day a group of monks recite prayers; no one eats meat or drinks chang (the
local barley brew). In a cluster of trees at the edge of the village, where a small mound of
clay bricks has been built for the spirits, milk is offered. As the sun sets, other offerings
are thrown into the stream.
[next day] ... As the sun appears, the whole family gathers. Two men carry the wooden
plough; ahead a pair of massive dzo dwarf the children who lead them. Work and
festivity are one. People drink chang from silver-lined cups, and the air hums with the
sounds of celebration. A monk in robes of deep maroon chants a sacred text; laughter
and song drift back and forth from field to field. The ravages of winter are over.

Before technology and Big Business took over and Western farming degenerated into
little more than strip mining of agriculture land, Western farmers had the same empathy
with their land. The soil and all that grew in it were treated with reverence, the farmers'
role was to improve the land through his understanding of the natural world, to work with
Nature not against, the harvest was a time for enjoyment and merriment; now the soil, the
plants, the animals, the landscape, those who toil on the land, are assets to be used and
abused as the market dictates.

The emergence of deep ecology and its coincidence with the emergence of radical
movements of the 1960s, and the way it has given these movements a spiritual/ethical
dimension, and added to their radicalisation, is a pointer to the future direction.

George Sessions:

The long-range Deep Ecology movement emerged more or less spontaneously and
informally as a philosophical and scientific social/political movement during the so-
called Ecological Revolution of the 1960s. Its main concern has been to bring about a
major paradigm shift - a shift in perception, values, and lifestyles - as a basis for
redirecting the ecologically destructive path of modern industrial growth societies. Since
the 1960s, the long-range Deep Ecology movement has been characterised
philosophically by a move from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism, and by environmental
activism.

Paul Ehrlich sees deep ecology as the way forward:

The main hope for changing humanity's present course may lie ... in the development of a
world view drawn partly from ecological principles - in the so-called deep ecology
movement. The term 'deep ecology' was coined in 1972 by Arne Naess of the University
of Oslo to contrast with the fight against pollution and resource depletion in developed
countries, which he called 'shallow ecology'. The deep ecology movement thinks today's
human thought patterns and and social organization are inadequate to deal with the
population-resource-environmental crisis - a view with which I tend to agree. Within the
movement disagreement abounds, but most of its adherents favour a much less
anthropocentric, more egalitarian world, with greater emphasis on empathy and less on
scientific rationality.

I am convinced that such a quasi-religious movement, one concerned with the need to
change the values that now govern much of human activity, is essential to the persistence
of our civilization.
Fritjof Capra also sees deep ecology as the way forward:

The new vision of reality is an ecological vision in a sense which goes far beyond the
immediate concerns with environmental protection. To emphasise this deeper meaning of
ecology, philosophers and scientists have begun to make a distinction between 'deep
ecology' and 'shallow environmentalism'. Whereas shallow environmentalism is
concerned with more efficient control and management of the natural environment for
the benefit of 'man', the deep ecology movement recognizes that ecological balance will
require profound changes in our perception of the role of human beings in the planetary
ecosystem. In short, it will require a new philosophical and religious basis.

Deep ecology is supported by modern science, and in particular by the new systems
approach, but it is rooted in a perception of reality that goes beyond the scientific
framework to an intuitive awareness of the oneness of all life, the interdependence of its
multiple manifestations and its cycles of change and transformation. When the concept of
the human spirit is understood in this sense, as the mode of consciousness in which the
individual feels connected to the cosmos as a whole, it becomes clear that ecological
awareness is truly spiritual. Indeed, the idea of the individual being linked to the cosmos
is expressed in the Latin root of the word religion, religare ('to bind strongly'), as well as
the Sanskrit yoga, which means union.

The one movement that has adopted Deep Ecology in its entirety is Earth First! Spawned
out of a disillusionment with traditional ecological campaigns, they recognised the value
of nature for its own intrinsic self, the need to value all communities, including human
communities, the need for biodiversity. They have successfully adopted the tactics of the
civil rights and peace movements and use direct action to further their aims. Their
structure lacks structure, small, self-contained, semi-autonomous units, with loose
network structures forming the whole. Capital and Big Business, being by their very
nature anti-Nature, are seen as the ultimate enemy. Earth First! are the Jesuits of Deep
Ecology.

Dave Foreman, co-founder of Earth First!:

Earth First! has led the effort to reframe the question of wilderness preservation from an
aesthetic and utilitarian one to an ecological one, from a focus on scenery and
recreation to a focus on biological diversity.

Similarly, we have gone beyond the agenda of mainstream conservation groups to

protect a portion of the remaining wilderness by calling for the reintroduction of
extirpated species and the restoration of vast wilderness tracts. We have brought the
discussion of biocentric philosophy - Deep Ecology - out of dusty academic journals. We
have effectively introduced nonviolent civil disobedience into the repertoire of wildlife
preservation activism. We have also helped to jolt the conservation movement out of its
middle-age lethargy, and re-inspire it with passion, joy, and humor. In doing all of this,
Earth First! has restructured the conservation spectrum and redefined the parameters of
debate on ecological matters.
Warwick Fox has attempted to address what he sees as fundamental flaws in deep
ecology and extend it by what he calls transpersonal ecology (trans in this context
meaning transcend).

For growing numbers of converts, deep ecology is the religion of the new millennium, the
new ethics, the new morality, a return to the chthonic world-view of vernacular man, part
of the paradigm shift to a new ecological world-view.

References

Mumia Abu-Jamal, Death Blossoms: Reflections of a Prisoner of Conscience, Plough Publishing House,
1997

Robert Aitken, A Zen Wave: Basho's Haiku & Zen, Weatherhill, 1978

Robert Aitken, Taking the Path of Zen, North Point Press, 1982

Robert Aitken, Gandhi, Dogen and Deep Ecology [in Bill Devall & George Sessions, Deep Ecology,
Peregrine Smith, 1985]

John Arlidge & Nick Paton-Walsh, 'Do I look like an anarchist weirdo', The Observer, 6 June 1999

Alan Hunter Badiner (ed), Dharma Gaia: A Harvest of Essays in Buddhism and Ecology, Parallax Press,
1990

Margaret Barker, The Book of Enoch and Cosmic Sin, The Ecologist, January/February 2000

Gregory Bateson & Mary Catherine Bateson, Angels Fear: Towards an Epistemology of the Sacred,
Macmillan, 1987

Charles Birch & John B Cobb Jr, The Liberation of Life: From the Cell to the Community, Cambridge
University Press, 1981

Stephan Bodian, Simple in Means, Rich in Ends: An Interview With Arne Naess, The Ten Directions,
Summer/Fall 1982

Murray Bookchin, Toward an Ecological Society, Black Rose Books, 1980

Murray Bookchin, The Ecology of Freedom, Cheshire Books, 1982

David Brower (ed), Not Man Apart: Lines from Robinson Jeffers, Sierra Club Books, 1965

Fritjof Capra, The Tao of Physics, Fontana, 1975

Fritjof Capra, The Turning Point: Science, Society and the Rising Culture, Simon & Schuster, 1982

Fritjof Capra, Uncommon Wisdom, Simon & Schuster, 1988

Fritjof Capra, The Web of Life: A New Synthesis of Mind and Matter, HarperCollins, 1996
Fritjof Capra et al, Belonging to the Universe, Harper, 1991

Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, Penguin Books, 1965

Krishna Chaitanya, Man, Nature and Cosmos in Vedic India, The Ecologist, January/February 2000

Alston Chase, The Great, Green Deep-Ecology Revolution, Rolling Stone, 23 April 1987

Anne Chisholm, Philosophers of the Earth, Sedgwick & Jackson, 1972

Erik Dammann, Revolution in the Affluent Society, Heretic Books, 1984

Bill Devall, The Deep Ecology Movement, Natural Resources Journal, 20, 1980

Bill Devall, Simple in Means, Rich in Ends: Practising Deep Ecology, Peregrine Smith Books, 1988

Bill Devall & George Sessions, Deep Ecology, Peregrine Smith, 1985

Alan R Drengson, Shifting Paradigms: From the Technocratic to Person-Planetary, Environmental Ethics,
2, 1980

Alan R Drengson, Shifting Paradigms [in Robert C Schultz & J Donald Hughes (eds), Ecological
Consciousness: Essays From the Earthday X Colloquium, University Press of America, 1981]

Alan R Drengson, Shifting Paradigms: From the Technocratic to Planetary Person, LightStar Press, 1983

Alan R Drengson, Beyond Environmental Crisis: From Technocrat to Planetary Person, Peter Lang, 1989

Alan Drengson & Yuichi Inoue (eds), The Deep Ecology Movement, North Atlantic Books, 1995

Paul R Ehrlich, The Machinery of Nature, Simon & Schuster, 1986

Ron Eyerman, Intellectuals and Popular Movements: The Alta Confrontation in Norway, New Praxis, 3,
1983

Frank Fisher (ed), Sustaining Gaia: Contributions to Another World View {papers from the Environment,
Ethics and Ecology II Conference, October 1984, Graduate School of Environmental Science, Montash
University, Clayton, Victoria, 1987}

Grover Foley, Lewis Mumford: Philosopher of the Earth, The Ecologist, Vol 17 No 2/3, March/June 1987

Dave Foreman, Confessions of an Eco-Warrior, Harmony Books, 1991

Dave Foreman, The New Conservation Movement [in George Sessions (ed), Deep Ecology for the 21st
Century, Shambhala, 1995]

Warwick Fox, Deep Ecology A New Philosophy of Our Time, The Ecologist, 14, 1984

Warwick Fox, On Guiding Stars to Deep Ecology, The Ecologist, 14, 1984

Warwick Fox, Towards a Transpersonal Ecology, Shambhala, 1990

Edward Goldsmith, The Way: An Ecological World-View, Themis Books, 1996

Edward Goldsmith, Religion at the Millennium, The Ecologist, January/February 2000

Edward Goldsmith, Archaic Societies and Cosmic Order - A Summary, The Ecologist, January/February
2000

Ingemund Gullvag & Jon Wetlesen (eds), In Sceptical Wonder: Inquiries into the the Philosophy of Arne
Naess on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, University of Oslo Press, 1982

Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, 162, 1968

Jeremy Haywood, Perceiving Ordinary Magic: Science and Intuitive Wisdom, Shambhala, 1984

Jeremy Haywood, Shifting Worlds, Changing Minds: Where the Sciences and Buddhism Meet, Shambhala,
1987

Robinson Jeffers, The Selected Poetry Of Robinson Jeffers, Random House, 1959

Chris Johnstone, Lens of Deep Ecology, Institute for Deep Ecology, 1997

Dolores LaChapelle, Earth Wisdom, The Guild of Tutors Press, 1978

Dolores LaChapelle, Systemic Thinking and Deep Ecology [in Robert C Schultz & J Donald Hughes (eds),
Ecological Consciousness: Essays From the Earthday X Colloquium, University Press of America, 1981]

Dolores LaChapelle, Sacred Land, Sacred Sex: Rapture of the Deep, Way of the Mountain Learning
Centre, 1988

Dolores LaChapelle, Deep Powder Snow, 1993

Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac, Oxford University Press, 1949

James Lovelock, Gaia, Oxford University Press, 1979

Joanna Macy, Despair and Personal Power in the Nuclear Age, New Society Publishers, 1983

Joanna Macy, Dharma and Development, Kumarian Press, 1985

Joanna Macy, World As Lover, World as Self, Parallax Press, 1991

Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred, Sierra Club Books, 1991

Robin McKie, Planet thrives on all kinds of everything, The Observer, 13 June 1999

Joseph W Meeker, Toward a New Natural Philosophy [in Robert C Schultz & J Donald Hughes (eds),
Ecological Consciousness: Essays From the Earthday X Colloquium, University Press of America, 1981]

Hugh Montefiore, The Probability of God, SCM, 1985

Robert Murray, The Cosmic Covenant, The Ecologist, January/February 2000

Arne Naess, Gandhi and Group Conflict: An Exploration of Satyagraha: Theoretical Background,
University of Oslo Press, 1974

Arne Naess, Freedom, Emotion and Self-Subsistence: The Structure of a Central Part of Spinoza's Ethics,
University of Oslo Press, 1975

Arne Naess, Notes on Methodology of Normative Systems, Methodology and Science, 10, 1977

Arne Naess, Intuition, Intrinsic Value and Deep Ecology, The Ecologist, 14, 1984

Arne Naess, The Deep Ecology Movement: Some Philosophical Aspects, Philosophical Inquiry, 8, 1986

Arne Naess, Self-Realization: An Ecological Approach to Being in the World, The Trumpeter, 4(3), 1987

Arne Naess, Deep Ecology and Ultimate Premises, The Ecologist, 18, 1988

Arne Naess, The Basics of Deep Ecology, Resurgence, January/February 1988

Arne Naess, Ecology, Community and Lifestyle: Outline of an Ecosophy, Cambridge University Press,
1989

Arne Naess, Deepness of Questions and the Deep Ecology Movement [in George Sessions (ed), Deep
Ecology for the 21st Century, Shambhala, 1995]

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Spiritual and Religious Dimensions of the Environmental Crisis, The Ecologist,
January/February 2000

Jacob Needleman, A Sense of the Cosmos: The Encounter of Modern Science and Ancient Truth,
Doubleday, 1975

Helena Norberg-Hodge, Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh, Rider, 1991

David Pepper, Eco-Socialism: From Deep Ecology to Social Justice, Routledge, 1993

Keith Parkins, Life the Universe and Everything, to be published

Keith Parkins, Gaia, to be published

Keith Parkins, Christian Theology and Gaia, March 2000

Keith Parkins, Hildegard von Bingen, to be published

Keith Parkins, Civil Disobedience, February 2000

Keith Parkins, Wendell Berry, June 1999

Keith Parkins, Gary Snyder, June 1999

Keith Parkins, Henry David Thoreau, July 1999

Roy A Rapport, Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity, Cambridge University Press, 1999
Peter Reed, Wisdom in the Open Air: Norwegian Roots, University of Minnesota Press, 1993

Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, The Forest Within: The World-View of the Tukano Amazonian Indians,
Themis Books

Jeremy Rifkin, Algeny, Penguin, 1984

Vincent Rossi, Sacred Cosmology in the Christian Tradition, The Ecologist, January/February 2000

Theodore Roszak, Where the Wasteland Ends, Faber & Faber, 1972

Theodore Roszak, The Voice of the Earth, Simon & Schuster, 1992

Theodore Roszak, The Cult of Information, UC Press, 1994

J Stan Rowe, From Reductionism to Holism in Ecology and Deep Ecology, The Ecologist, July/August
1997

Kirkpatrick Sale, Deep Ecology and its Critics, The Nation, 14 May 1988

Robert C Schultz & J Donald Hughes (eds), Ecological Consciousness: Essays From the Earthday X
Colloquium, University Press of America, 1981

John Seed, Plumbing Deep Ecology, Habitat Australia, June 1982

John Seed, Joanna Macy, Pat Flemming & Arne Naess, Thinking Like a Mountain: Towards a Council of
All Beings, New Society Publishers, 1988

George Sessions, Anthropocentrism and the Environmental Crisis, Humboldt Journal of Social Relations,
2, 1974

George Sessions, Spinoza and Jeffers on Man in Nature, Inquiry, 20, 1977

George Sessions (ed), Deep Ecology for the 21st Century, Shambhala, 1995

Vandana Shiva et al, Biodiversity: Social and Ecological Perspectives, World Rainforest Movement, 1991

Gary Snyder, Earth House Hold, New Directions, 1969

Gary Snyder, Turtle Island, New Directions, 1974

Gary Snyder, The Old Ways, City Lights Books, 1977

Gary Snyder, The Real Works: Interviews and Talks 1964-1979, New Directions, 1980

Gary Snyder, The Practice of the Wild, North Point Press, 1990

Charlene Spretnak, Lost Goddess of Early Greece, Moon Books, 1978

Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dimension of Green Politics, Bear and Co, 1986
Charlene Spretnak, An Introduction to Ecofeminism, Bucknell Review, 1993

Charlene Spretnak & Fritjof Capra, Green Politics, Paladin, 1984

Baruch Spinoza, Ethics

Jack Turner, Gary Snyder and the Practice of the Wild [in George Sessions (ed), Deep Ecology for the 21st
Century, Shambhala, 1995]

C H Waddington & E Jantsch, Evolution and Consciousness, Addison Wesley, 1976

Alan Watts, Nature, Man, and Woman, Vintage Books, 1970

Lynn White, The Historic Roots of Our Ecological Crisis, Science, 155, 1967

Steve Whiting, So why nonviolence?, nonviolent action, May 2000

Michael Zimmerman, Toward a Heideggerean Ethos for Radical Environmentalism, Environmental Ethics,
5, 1983

Michael Zimmerman, Eclipse of the Self: The Development of Heidegger's Concept of Authenticity, Ohio
University Press, 1981

Michael Zimmerman, The Role of Spiritual Discipline in Learning to Dwell on Earth [in David Seamon &
Robert Mugerauer (eds), Dwelling, Place and Environment, Martinus Nijoff, 1985]

Michael Zimmerman, Implications of Heidegger's Thought for Deep Ecology, The Modern Schoolman,
1986

Michael Zimmerman, J Baird Callicott, George Sessions et al (eds), Environmental Philosophy: From
Animal Rights to Radical Ecology, Prentice-Hall, 1993