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 Draupadi
"Draupadi has five husbands - but she has none -
She had five sons - and was never a mother …
The pandavas have given Draupadi …
No joy, no sense of victory
No honour as wife
No respect as mother -
Only the status of a Queen …
But they all have gone
And I'm left with a lifeless jewel
And an empty crown …
My baffled motherhood
Wrings its hands and strives to weep".
A long poem "Kurukshetra", written by Amreeta Syam, conveys this angst of Panchali
(Draupadi), born unasked for by her father, bereft of brothers and sons and her beloved sakha
(friend) Krishna.

Background of the Draupadi

Draupadi, meaning daughter of Drupad, was known by several other names as well. As the
princess of the kingdom of Panchal she was known as Panchali. As the grand daughter of
Prushata she was known as Parsati. [ Draupadi is ayonija, not born of woman]. Draupadi is
born of fire and therefore, often referred to as Yagnyaseni. She is also called Krishnaa because
she was copper skinned, fiery eyed and had long, black hair. She was gifted with blue-lotus
fragrance wafting for a full krosha (2 miles) and hence was called Yojanagandha (she whose
fragrance can be felt for miles). [ Draupadi alone enjoys the unique relationship of sakhi
(female-friend) with her sakha (male-friend) Krishna. She was a true virgin, and has a mind of
her very own. ]
According to the epic Mahabharata of ancient India, Draupadi was born on the Yajnakund in
Maharaj's Drupada.So this is also called 'Yagna Sena’.

Drupada was the son of King Prihasta, and was thus the
prince of Panchala.He was a student of sage Bharadwaj.
Bharadwaj had a son named Drona. Drona too studied
under Bharadwaj. This brought Drupada and Drona very
close.They were very good friends.So good, in fact, that
Drupada once said to Drona that when he (Drupada) becomes a king, he (Drupada) shall give
half his kingdom to Drona.When the king of Panchala died, Drupada succeeded the throne. He

had become a king. On the other hand, Drona lived in great poverty (not uncommon for
Brahmins). Since he needed assistance to support his family, he approached Drupada and
invoked the aforementioned promise. Drupada refused owing either to his shame of knowing a
poor Brahmin which he did not want to acknowledge or to his greed of not wanting to part with
half the kingdom.
Since Drona was refused help, which he thought was owed to him, in his times of dire needs, he
was hurt.He was later assigned the work by Bhishma to train the princes of the Kuru clan,
Pandavs and Kauravs. As is the practice to offer Guru Dakshina to the teacher, Pandavs did so.
Drona asked them to take revenge from Drupada. They
battle Drupada and capture him. When Drupada is
brought to Drona in chains, Drona orders to set him free
but he retains a half of the kingdom which he thought
rightly his .
Drupada feels humiliated and vows to avenge that. Well
aware of the limitations of his power, he performs a
yagnya to please Shiv and seeks for a blessing. From the
holy fire, appear the twins, Drishtyadyumna and Draupadi. Drishtyadyumna is to avenge his
father which he does in the Kurukshetra war by beheading Drona. Draupadi was declared to be
the cause of ruin of the Kuru clan.
Thus, Draupadi, who was born from fire, had no biological
mother.
she married the five brothers because of her mother
-in-law's misunderstanding. After facing problems created by
her polyandry, she became the queen of Indraprastha. She
had five sons, one from each Pandava, who were collectively
addressed as the Upapandavas.

Volcanic, she reduced her enemies to the ashes. This fiery princess bent on vengeance could be
compassionate and generous, too. Draupadi had developed the strength to bear the trials of life.
She had resolved firmly not to harm the good people, and not to bend before the wicked.
Draupadi was a woman, but she became as famous as the heroic Pandavas because of such
determination. Her personality was one of lightning and thunder. This unforgettable heroine is
in no way less than Bheema or Arjuna in strength and spirit, valour and virtue. Her story is a
saga of suffering and disgrace but she took everything in her stride and vanquished each one of
the perpetrators of her humiliation and agony. Draupadi finds her five husbands discarding her
repeatedly: each takes at least one more wife; she never gets Arjuna to herself for he marries
Ulupi, Chitrangada and has Subhadra as his favourite. Yudhishthira pledges her like chattel at a
game of dice; and finally, they leave her to die alone on the roadside like a pauper, utterly rikta -
drained in every sense.
Life sketch
Marriage and children:- Arjuna wins Draupadi in her Swayamvara The wedding of Draupadi
Drupada intended to wed his daughter to Arjuna. Upon hearing of the Pandavas' supposed
death at Varnavata, he set up a Swayamvara contest for Draupadi to choose her husband from
the competitive contest.The test was to lift and string a bow, and fire arrows to pierce the eye of
a golden fish only by looking at its reflection in the water. At the Swayamvara, almost all the
assorted monarchs were unable to complete the challenge. There are some variations regarding
Karna's participation. Some renditions show Draupadi refusing to marry Karna on account of
being a Suta, while some other versions describe him failing to string the bow by the "breadth of
a hair”.
In the end, Arjuna succeeds in the task,
dressed as a Brahmin.The other attendees,
including the Kauravas and Karna protest at
a Brahmin winning the competition and attack
Draupadi and Arjuna. Arjuna and Bhima
together protect Draupadi by defeating all
attendees and are able to retreat. Arjuna,
along with Draupadi and his brothers, runs home to tell Kunti of his success, shouting "look
what we have found". Kunti thought he was referring to alms found in the forest or to some great
prize unknown to her. She tells Arjuna that the find must be shared with his brothers, as they had
always shared such things in the past.
This misunderstanding, combined with a motherly command, leads to an agreement that all five
brothers marry her. This is one of the rare examples of polyandry in Sanskrit literature.The
brothers agreed that none should intrude if Draupadi was alone with one of the others, the
penalty for doing so being a year to be spent in exile. A year was allotted to each Pandava and
during that year only that Pandava could enter
Draupadi's private chambers.
Later Draupadi becomes a mother of five sons, one
son each from the Pandava brothers. They were
known as Upapandavas. Their names were
Prativindhya (from Yudhishthira), Sutasoma (from
Bheema), Shrutakarma (from Arjuna), Satanika
(from Nakula) and Shrutasena
(fromSahadeva).Ashwatthama killed the Upapandavas during his surprise raid on Pandava
camp on the eighteenth day of the war to avenge the death of his father Drona.

Duryodhana's insult:-There is a popular myth

that is
believed to be the reason why Duryodhana hated
Draupadi.Duryodhana and his entourage were
 exploring the keep during their visit to Yudhishthira's

Rajasuya Yagna. While touring the grounds, an unsuspecting Duryodhana fell prey
to one of the many illusions that could be seen all around the palace. When he
stepped on the apparently solid part of the courtyard, there was a splash and
Duryodhana found himself waist-deep in water, drenched from head to foot by the
hidden pool. The myth is, Draupadi and her maids saw this from the balcony with
amusement, and joked Andhasya Putra Andhaha meaning 'a blind man's son is
blind'. This famous story does not feature in Veda Vyasa's Mahabharatha but is the
figment of the imagination of a much later playwright. It gained immense popularity
gradually through repeated depictions in various screen and written adaptations of
the epic across the length and breadth of the country. The most popular depictions
were by B.R. Chopra's Mahabharata series that aired on Doordarshan in 1988 and
famous Telugu film 'Daana Veera Soora Karna' starring Nandamuri Taraka Rama
Rao as Duryodhana, where Draupadi's laughter was singled out for dramatic effect.
In Vyasa's Sanskrit epic, the scene is quite different.It was Bhima, Arjuna, and the twin brothers
alongside their retinues who had witnessed Duryodhana's fall and laughed along with their
servants. In the Sanskrit text, Draupadi is not mentioned in the scene at all, either laughing or
insulting Duryodhana. Nonetheless, Duryodhana felt insulted by the behaviour of the four
Pandavas, stoking his hatred of them. Later on, he went back to Hastinapur and expressed his
immense agony on witnessing the riches of the Pandavas to his blind father, which was the root
cause for inviting his cousins for the dice-game. His main wish was to usurp the wealth of his
cousins which they had accumulated on account of the Rajasuya Yajna. Known to few, during
this conversation, Duryodhan mentions how he had observed Draupadi serving food to
everyone, including physically challenged citizens as the Empress. He says to his father,"And, O
king, Yajnaseni, without having eaten herself, daily seeth whether everybody, including even the
deformed and the dwarfs, hath eaten or not.”
He then went on to express his wrath at having fallen into a pool of water and being laughed at
mockingly, mainly by Bhima, followed by Arjun, Nakul, Sahadeva and other menials in the
palace. It is here, where he fleetingly mentioned Draupadi's name, who accordingly to
Duryodhan, had "joined in the laughter with other females." Whether Duryodhana was speaking
an untruth or her name was a later addition into this part of the text is debatable.
Draupadi's laughter went on to be singled out and romanticized by writers for centuries as a
cause for the dice-game, and the war. In Vyasa's Sanskrit epic, however, her role in the scene is
trivial compared to the exaggerated treatment it has received in popular adaptation.
Game of dice and humiliation :- Draupadi’s Cheer-Haran, literally meaning stripping of one’s
clothes, marks a definitive moment in the story of Mahābhārata. It is the central reason of the
Mahābhārata war, the rivalry between Pandavas and Kauravas being the more general cause.
Yudhishthira and his four brothers were the rulers of Indraprastha under the sovereignty of
Emperor Dhritarashtra. Dhritarashtra’s son Duryodhana who resided in the capital of the
empire Hastinapur was always jealous of his cousins. Together with his brothers, his friend
Karna and maternal uncle Shakuni, he conspired to call the Pandavas at Hastinapur and win
their kingdoms in a game of gambling. Shakuni was an inveterate gambler and very skilled at
winning by unfair means. The idea was that Shakuni will play against Yudhishthira and win at
the gambling table what was impossible to win at the battlefield.

As the game proceeded, Yudhishthira lost all his wealth and kingdom one by one. Having lost all
material wealth, he went on to put his brothers at stake one by one and lost them too. Ultimately
he put himself at stake, and lost again. All the Pandavas were now the slaves of Kauravas. But
for the villain Shakuni, the humiliation of Pandavas was not complete. He plods Yudhishthira
that he has not lost everything yet. Yudhishthira still has Draupadi with him and if he wishes he
can win everything back by putting Draupadi at stake. Yudhishthira walks into the trap and to
the horror of everybody present, puts Draupadi as a bet for the next round. Shakuni rolls the
dice and gleefully shouts "Look, I have won”. Duryodhana commands his younger brother
Dushasana to forcefully bring her into the forum. Dushasana barges into the living quarters of
Draupadi who had just finished her bath and was drying her loose hair. Dushasan grabs her by
the hair and brings her into the court dragging her by the hair.
Unable to withstand the distress of his wife, an emotional Bhima even threatens to burn up
Yudhishthira’s hands with which he placed Draupadi on stake. Arjun tries to help Draupadi but
Yudhistira forbids him. Bhima vows to cut off Dushasana's hands one day in battle. Arjun vows
to kill Karna for insulting his wife
Now in an emotional appeal to the elders present in the forum, Draupadi repeatedly questions
the legality of the right of Yudhishthira to place her at stake when he himself had lost his
freedom and as a consequence did not possess any property in the first place. Everybody
remains dumbfounded. Bhishma, the patriarch of the Kaurava family and a formidable warrior,
has only this explanation to offer to Draupadi - "The course of morality is subtle and even the
illustrious wise in this world fail to always understand it.” He now commands the Pandavas to
strip themselves in the manner of slaves. They obey by stripping off their upper garments.
Then Kauravas demand the same from Draupadi, who remains crying. Then to the horror of
everybody present, Dushasana proceeds to strip Draupadi of her sari. Seeing her husbands
unable or unwilling to help her, Draupadi prays to Lord Krishna to protect her modesty. Lord
Krishna now works a miracle so that as Dushasana unwraps layers and layers of her sari, her
sari keeps getting extended. Seeing Draupadi being violated so brazenly, Bhima in a roaring
rage, vows to tear open Dushasana’s breast one day and drink his blood. Finally, a tired
Dushasana backs off without being able to strip Draupadi.

Duryodhana repeatedly challenges Yudhishthira’s four

brothers to disassociate themselves from Yudhishthira’s
authority and take their wife back. No one dares to denounce
their loyalty to their eldest brother. In order to provoke the
Pandavas further, Duryodhana bares and pats his thigh
lookinginto Draupadi’s eyes, implying her to sit on his thigh.
In impotent rage Bhima vows in front of the entire assembly
that one day he will break that very thigh of Duryodhan
in a battle.

Finally, the blind monarch Dhritarashtra's conscience is stirred, in part fearing the wrath of
Pandavas against his sons. He intervenes and asks Draupadi to wish for whatever she desires.
Draupadi asks her husbands the Pandavas to be freed from slavery. Dhritarashtra grants her
wish and also restores to Pandavas all they lost in the game of dice. Free from the bondage
Bhima, hotheaded as ever, immediately proposes to his brothers to slay all Kauravas present
then and there itself. Yudhishthira and Arjuna prevent him from taking any rash action.
After many words of reconciliation between
Pandavas and Dhritarashtra, Pandava
swithdraw to their kingdom along with
Draupadi
and their entourage.

Shakuni, Karna and Duryodhan later convince

Dhritarashtra to invite Pandavas for a new
game
of dice, with modified rules. It was following the
defeat in this new game that Pandavas were
sent into exile for 12 years.
However, not pledging her, given that the other Pandava brothers had already been pledged and
lost, would also not have resolved the dilemma Yudhishthira faced. The lack of a definite way to
resolve the conflict is what has led to this passage being extremely controversial. That the elders
like Bhishma, Drona, and Dhritarashtra remained silent spectators of the entire episode adds
valuable insight to their personalities too. Vidura was the only one who objected to the whole
thing but he did not have the authority to stop it. In any case the passage must be seen in the
light of the mores of the times of its writing which lay a few millennia ago.
Krishna treats Draupadi as his sister, pledges his friendship to Draupadi and vows to show the
world the greatest example of friendship. This is quite possibly why Krishna helps Draupadi
when the Pandavas lose her in a gamble.
As per Narada and Vayu Puranas, Draupadi was composite Avatar of Goddesses Shyamala
(wife of Dharma), Bharati (Wife of Vayu), Sachi (wife of Indra), Usha (wife of Ashwinis) and
hence married their earthly counterparts in form of Five Pandavas. Enraged at a jest by Parvati
and the four goddesses, Brahma cursed them to human birth which the solution Parvati brought
about was to be born as one woman, Draupadi and hence share the earthly body for a smaller
period of time. Draupadi 's characteristic anger and fight against injustice reflects the Parvati
or her Shakti, Kali inhabiting Draupadi 's mortal flesh at times. At other times, Draupadi was
docile and even waited to be rescued (as in case of Jayadratha and Jatasura) showing the
qualities of other goddesses like Sachi and Usha. Other times, she showed cunning and guile to
hide their true identity and still use Vayu putra Bhima to kill Keechaka like Goddess Bharati
would. Draupadi was also avatar of Goddess Shree or Wealth who was joint wife to five Indras,
aka Five Pandavas. She was to be born several times for imprisoning the Indras. First time was
as Vedavati who cursed Ravana (here we find yet another goddess Avatar Swaha, wife to Agni).
She then came again as Maya-Sita especially to take revenge from Ravana while Agni hid the
real Sita. Third one was partial either Damyanti (whos ehusband Nala was equivalent to
Dharma, Vayu, Indra just like the Pandavas) and her daughter Nalayani. She married Sage
Mudgala. Fifth Avatar was Draupadi herself. So we find in Draupadi, a composite avatar of
Kali, Parvati, Sachi, Shyamala, Usha, Bharati, Shree, Swaha, the eight goddesses.
Krishna calls Draupadi his sakhi, or friend. Another story says the reason he helps Draupadi is
that she prayed with utmost devotion. When Krishna had cut his finger on the Sudarshan
Chakra, she bound it with her Sari, this act being the origin of Rakhi. The another story of origin
of Rakhi is Sachi tying thread to Indra. Sachi's avatar is Draupadi.

Also, Krishna is the one who opposes her marriage to Karna and promotes her marriage to
ArjunaDraupadi is the exemplification of bhakti to God. She showed utmost faith to Lord
Krishna.

Ideal
Some reasons why Draupadi of Mahabharat is the ideal woman to follow and how women of
today could learn a thing or two from her! The beautiful, virtuous and intelligent Draupadi, the
real ‘heroine’ of Mahabharata, was a woman of substance. The story could have happened five
thousand years ago but even during those days women had to balance the whole game.
Draupadi’s story is not only interesting but also enriching to the reader about how she had to
fight her odds out. She was attractive and impressive and she had a strong personality.
1. Draupadi is the first feminist of Indian Mythology- that it all starts with woman power,
self-belief and being confident, is what the lady knew right from the beginning. She was
strong not because she was born strong but because she believed that she was strong.
Born to a father, who wanted a son instead and bestowed upon her, hardships instead of
blessings, didn’t deter Draupadi to follow her heart and instincts.
2. She had platonic relationship, a friend (a sakha) in Krishna- She proved it to the world,
it was possible to be best friends with the opposite gender. The relationship that she had
with Krishna is today quoted as an example of true friendship. She confided in him,
believed in him and trusted him and her friend stood up to her, at all times, including her
time of death.
3. She was aggressive and spoke her mind, always- On occasions galore, Draupadi, has
spoken her mind, be it her wedding, during a courtroom discussion or during war. She
was definitely not the arm-candy type. Truthful and daring, Draupadi, was not scared to
admit her mistakes.
4. She knew the right sringar (make-up) for a woman for right occasions- Draupadi was
considered as one of the most fashionable feminist of her times. There are explicit
mentions of her beauty and dressing in certain chapters. Also, during their exile in Virat
Kingdom, she got appointed as the queen’s hair-dresser only after she told the queen that
she had worked for Draupadi.
5. 5. She was conscious of her rights- She was knowledgeable and knew the order of things.
Even when she was called upon in the courtroom before the shameful incident, twice she
refused to go because she cleared it that if Yudhishthir had lost himself in the gamble
there was no way he could gamble on her and that she was not the only wife to
Yudhishthir; she was married to all five of them.
6. She was a good administrator and used to manage the entire kingdom of Yudhishthir-
Draupadi was a great manipulator. During the Keechak debate, Draupadi knew which of
the five husbands would come to her rescue. She was constantly reminding Pandavas of
their shortcomings and left no chance to remind them of their losses, unlike timid wives,
who would dare not say a word against their husband.
7. She was compassionate and generous- It is quite evident from narrations like the patra
through which she used to give food to everyone who came to her doorstep even during
their exile. In fact in one of the incidents Draupadi even breast fed two dying tribal
children. Also, after the war was over, she took good care of Dhritrashtra and Gandhari
(Kaurav’s parents) as well.
8. She had five husbands and five sons- to manage all men around and yet be the cynosure
of all eyes is an unbelievable task in itself. She was not taken for granted and her orders
were followed around.

What is the relevance of that character today?

Draupadi is one mythical character whose qualities, choices, personality traits and character
have always been a hot topic of debate. Women and men, admire and question her alike.
It is known that Draupadi was the cause of Mahabharata, a war most spoken and written about
in religious as well as other scriptures. Each character in this epic saga taught us something,
whether we take it or not, like it or dislike it.
Draupadi too, in her own way, teaches us some important life lessons. So here they are:
1. Don’t suffer in silence :- Drauapdi was indeed a strong female character. In fact, for her
times, she could be called a rebel. What she suffered was wrong and she raised her voice against
it at every chance.
2. Know your mind and speak it :- Throughout the saga, Draupadi was sure of her choices,
knew her mind and even demanded for this.
3. Pure intentions and being true to one’s duties will help you to attain justice :- The
‘Chirharan’ incident is proof that if one has pure intentions and stays true to one’s duties,
justice will be brought.
4. Even a mighty empire can be brought down by being patient :- The Kauravas were more in
number and had a stronger chance of winning the war but Draupadi kept her faith and patience
thanks to which a mighty empire was burnt to the ashes.
5. Choose a man who protects you rather than a man you adore :- A man you are crazy about
(Arjun in this case) will beg for love and make all the moves to gain his love rather than have it
generously given to you whereas a man who adores you (Bhima) will take on the world for you
and treat you with tenderness and will always focus on making you happy.
6. The only person you can rely on is yourself :- In the end, Draupadi was abandoned by all
her husbands and even her sons were not there on her journey. Hence, the only person who
should depend on is yourself; gather your assets, control them and use them wisely when the
time comes instead of expecting others to provide for you. Remember that you are dispensable,
irrespective of what you think and others lead you to believe.
7. Use your tongue wisely :- The triggering point of the Mahabharata was Draupadi mocking
Duryodhana saying, “A blind man’s son is also blind’. If only Draupadi had been wise to keep
her words in check, things might have turned out differently.
8. Have a trustworthy male friend :- Krishna was always a good friend to Draupadi. She shared
her worries with him, turned to him for advice and Krishna in turn gave her the much needed
support and even protected her on many instances. In fact, if not for her Krishna, Draupadi
would have been disrobed at the ‘Chirharan’ too.
9. Be careful what you wish for :- Supposedly Draupadi prayed to Lord Shiva and asked for a
husband who would be noble and strong, skilled with the bow, handsome and wise. Unable to
find a single man with all these qualities, Lord Shiva blessed her with five husbands, each of
whom possessed a single quality out of these. So, one must be careful about what they wish for.
10. Fight for your rights :- Draupadi was probably one of the few females of her era who
fiercely fought for her rights even when she had to go against her elders or her loved ones.
For her times, Draupadi was surely a feminist who fought for her rights! Even today her ideals
stand true and continue to inspire men and women alike in the 21st century.

How that character helps in forming a distinct identity of women?

She was a queen, wife to the mighty Pandavas yet she was a woman in a patriarchal society who
held little sway over her own fate
Draupadi, an important character in the mythological epic Mahabharata might have lived in
another era, but the fate she endured continues to befall numerous women in India and across
the world even today.
Therefore, in an attempt to highlight the ironical state of women which hasn’t changed over the
centuries, writer and director Atul Satya Kaushik of The Films and Theatre Society recently
staged a play Draupadi at Epicentre, Gurgaon. The play is set in 1960s in one of the villages of
Haryana and is an imaginative re-telling of certain chapters of Draupadi’s life that draws
parallel between her and the women of today.
As the men of a large family of Haryanvi rural performers have gone out to attend a wedding
feast, the women of the household decide to use the opportunity to re-enact an old play that was
‘banned’ by the male patriarchs. It was believed that the play would corrupt the minds of
women.
Performing the play, the women take up the roles of all characters, including men, and reprise
the tragedies of their own lives. In the process they discover how closely their lives are a
reflection of Draupadi’s life. The intense story unfolds in an incredibly light and seamless way
through music.
Just like all other productions of the theatre group Draupadi was also high on folk music. Actors
sang many songs in different styles such as ragini, qawwali, ghazal and Heer to narrate a
serious issue in a light way. The seriousness, h owever, is not lost and the play becomes a
powerful commentary on the need of women emancipation.By bringing today's generation closer
to mythology in a new and interesting way, the play makes them extract important meanings
from it.
Be it Draupadi’s failure to find the love of the man she chose, her objectification in the gamble
played by Yudhishtir or her public humiliation – the village women manage to find parallels for
each of these tragedies amidst their own lives. In the end the women draw the conclusion that
nothing will change as far as the fate women is concerned.
“Draupadi is not just a mythical character, she’s a metaphor for women of all times and ages.
There is no dearth of Draupadis in our world, they are e verywhere – be it in the villages of
Haryana, in the thriving metropolitan of Delhi, in the slums of Mumbai, on the streets of
Ahmadabad or in a village of Khyber Pakhtoonkhwah. This play talks about the helplessness of
being a woman in a male dominated world which most of the women must have felt even today,”
says Kaushik.

REFERENCES
 DEVI, MAHASWATA.
‘DRAUPADI’ IN BREAST STORIES. TRANSLATED BY GAYATRI
CHAKRAVORTY SPIVAK. CALCUTTA: SEAGULL BOOKS, 2010.
 SPIVAK, GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY. CAN THE SUBALTERN SPEAK?.
(1983)
 SPIVAK, GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY. THE TRAJECTORY OF SUBALTERN
IN MY WORK. (2003)
 BHASKAR A SHUKLA. WOMEN ON WOMEN: A F EMINIST STUDY.
SAROOP & SONS, 2006
 BHAWALKAR, VANAMALA. EMINENT WOMEN IN THE MAHABHARATA.
NEW DELHI: SHARADA
 PUBLISHING. 2002 S UTHERLAND, SALLY J. “SITA AND DRAUPADI:
AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR AND FEMALE ROLE- MODELS IN THE
SANSKRIT EPICS.” JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY
109, NO. 1: 63-79. 1989