The Balkan Wars

(1912-1913)

The war aims, policies of the belligerents and the Great Powers

Izmir University of Economics

International Relations and EU

Vildan DEMİRKIRAN

2012-2013

IREU 409 Ottoman Diplomatic History

Lecturer Ozan ARSLAN

Contents
Origins of the Balkan War 3

Congress of Berlin 3

Macedonian Question 6

Outbreak of the First Balkan War 9

Montenegro 10

The war period and the reasons of the defeat of the Ottoman Empire 12

War at seas…………………………………………………………………………………………....14

Toward the Second Balkan War………………………………………………………….................15

Young Turk coup……………………………………………………………………………………..16

The Social, Political and Economic Impacts of the Balkan War…………………………………..17

Attitudes of the Great Powers in the Balkan Wars………………………………………………...18

Treaty of Bucharest…………………………………………………………………………………..19

Treaty of Istanbul…………………………………………………………………………………….20

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………….21

Origins of the Balkan War

2
 The Balkan Wars were a sharp and bloody series of conflicts fought in southeastern

Europe during the autumn of 1912 and to the winter, spring, and summer of 1913. The

Ottoman Empire fought a loose alliance of Balkan states, which included Bulgaria, Greece,

Montenegro, and Serbia in The First Balkan War which broke out in October 1912. An

armistice in December 1912 interrupted the conflicting until January 1913. Fighting resumed

around two besieged cities in Albania, one besieged city in Thrace, and in eastern Thrace until

the spring of 1913. The participants in the First Balkan War signed a preliminary peace treaty

in London on 30 May 1913. 1

In the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria fought a looser coalition of Greece, Montenegro,

Serbia, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire. Fighting began on 29 June 1913. Before it ended a

little over a month later, the allies had defeated Bulgaria. The Peace treaties signed in

Bucharest in August 1913 and Istanbul in September 1913 which concluded the Second

Balkan War. The Balkans would again be at war in less than one year.2

Congress of Berlin3

The concept of nationalism, emerging from France and the German countries, swept into

the Balkan Peninsula early in the 19th century. The major impact was largely cultural.

Intellectuals made great efforts to standardize and celebrate the native languages of the

Balkans. By doing so, they frequently referred and connected to the medieval states that had

existed in the Balkans before the Ottoman conquest.

1
HALL, C., Richard, The Balkan Wars 1912-1913, Routledge, London, 2000, p. 1
2
Ibid, idem
3
Ibid, pp. 1-3

3
 In a short period of time, the emphasis of nationalism became political. A strong desire

to achieve national unity motivated the Balkan states to confront the Ottoman conquerors at

one time. Balkan leaders assumed that only after the attainment of national unity could their

states develop and prosper. In this context, the Balkan peoples sought to emulate the political

and economic success of Western Europe, especially Germany, by adopting the western

European concept of nationalism as the model for their own national development. The

Balkan peoples perceived nationalism as a justification for the creation of specific geopolitical

entities. This concept of western European nationalism displaced the old Ottoman millet

system4 in the Balkans, which had permitted each major religious group a significant amount

of self-administration.

The Serbs in 1803 and the Greeks in 1821 rise against their Ottoman overlords, partially

in response to the indefinably understood western European ethos of nationalism. By 1830 an

independent Greek state emerged, and at the same time an autonomous Serbian state came

into existence. The Ottomans had accepted Montenegrin autonomy since the 19 th century.

However, this was more in response to the belligerency and the remoteness of the Black

Mountain than to any overt nationalist stirring.

In 1876 Serbia and Montenegro went to war against the Ottoman Empire in order to

establish large national states in the western Balkan Peninsula. That same year an anti-

Ottoman rebellion broke out in Bulgaria. In 1877 Russia intervened in the Balkans on the side

of the Bulgarian nationalists. After nine months of unexpectedly hard fighting, the Russians

were victorious. The Treaty of San Stefano5 created a large independent Bulgarian state and

enlarged Serbia and Montenegro. The Treaty of San Stefano fulfilled the maximum territorial

4
This system allowed Moslems, Catholics, Orthodox, and Jews to all live in proximity to each other without
intruding upon each other. It gave the Balkan peoples a limited degree of cultural autonomy.
5

The treaty which was signed at the end of the Russo-Turkish War on March 3, 1878

4
aspirations of the Bulgarian nationalists. The new Bulgaria included most of the territory in

the eastern Balkan Peninsula between the Danube River and the Aegean Sea and Macedonia

as well. For the first and only time in modern history, the Balkan people had attained all of

their national goals.

The Treaty of San Stefano encountered a negative response from the leading countries of

Europe, who had for the past 200 years assumed the prerogative of arbitrating international

affairs. These countries; Germany, Great Britain, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy

as they existed in 1878, were known collectively as the Great Powers. Their desire was that

limiting the dreams of the Russian Empire in the Balkans and to impose order on the chaotic

conditions in Ottoman Europe, especially on the part of Austria-Hungary and Great Britain,

led the Great Powers to accept the offer of Otto von Bismarck to host a conference to resolve

the Balkan issues. Bismarck invited representatives of the Great Powers to meet in the capital

of German. By the congress greatly diminished the size and independence of the new

Bulgarian state. In place of a large independent Bulgaria, the Congress of Berlin established

an autonomous Bulgarian principality under Ottoman suzerainty, a semi-autonomous Eastern

Rumelia under the authority of the Ottoman sultan, and returned Macedonia to the direct rule

of the Sultan. This settlement was a catastrophe for Bulgarian nationalism.

The Congress of Berlin also recognized the full independence of a slightly smaller Serbia

and deprived Montenegro of San Stefano-sanctioned gains in Herzegovina, the Sandjak of

Novi Pazar and northern Albania. Austria-Hungary advanced into the western Balkans by the

occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Sandjak of Novi Pazar. These territories remained

de jure parts of the Ottoman Empire. They also remained objectives of Montenegrin and

Serbian national aspirations. Persistent Greek claims led to something of a corollary to the

Berlin settlement. In 1881, the Great Powers ratified the Greek annexation of Thessaly and

part of southern Epirus.

5
 Soon after, the Bulgarians got out of shock of their losses. The Bulgarians were not

alone in their disappointment over the Berlin settlement. The Greeks, Montenegrins, and the

Serbs similarly realized in the Treaty of Berlin a barrier to their national intentions. After

1878 all the Balkan states strove to overcome the Berlin settlement and realize national unity.

Macedonian Question

The expression of “Macedonia” entered to the History of the Ottoman Empire by 1878

Treaty of Berlin. This area was called by the name of “Vilayet-i Selase” (three provinces) in

the Sublime Porte. These provinces were Salonika, Bitola and Kosovo.6

Macedonia became an area which many countries have desires over the region after the

Treaty of Berlin, either because of its strategic importance, or diversity of the nations who

living there. These countries are Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece, and then Romania. They

wanted that at least occupy the territory where are closed to their borders, in fact, annex

Macedonia to themselves. On this aim, the first struggle was launched by Bulgaria. They

demanded “historical right” over Macedonia. Another assertion is that Macedonia which was

given them in the Treaty of San Stefano was misappropriated from them in the Treaty of

Berlin. According to them, since whole Christian people are Bulgarian in Macedonia, it must

have been occupied Bulgaria7.

Macedonia is a significant region economically and strategically. The valleys of Vardar

and Morava which connect Central Europe to Mediterranean are here. It also imported for

6
KOCABAŞ, Süleyman, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm, Vatan Yayınları, Istanbul,
1986, p. 228
7
Ibid, p. 229

6
Serbia and Bulgaria in order to exit to sea. The country which takes Macedonia under its

control would have strategic opportunity to establish sovereignty. 8

In Macedonia, there was no consistency in respect of population; it was exactly the

“mosaic of nations”9. According to the different statistics which were submitted to The

Committee of Carneige which was charged with searching the massacre in The Balkan Wars,

the population of Macedonia was like that:

Ethnic Groups Bulgarian statistics Serbian statistics Greek statistics

(without Kosovo)
Turks (included many 499, 204 231, 400 634, 017
Muslim who non-
Turk)
Bulgarians 1, 181, 336 57, 600 332, 162
Greeks 228, 700 201, 140 652, 797
Albanians 128, 711 165, 600 undetermined
Wallachs 80, 767 69, 665 25, 101
Serbs 700 2, 048, 320 undetermined
Jews 67, 840 64, 645 53, 147
Gypsies 54, 557 28, 730 8, 911
Others 16, 407 3, 500 18, 685
Total 2, 258, 222 2, 870, 600 1, 724, 820

Table1. Population of Macedonia10

In 1885, each of Balkan nation-state except Crete which newly started to period of

joining with Greece and Albania could not establish a state yet, had founded own ethnic and

geographic base which were recognized by everyone mutually and indisputable for all from

that day on. Further to that, there was a region where the both empire; Byzantine and Ottoman

8
KOCABAŞ, Süleyman, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm, p. 228
9
Ibid, idem
10
KARPAT, Kemal, Osmanlı Nüfusu (1830-1914), Timaş Yayınları, İstanbul, 2010, p.135

7
Empire had shaped according to their interests and claimed that each of nation-states newly

established and are inseparable parts of oneself. Just because of these reasons, everyone from

this region would work to get their own “nation” territory at gunpoint and use all ideological

weapons on this purpose; such as, race, religion, language, history and social struggle. 11

The Balkan states were not alone on this affair. As it was before, Russia and Austria, later

Germany took place in this picture. Due to the fact that the central imperials interested in the

Near East and Middle East, Britain and Russia obtained to ally and the period which would be

concluded with the First World War. 12

In this case, Austria-Hungary was responsible for Balkan issues. Actually, it had to keep

open the corridor13 which connects Bosnia-Herzegovina that newly captured to corridor of

Sanjak of Novi Pazar and to Salonika over Macedonia. Therefore, Austria-Hungary had to

avoid that bordering of Serbia and Montenegro, and Greece and Bulgaria in this corridor. For

that purpose, it used the people, Albanians and Macedonians who had not gain their

independence yet. The policy which following in Kosovo pave the way the Albanian revolt

and ouster of Serbs from this place.14

In Macedonia, Greeks and Bulgarians joined to bloody guerilla war by favor of the gangs

that connected to themselves. They were fighting for connecting the people forcefully to the

Orthodox or Bulgarian church in order to appropriate them. During that time, Russia which is

the formal protector of the Balkans was fighting Manchurian defeat and 1905 revolution. At

this stage, Britain admitted to the responsibility of control of this region. In 1908, Edward VII

11
YERASIMOS, Stefanos, Milliyetler ve Sınırlar, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul, 2010, pp. 65-66
12
Ibid, pp.66- 67
13
This corridor would connect the country to the harbor which the products brought by a railway are shipped in
order to export to the East.
14
Ibid, p. 67

8
and Tsar II agreed on going into action of both power commonly in Balkans in the Reval

conference.15

This meeting drove the Young Turk officers to revolt who fought in the guerilla wars in

Macedonia to rebellion and see this alliance as a step which would terminate the existence of

the Ottoman Empire which acted as a buffer zone among the two rival powers.

Outbreak of the First Balkan War

The countries of the Balkan League which accomplished their treaties and readiness of

the war, had started seek and even create an environment to declare a war against the Ottoman

Empire since summer 1912. Therefore, Bulgaria decided to speed gang activities up in

Macedonia. All of these activities paved the way traffic of note between the Great Powers and

the Sublime Porte and to wide-ranging propagandas against the Turks. These cases caused

sending ultimatum from Bulgaria and Serbia to the Empire. The principal of Serbia’s

ultimatum was that procurement of freedom and peace of Macedonia. In this war

environment, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece sent an ultimatum concerning their desires on

Macedonia, and then they declared mobilization on September 30, 191216.

Since the Ottoman Empire had rejected their demands, war broke out in October 8, 1912

by Montenegro as it planed beforehand. After that, the other three states; Bulgaria, Serbia, and

Greece declared war against the Ottoman Empire by claiming that their allied, Montenegro

went to war17.Actually, it was the first number of the Balkan League to act against the

Ottomans18

15
YERASIMOS, Stefanos, Milliyetler ve Sınırlar, p. 67
16
KOCABAŞ, Süleyman, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm, p. 274-275
17
KOCABAŞ, Süleyman, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm, p. 275
18
HALL, C., Richard, The Balkan Wars 1912-1913, p. 56

9
 Just after the Treaty of Berlin, it was started that increasing on number of Bulgarian

schools in Macedonia. According to the Bulgarian statistics in 1895, there were 600-700

Bulgarian schools in Macedonia, and there were 25-30 thousands students of them. The

Bulgarian government subsidized them 1-2 million francs each year. Generally, the schools

established adjacent to churchyards. In Macedonia, the Bulgarian churches and schools were

major agitation bases which rose guerillas in order to stimulate them against to the Sublime

Porte. The German journalist, Kondername, who browse around the districts in where there

were bloody cases days in Macedonia wrote that: “I believe that the first way should follow in

reformation is ejecting Bulgarian churchmen and teachers from Macedonia”.19

Montenegro

There were two major objectives of Montenegro in the war against the Ottoman Empire.

One of them was the Sandjak of Novi Pazar and Kosovo proper, where their aspirations

rivaled those of the Serbs. King Nikola hoped to advance as far as the medieval Serbian

capital of Prizren, in southwestern Kosovo. The second aim was the northern Albanian town

of Scutari which is the largest town in northern Albania and it was the administrative capital

of Scutari Vilayet. It was especially important for Montenegro for commercial as well as

political reasons. Control of Scutari might enable Montenegro to end its dependence on

foreign subsidies, and allow it to establish a viable economy. Montenegro could dominate

Albania as far south as the Drin River by taking Scutari.20

The provision of Montenegro’s law of mountain was that: “If a coward is founded, his

weapons will be got immediately and he would never carry arms during his life. He would be

counted as a dishonorable till the end of time, and he do any job…”. People who adopted this

inhuman primitive law and declared war against the Ottoman Empire in October 8 were just a

19
KOCABAŞ, Süleyman, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm, p. 230
20
HALL, C., Richard, The Balkan Wars 1912-1913, pp. 55-56

10
small number of subjects.21 Montenegro was fighting with its whole people. Actually, a war is

soul of this nation. They were fighting with Turks for centuries from 1385.22

While the representative of this small country gave declaration of war to the foreign

minister at that time in Istanbul, also in Cetinje, King Nikola invited to Muhtar Bey who is the

representative of the Ottoman and hosted him warmly. After that, he stated that he obliged to

declare war against the Ottomans and he gave their passports. 23

During that time, people who came together in front of the palace were waiting to

declaring war of their emperor. Later, he went out to the balcony and read an address. King

Nikola was saying that: “We could not stand screeches which rising from our oppressed

brothers no longer. Love of country dictates us we should come to their assistance. We would

do it, but I hoped to solve the problem in a peaceful way. Unfortunately, my attempts in order

to provide freedom of Serbs without shed blood went to waste. I am unhappy because I

obtained to break the peace and draw the sword. I am inviting you to follow me. Montenegro

is not alone. …”24

Montenegro was in war with whole its people. The capital, Cetinje became lonely.

Everyone joined the battle unassumingly. In the stores, children took their fathers and big

brothers’ place. During the war, there was no shortage on food and armament, but doctor and

medicine did not exist. There was nothing about medical organization, even mobile hospital

on mountains.25

In this environment, the reporter of the Journal was saying that: “While I was being in

Montenegro, that means, during the war, I saw any successful senses of the war. I just saw
21
PAŞA, M. Mahmut; NECİP, Fazlı, Rumeli’yi Neden Kaybettik, Örgün Yayınevi, İstanbul, 2007, p. 358
22
Ibid, p. 379
23
Ibid, p. 358
24
Ibid, p. 359
25
Ibid, p. 379

11
here hateful massacre of cannons, and death-agony in hospitals. I saw suppurating from scares

instead of fresh blood. The scene of funeral is less heartbreaking than the hospital scenes26.

The war period and the reasons of the defeat of the Ottoman Empire

Shortly before the war, the Great Powers published a notice concerning that they would

rehandle the issue of reformation in Macedonia, and nevertheless, if a war break out, they will

not allow to change on the territorial condition in Rumelia. Actually, this was an example of

double dealing. The case was that in the sense of Russia: Russia is already provoker of the

Balkans underhand, and it is arbiter on the matter of sharing the territories, if they would

overcome at war. Also Britain, before the war, guaranteed “protecting status quo” in case of

possibility of winning of Turkey. However, Great Powers would forget all of their

commitments27.

At the beginning of the war, Bulgarians wanted to occupy Macedonia by attacking it.

However, they concentrated all their forces to the Eastern Thrace, when it was understood that

the East Ottoman army in the Eastern Thrace under the command of Abdullah Pasha would

march towards Bulgaria. Meanwhile, the attack order of the war minister Nazım Pasha to the

East Army became a beginning of Ottoman’s defeat28.

In the Turkish army, everyone was acting as whatever they want, that means, in the army

all kinds of dispute was reigning. The moral of the forward line combat unit of the army was

dispirited. The number of escaper soldiers was 15.000. The situation was not good. For the

26
PAŞA, M. Mahmut; NECİP, Fazlı, Rumeli’yi Neden Kaybettik, pp. 380-381
27
KOCABAŞ, Süleyman, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm, pp. 275-276
28
Ibid, p. 276

12
first time of the Ottoman history they started to induct non-Muslims into the army. This

caused negative effect on Muslim recruits and they were acting against the Ottomans29.

There was a deficit of officer in the army, since ranker officers were retired and there

were no enough scholar officers. Actually, there was a conflict between old and young

officers. According to some eye witness, elder officers supported Freedom and Accord Party;

the young ones supported the Committee of Union and Progress. They had not listened to

each other’s advice, and they had not carried out the orders30.

In the Ottoman army, also there was a deficit on arms and equipments. The commander

of the East Army, Abdullah Pasha states that in his memories: “There was a considerable

deficit on equipment, weapons, especially on ammunition of cannon. Besides, transportation,

communication, and the situation of board and lodging of ranks were destroyed. There was

neither road nor train in order to propel arm and ammunition. The troops had not had a food,

they had starved for days. The situation of the Western army which the center is in Skopje

was completely tragedy. Since the coasts of Salonika and Albania were blockaded by Greece

and the road of Adrianople was cut over by Bulgaria, it could not be possible to sent out

neither food nor clothing31.

According to the outcome assessment of Mehmet Nihat, the army was a hollow tree. It

was obliged to shaking and down throw by the first storm 32. As a matter of fact, it happened

so. The Ottoman armies defeated in all fronts. Bulgarians occupied all the Eastern Thrace,

after included Adrianople. Serbs occupied most of Macedonia including Kosovo on October

23, 1912. After that, it allied with Montenegro by obtaining Pristina and Novo Pazar, and

29
KOCABAŞ, Süleyman, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm, pp. 277-279
30
Ibid, p. 281
31
Ibid, pp. 285-286
32
Ibid, p. 286

13
defeated the Ottoman forces in Kumanovo. Following to that, they occupied Southern

Albania, and blockaded to Shkoder33.

In the Balkan War, Greece was the most profitable country concerning land occupations.

Although Bulgaria was winner of the Macedonia question and the Balkan War, it could not

obtain much, in fact, they lost34.

Obtaining of Salonika by Greece was one of the strange and miserable events of the

Ottoman history. The big corps which was responsible to protect Salonika and around it gave

in Salonika to Greece on November 8 without firing a gun even one time35.

Janina and Adrianople fell down because of famine and lack of ammunition36.

War at seas37

This war purely ceded to Greece. Although the Ottoman navy was not weak in front of

Greece, they leaved Aegean to them, because of inefficiency of commanding, poorly trained

leatherneck, domestic political disorganization.

At this war, Greece obtained all the Aegean islands except the Dodecanese islands

which were in the hand of Italy. By that, Greece doubled its territory.

Toward the Second Balkan War38

33
KOCABAŞ, Süleyman, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm, p. 286
34
Ibid, idem
35
Ibid, p. 287
36
Ibid, p. 290
37
Ibid, pp. 289-290
38
KOCABAŞ, Süleyman, Avrupa Türkiyesi’nin Kaybı ve Balkanlarda Panislavizm, pp. 290-292

14
 The Ottoman Empire was in bad conditions. Bulgaria wanted to exit to Istanbul.

However, Russia did not allow that, because it seemed Istanbul is its own heritage.

The Ottoman Empire which defeated all fronts obtained to sign a treaty with Bulgaria

and Serbia on December 3, 1912. Greece did not accede to make a treaty. The negotiations

between the Great Powers and the related states which came together in London in order to

mediation lasted until January 6, 1913. Since the conferences were resulted with

ineffectiveness, the war broke out again. Greece occupied Kosovo; the Montenegrin forces

marched against Shkoder. Both Austria and Italy rejected to wish of Serbia on landing to the

Adriatic Sea over Albania. This situation accelerated the liberation movement of Albania.

Because of the pressure of the Great Powers, Treaty of London was signed on May 30, 1913.

According to the treaty which had not accepted by the parties, the Ottoman Empire would

cede Crete and all region of west of line of the Enos-Midia to the Balkan states, and it leaved

the right to determine future of the Aegean islands except Crete to the Great Powers.

Just in the meantime, since Serbia and Greece were afraid of desires of Bulgaria, they

made a treaty between each other. Since the Balkan League had dissolved, the wars broke out

which was called the Second Balkan War and occurred between the states of Balkan League.

This war occurred since the countries could not divide the Ottoman territories they had

collapsed. At that time, the Young Turks who was troubled with leaving Adrianople to

Bulgaria by the Treaty of London, organized a coup, and they established the new

government. After that, they recovered Adrianople by benefit from riot of the Second Balkan

War.

Recovery of Adrianople paved the way acting the Great Powers against the Ottoman

Empire. They could not accept obtaining of territory of the Ottoman Empire.

15
 Before, their purpose to breaking out a war was that saving the various nations from the

misconduct of Turks. However, the events transformed the situation to ouster and share the

property of Turk in Europe, and ended by demonstration of violence and ambition39.

Young Turk coup40

The Young Turks seized power again in Istanbul on 23 January; it was led by Enver

Bey. He was the chief of staff of the Strategic Reserve in Istanbul at that time. The

assumption which the Ottoman grand vizier, Kamil Pasha, was preparing to leave Adrianople

to the Bulgarians was a major motivating factor for the coup. The Young Turks were

determined to maintain the war and save Adrianople by whatever means possible. They

forced the grand vizier to resign at gun point. The minister of war and originator of the

Ottoman Empire’s failed military efforts in the war, Nazim Pasha was shot and killed.

The Mahmut Shevket Pasha became new grand vizier who is a non-political soldier and

a former minister of war. His mission was to do everything possible to retain Adrianople.

Then, the new government made new proposals in London, offering to partition Adrianople

by ceding that portion of the city on the right bank of the Maritsa River to Bulgaria and

leaving the disposition of the Aegean Islands to the Great Powers. The Bulgarians, with

problems mounting on every side, would have been wise to accept this offer. Instead, the

Balkan allies immediately rejected the proposal and denounced the armistice. The war, now

limited to the besieged towns of Adrianople, Janina, and Scutari and the eastern borders of

Thrace, resumed on 3 February 1913.

39
SLOANE, M.,William, Bir Tarih Laboratuarı Balkanlar, Süreç Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 1987, p. 146
40
HALL, C., Richard, The Balkan Wars 1912-1913, pp. 78-79

16
The Social, Political and Economic Impacts of the Balkan War

The Balkan War was the war which nations implemented for the first time many war

methods, strategy and tactics that they will use in 20th century. The quick fired- cannons and

drums which produced by Germany and France were attempted first-time in the war. The

concept of trench warfare became a current issue for the first time. The first week of the war

witnessed very dramatic and strongly cases. The following three weeks, belligerents could not

move ahead from where they are although all their efforts. The armies of the Ottoman and

Bulgarian had waited reciprocally for months in their entrenchments. Either the Bulgarian

army or the Ottoman army bombarded from the air even if they were just a small amount and

inefficient by the war crafts purchased from the Western countries. 41

In the war, civilians who were immigrated from their places suffered as much as

fighting armies, maybe more. The Jewish people who were living in the lost territories shared

the same fate with the Muslims. The Greek armies massacred to the Jews more than the

Muslims in Salonika. 42

Bulgarians forced to conversion the Muslim Turks and Muslim Pomaks who speak

Slavic language and live in Rhodope Mountains. Allied countries deemed proper to each

other‘s people the same actions which implemented by Bulgaria to the civilians occupied

countries. They put into action the policies of “denationalization” in the Macedonian territory

acquired after the Treaty of Bucharest. Nearly 500.000 Bulgarian immigrated to tiny Eastern

Macedonia or to Bulgaria directly. In the first Balkan War, Istanbul allowed immigrants

mostly, in the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria was.43

41
KUTLU, Sacit, Balkanlar ve Osmanlı Devleti, İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, İstanbul, 2007, pp. 403-
404
42
Ibid, idem
43
KUTLU, Sacit, Balkanlar ve Osmanlı Devleti, pp. 404-405

17
Attitudes of the Great Powers in the Balkan Wars

The Balkan wars mostly concerned to Austria-Hungary and Russia. According to Austria,

whatever they gain in Macedonia, Serbia should not have been allowed to acquire point of

exit to Adriatic Sea. If Serbia have gained a harbor in the coast of Adriatic Sea, it would be

followed more sovereign policy against Austria-Hungary. Beside, Russia who is seemed as a

natural protector of Serbia could use this harbor as a base44.

Succeeding of the Balkan states was not threat for Russia as much as Austria-Hungary.

However, losses of the Ottoman Empire would have created dissatisfaction in St. Petersburg

as well as Vienna. Even if Russian volunteers were fighting with Serbs and Bulgarians,

Russian Foreign Minister Sazanov was horrified from Bulgarian early successes which were

like predicting occupation of Istanbul. If the Ottoman Empire have not achieved to stopping

Bulgarians in Chataldzha, Russia was ready to send the Fleet of Black Sea in order to help

protecting Istanbul. St. Petersburg preferred being administration of the Straits under the

control of the Ottoman Empire instead of Bulgaria which became stronger under the control

of a German ruler.45

France specified leaving initiative to Russia in the Balkans in November 16, 1912.

Italy was supporting a war, because the Ottoman Empire had not given Libya to itself. Italy

also came to an agreement with Austria-Hungary against expansion of Serbia in the Adriatic

Sea where Italy has its own desires. The attitude of the Great Britain was shaped by funding a

sovereign Albania and not interfering to commerce which passes from the Straits. Germany

had not decided that what kind of policy he will follow against the war, but it was unwilling in

44
KARATAY, Osman; GÖKDAĞ, A. Bilgehan, Balkanlar El Kitabı, KaraM & Vadi Yayınları, Volume 1,
Ankara, 2006, pp. 617-618
45
Ibid, p. 618

18
the matter of supporting that following its allied, Austria an adventurous policy in the

Balkans. 46

Treaty of Bucharest 47

1. Bulgaria ceded most of Silistra, Tutrakan, and the Southern Dobrudzha to Romania,

2. Greece obtained all of Epirus, Salonika, Drama, and Kavala beside most of the

Southern Macedonia,

3. Serbia obtained Bitola, Stip, Skopje, and Scutari,

4. Pleven ceded to Montenegro,

5. Small part of Macedonia and Alexandropolis leeved to Bulgaria.

For Bulgaria, the Bucharest conference was a catastrophe. Bulgaria did retain

considerable territory from the victories of the First Balkan War, especially in western Thrace,

and did secure an Aegean outlet. Macedonia, Bulgaria’s reason for fighting in the first place,

for the most part remained under foreign rule. Although the country was exhausted from two

wars, the Bulgarians could not regard the Bucharest settlement as permanent. Dimitur

Tonchev, the leader of the Bulgarian delegation at Bucharest, observed, “Either the Powers

will change it, or we ourselves will destroy it.”48

Treaty of Istanbul 49

46
KARATAY, Osman; GÖKDAĞ, A. Bilgehan, Balkanlar El Kitabı, p. 618
47
Ibid, pp. 619-620
48
HALL, C., Richard, The Balkan Wars 1912-1913, p.125
49
Ibid, pp. 125-126

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 Unable to deal with the Ottoman invasion at Bucharest, the Bulgarians had to approach

Istanbul directly and demand peace. They had no other choice because the Ottomans had

recovered most of eastern Thrace and Ottoman cavalry units were roving in pre-war Bulgaria.

During August, the Russians made several half-hearted diplomatic attempts to retain

Adrianople for Bulgaria. No other Great Power was interested in the issue, and the Russians

were not prepared to act alone.

Bulgaria was deprived of eastern Thrace by The Treaty of Istanbul, on whose battlefield

so many Bulgarian soldiers had died during the First Balkan War, and the important prize of

Adrianople. Although this was an emotional and regrettable misfortune, it was not as

catastrophic as the loss of Macedonia. Most of the exceedingly mixed population of eastern

Thrace was not Bulgarians after all. For the Ottomans, the Treaty of Istanbul represented a

positive coda to the disaster of the First Balkan War. They had regained Adrianople, and with

it not only the first Ottoman capital in Europe but also a great deal of security for

Constantinople. In addition, the alliance talks with Bulgaria promised the elimination of a

serious threat. Even though this alliance was not realized until 1915 when Bulgaria joined the

Central Powers, with the Treaty of Constantinople Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire entered

an era of détente that would last until 1918.

The signing of the Treaty of Constantinople did not quite end the Balkan Wars. On 14

November 1913 the Treaty of Athens concluded the conflict between the Greeks and the

Ottomans. This treaty restored relations but left the question of the Aegean Islands open. The

Italian occupation of the Dodecanese Islands and the strategic importance of Tenedos and

Imbros to access to the Dardanelles complicated this issue. The Great Powers had not

resolved it before July 1914. Relations between the Greeks and the Ottomans continued to be

very bad.

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Conclusion

As the first all-European conflict of the twentieth century, the Balkan Wars introduced an

age of modern warfare encompassing mass armies, machines, and entire civilian populations.

These wars eliminated the Ottoman Empire from Europe, except for the eastern corner of

Thrace, scrambled the borders of the Balkan Peninsula, and established a frail but independent

Albanian state. The conflict broke out in the Balkan Peninsula in 1912 which would continue

in Europe, until 1945. Even after that, many of the problems associated with the Balkan Wars

re-emerged during and after the second collapse of Yugoslavia in 1991. These include the

status of Macedonia and Kosovo and the establishment of a maximalist Serbian national

state50.

The Ottomans was the only state who came out a loser from the Balkan Wars. Because

of the Balkan War, its war casualty was 250.000 people in terms of dead, injured and loss. It

lost 83% of the Empire’s territories and 69% of its population in the Europe. It went without

its most important source of income; production base territories and productive population.

The Empire’s territories in the Europe decreased from 167.000 km2 to 26.000 km2 which is

according to the Treaty of Istanbul before the war. The Dodecanese Islands and Crete were

lost.51

By 20th century, the anti-war peaceful ideas increased. The Carnegie Endowment for

International Peace which had been founded in 1910 organized a commission from the

delegates of France, USA, Great Britain, Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary in order to

analyze the results after the Balkan Wars. In the report of the commission, The First Balkan

War was described like that: “It was an honorable revolt against violence and uprising of the

weak against the strong”52.

50
HALL, C., Richard, The Balkan Wars 1912-1913, p. 130
51
KUTLU, Sacit, Balkanlar ve Osmanlı Devleti, p. 403
52
Ibid, idem

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 In the part of the Second Balkan War of the report, exculpation of Greeks and Serbs

was realized. They charged the states which declared that the war is inevitable in terms of

their interests and claimed that they are not powerful as much avoid a war. The report was

concluded with demands on calling the civilized world to end exploitation of nations, and so

they would be model to the Balkan states53.

53
Ibid, idem

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