FRC 416 – Forensic Ballistics

MODULE 2

Module 2 includes three chapters such as: Chapter 4, which deals with the origin and nomenclature of bullets, different
types based on shapes and their usages and inventors of modern types of bullets. Chapter 5, that includes functions of cartridge
case or shell, parts and functions and classification of cartridge cases according to shape and head forms. Chapter 6, which
includes the study of primer and priming mixture, its origin and parts, the difference between three modern types of cartridge primer,
the compositions of ancient and modern priming mixture.

Objectives: at the end of the study, the students should be able to:
1. Understand the specific usages of the different types of bullets.
2. Familiarized the different functions of each part of cartridge cases and their varieties with respect to their shape and
forms.
3. Knew the difference between cartridge primers and the difference between the composition of old and modern priming
mixtures.

CHAPTER IV (BULLETS)

Bullet – is a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means of expansive force of gases
coming from burning gun powder.

The term may also include projectiles propelled from a shotgun, although strictly speaking the projectiles designed for
shotgun are called “pellets” or “shots”. In layman’s point of view, a projectile fired from a firearm is called “slug” although what he
actually means is a “bullet”

ORIGIN

Bullet – originated from the French word “BOULETTE” which means a “SMALL BALL”

Nomenclature

Bullet Cannelure – circular grooves around the circumference of the bullet. It serves one or two purposes

a. To hold bullet lubricant, a grease or bee –wax, which lubricates the barrel as the bullet passes through it.
b. To hold the bullet firmly in place.

Terms to Ponder:
Souvenir Bullet - is the term given when the bullet has been lodged and remained in the body.
Bullet Migration - is when the bullet did not lodge in a place where it was previously located.
Bullet embolism - is a special form of bullet migration when the bullet loses its momentum while inside the chamber of the
heart or inside the big blood vessel and carried by the circulating blood to some parts of the body where it may be lodged.
It may cause sudden loss of function of the area supplied or death if vital organs are involved.
Tandem Bullet - refers to two or more bullets that leave the barrel one after the other.

Kinds of Bullet (based on mechanical construction)

 1. Lead Bullet – made of lead, tin and antimony which is slightly harder than pure lead core. It is used in almost all revolver
ammunition and in some low and medium power rifle cartridges. It is produced in automatic swaging machines from extruded
wire containing the proper percentages of tin and antimony for hardening.

2. Jacketed Bullet – made of a core of lead covered by a jacket of harder material such as gilding metal, a copper alloy of
approximately 90% copper and 10% zinc. It is used for automatic pistols ammunition and medium and high power rifle
ammunition. The most common are those from the blow back such as: .25ACP, .32ACP, .330ACP, 9mm Luger, .45ACP and
several types of high velocity .30s. All made automatically by swaging a cup of metal around a lead core. European
manufacturers have been used steel as a jacket from time to time. The primary function of the “JACKET” in a bullet is: to
prevent the adherence of lead to the inside of the gun barrel.

Kinds of Bullets (based on the shape)

1. Round Nose Bullet - free end is dome-like (hemispherical) and commonly observed in short firearm.
2. Conical Bullet - Refers to a slug which is tapered and pointed.
3. Hollow Point Bullet - There is a depression or cavity at the tip to expand or mushroom at impact on hard object.
Mushroom – the capacity of the bullet to expand.
4. Flat Nose Bullet – common to caliber 40 firearm. This has a wider meplat than a pointed nose bullet resembles to a
hollow point however, no cavity or depression at the tip.

Types of Bullets

There are many types of targets that can be destroyed by small missiles or projectiles. To secure a maximum effect against each
target, there are many types of bullets or shells. Here are the principal types of bullet with its function:

1. Ball Bullets – have soft lead cores inside the jacket and are used against personnel only.

2. Armor Piercing Bullet – is a pointed, flat base bullet with a gilding metal jacket. It has a hardened steel core of pointed,
boat-tailed shape and fired at vehicles and other armored targets.
Tungsten – main core - a hard lustrous gray metallic element.

3. Tracer Bullet – contain a compound at the base similar to BARIUM NITRATES, which is set on fire when the bullet is
projected. The flash of bright red smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to be seen for about 600 yards.

4. Incendiary Bullets – contain a mixture on the tip, such as phosphorous or other material, that can be set on fire by impact.
The incendiary bullet has a light blue color and these are used on targets that will readily burn such as aircrafts or gasoline
depot.

5. Dum-Dum Bullets – This type of bullet was invented by British Ordnance force stationed at their arsenal at Dum-Dum,
India. Literally, this type is known as Soft Point Bullet.

6. Gas Check Bullet – to prevent the melting of the base, lead bullet intended to be fired at a higher velocity and have their
gases protected with a small copper cups. The bullet is cast with a slightly tape-ring base, and the copper gas check is
then pressed tightly on the bore, the cup remaining on the bullet when it is fired.

7. Wad-Cutter Bullet – a cylindrical bullet design having a sharp shouldered intended to cut a target paper clearly to facilitate
easy and accurate scoring.

8. Wax Bullet – a bullet made from paraffin and other wax preparation usually used for short range indoor target shooting.
 9. Explosive (fragmentary bullet) – contain a high charge of explosive. Because of their small size, it is difficult to make a fuse
that will work reliably in small arms ammunition.

10. Frangible – designed to disintegrate into tiny particles upon impact to minimize their penetration for reasons of range
safety, to limit environmental impact or to limit the shoot through danger behind the intended target. Ex. The Glaser Safety
Slug.

11. Rifle Slug – which is used in shotgun.

12. Sabot - this center-fire rifle bullet consists of a copper jacketed bullet that is of a smaller caliber than the rifle it is fired in.  
This smaller bullet is surrounded by hard plastic sleeve or adaptor that allows it to be fired in a larger caliber firearm. The
projectile never directly touches the barrel, and the sabot typically falls away after firing. Because the bullet never directly
engages the barrel, rifling impressions will not be impressed on the bullet but rather the sabot.

13. Glaser Safety Slug - this specific bullet is designed to break apart scattering numerous small lead pellets throughout the
target.  Each of the small pellets will create its own wound track and cause an enormous amount of bleeding. Designed by
Jack Cannon 35 years ago of Dakota Ammunition of Sturgis

14. Hydra-Shock - a type of expanding bullet used in commercial ammunition made by Federal Cartridge. It was
originally patented by bullet designer Tom Burczynski. Hydra-Shock bullets feature a unique, patented center-post
design and notched jacket. Together they are meant to provide more reliable expansion and deeper penetration.
Center post designed bullets like Hydra-Shock have more predictable results and therefore offer some advantage as a
projectile.

Modern Bullet Inventors

Captain John Norton (1823) - of the British Army designed the first pointed or "conical" bullets. Norton's bullet had a
hollow base which upon firing expanded under pressure to engage with a barrel's rifling. The British Board of Ordnance
rejected it because spherical bullets had been in use for the previous 300 years

William Greener (1836) - renowned English gunsmith invented the Greener bullet. It was very similar to Norton's bullet
except that the hollow base of the bullet was fitted with a wooden plug which more reliably forced the base of the bullet to
expand and catch the rifling. Tests proved that Greener's bullet was extremely effective but it too was rejected for military
use because, being two parts, it was judged as being too complicated to produce.

Claude-Étienne Minié (1847) - a captain in the French Army was first introduced the soft lead Minié ball. It was nearly
identical to the Greener bullet. As designed by Minié, the bullet was conical in shape with a hollow cavity in the rear,
which was fitted with a little iron cap instead of a wooden plug. When fired, the iron cap would force itself into the hollow
cavity at the rear of the bullet, thereby expanding the sides of the bullet to grip and engage the rifling. In 1855, the British
adopted the Minié ball for their Enfield rifles.

Sir Joseph Whitworth (1854 and 1857) - conducted a long series of rifle experiments, and proved, among other points,
the advantages of a smaller bore and, in particular, of an elongated (cylindrical) bullet. The Whitworth bullet was made to fit
the grooves of the rifle mechanically. The Whitworth rifle was never adopted by the government, although it was used
extensively for match purposes and target practice between 1857 and 1866, when it was gradually superseded by
Metford's.

W. E. Metford (1862) and later, carried out an exhaustive series of experiments on bullets and rifling, and invented the
important system of light rifling with increasing spiral, and a hardened bullet. The combined result was that in December
1888 the Lee-Metford small-bore (0.303", 7.70 mm) rifle, was finally adopted for the British army. The Lee-Metford was the
predecessor of the Lee-Enfield.

Major Eduard Rubin (1882) director of the Swiss Army Laboratory at Thun invented the copper jacketed bullet, an
elongated bullet with a lead core in a copper jacket. It was also small bore (7.5mm and 8mm) and it is the precursor of the
8mm "Lebel bullet" which was adopted for the smokeless powder ammunition of the Mle 1886 Lebel rifle.

European advances in aerodynamics led to the pointed spitzer bullet. By the beginning of the twentieth century, most
world armies had begun to transition to spitzer bullets. These bullets flew for greater distances more accurately and carried
more energy with them. Spitzer bullets combined with machine guns greatly increased the lethality of the battlefield.

Lieutenant-Colonel Desaleux (1901) - invented Balle "D" as the first combination spitzer and boat-tail bullet.

Delvigne (1826) - a French infantry officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which a spherical bullet (round)
was rammed down until it caught the rifling grooves. Delvigne's method, however, deformed the bullet and was inaccurate.

CHAPTER V (CARTRIDGE CASE)

Cartridge Case – is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder, and primer. Likewise
termed as “shell” or “casing”.

Cartridge case of all types are made by a machine operation known as “DRAWING”

FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASES

The functions of cartridge cases are basically the same whether it is fired in the revolvers, pistols, rifles and shotguns. These
include:
a. Holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
b. Serves as a water proof container for the gunpowder.
c. Prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are forced against the walls of the
chamber by pressure or it serves a “GAS SEAL” at the breech end of the barrel.

PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

Primer Pocket

Crimp
Vent or Flash Hole

1. Rim – is the protruding metal at the base of the shell in the case of rimmed type and semi-rimmed type.

Purpose of Rim on Cases (rimmed and semi-rimmed type)

a. Limits the forward travel of cartridges into their chambers.
b. Offer the best grip for an extractor.
2. Primer Pocket – primer pocket performs three functions:
a. Holding primers securely in central position
b. Providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge caused by the ignition of priming mixture.
c. Providing a solid support for primer anvils, without which the latter could not be fired.
3. Vents or Flash Holes – is the hole or the web or bottom of the primer pocket through which the primer “flash” provides ignition
to the powder charge. It is the “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.
4. Head and Body – constitute the “cork” that plugs the breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. Neck – the part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet. In cases of bottleneck, the “neck” is apparent but in the so-
called “straight” cases which involve only a slight taper, it is not.
6. Shell Cannelures – are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the necks and bodies of the cases at the
location of the bases of the bullet to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.
7. Crimp – is the part of the mouth of a cartridge case or shot shell that is turned in upon the bullet. It works two ways:
a. it aids in holding the bullet in place
b. it offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of the gunpowder.
8. Base – the bottom portion of the case which holds the following:
a. The “primer” which contains the priming mixture
b. The “shell head” which contains the “headstamp” (engraved or embossed), “caliber”, and “years of manufacture”.
9. Shoulder – that portion which supports the neck.
10. Extracting Groove – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for the automatic withdrawal of the case
after each firing.
11. Mouth – that part responsible for holding the bullet.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE CASES

(according to “shape”)

1. Straight – shell commonly used in pistol ammunition and .30 caliber carbine.
2. Tapered – tapered case form is very rare although presently it is now being used in “magnum jet” cartridge caliber .22, an
Italian 10.4mm revolver and .50 caliber cartridges.
3. Bottleneck or Necked – most modern center fire rifle cartridge cases are of bottleneck or necked type and this case form
provides the greatest powder capacity commensurate with over all case length.

(according to rim or head forms)

1. Rimmed Type – the diameter of the rim or the base is greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case. E. g.
revolver cases and .30 caliber carbine.
 2. Semi-rimmed Type – the diameter of the rim or base is slightly greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
These are designed for automatic weapons such as: pistols like, super .38, caliber .25, caliber .32. These are the cartridge
cases normally found at the crime scene, because these are automatically ejected from every firing of the firearm.

3. Rimless Type – the diameter of the rim or the base is equal to the diameter of the body of the cartridge case. These are
designed to use in automatic pistols and submachine guns such as: caliber .45 automatic pistol, .45 grease gun, .45
Thompson submachine gun, .30 caliber, 9mm Uzi submachine gun, 5.56mm or .22 caliber.

4. Rebated Type – the diameter of the rim or the base is smaller than the body of the cartridge case. E. g. caliber 40.

5. Belted Type – there is a protruding metal around the body of the cartridge case near the rim or these belted cartridges
designed intended to use in machine gun.

CHAPTER VI (PRIMERS)

Primer – is that portion of the cartridge which consists of a brass or gilding metal cup.
Priming Cup – that part that contains a highly sensitive priming compound or highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound, which
when struck by the firing pin would “Detonate or Ignite”.
Percussion – the detonation or the ignition of priming mixture when it struck by the firing pin.

ORIGIN

Alexander John Forsyth – a Scotch Presbyterian minister, chemist and a hunter and a well-authority to firearm who is credited for
being the first to conceive the idea of using detonating compound for igniting powder charges in a small arms by “percussion” and in
1807 he obtained a patent for this idea. The first successful priming mixture he made was composed of “Potassium Chlorate”,
“Charcoal” and “sulphur” in powdered form.

PARTS OF THE PRIMER (center-fire cartridge)

The primer of the center-fire cartridge has four parts:

1. Primer Cup – the container of the priming mixture. This is made of brass, gilding metal or copper depending upon the kind.
2. Priming Mixture – the highly sensitive of chemical compound contained in the primer cup. This priming chemical varies in
composition depending upon the manufacturer.
3. Anvil – that portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from a firing pin. This must be hard,
rigid and firmly supported to provide the resistance necessary for firing the priming mixture.
4. Disc – piece of small paper or disc of tin foil which is pressed over the priming mixture.
Purpose of Disc:
a. To hold priming mixture in place
b. To exclude moisture

COMPOSITION OF THE PRIMING MIXTURE

Priming compound are divided into two classes: corrosive and non-corrosive

Corrosive Primer – contains potassium chlorate which when ignited, produces potassium chloride. Potassium chloride
draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosions in gun barrel.

Non-corrosive Primer – because of the advances in “primer” chemistry over the years have produced new composition in
which the potassium chlorate has been eliminated by the substitution of other chemicals. These newer primers are of the
non-corrosive type and have practically replaced the corrosive type.

Here are the different types of the non-corrosive primers in which the formula is depending upon the choice of the manufacturer.

TYPICAL MERCURIC PRIMERS

Potassium Chlorate (45%) – acts both as an initiator and fuel

Antimony Sulfide (23%) – is the frictional element and fuel
Fulminate of Mercury (32%) – act as a initiator

The product of burning or combustion of this mixture would be “GASEOUS”.

FH-42 the FRANKFORD ARSENAL standard mixture used in WORLD WAR I
Sulphur ……………………………………………………………… 21.97%
Potassium Chlorate……………………………………………. 47.20%
Antimony Sulphide…………………………………………….. 30.83%

35-NF the WINCHESTER REPEATING ARMS COMPANY’S PRIMER

Potassium Chloride ……………………………………………… 52%

Antimony Sulphide………………………………………………. 17%
Lead Sulpho-cyanide……………………………………………. 25%
Tri-nitro-toluoil (T.N.T)…………………………………………. 5%

N.R.A .22 CALIBER Outdoor Type Cartridge from United States Cartridge Company which obtained Chemical Analysis in
the Frankford Arsenal Laboratories

Potassium Chlorate……………………………………………… 41.43%

Antimony Sulphide………………………………………………. 9.53%
Copper Sulpho-cyanide………………………………………… 4.70%
Ground Glass………………………………………………………… 44.23%

GERMAN’s Priming Composition

Fulminate of Mercury……………………………………………. 39%

Barium Nitrate……………………………………………………….. 41%
Antimony Sulphide………………………………………………… 9%
Picric Acid………………………………………………………………. 5%
Ground Glass…………………………………………………………. 6%
Barium Nitrate use to replace Potassium Chlorate in German’s Primer plus some picric acid to strengthen the mixture.

Non-Corrosive primer of Swiss Army since 1911 based on the formula of Swiss inventor ZIEGLER

Fulminate of Mercury……………………………………………. 40%

Barium Nitrate……………………………………………………….. 25%
Antimony Sulphide…………………………………………………. 25%
Barium Nitrate………………………………………………………… 6%
Ground Glass………………………………………………………….. 4%

THREE BASIC TYPES OF MODERN PRIMERS (center fire)

1. Boxer Type Primer - Invented by Col. Ellie Munier Boxer, a British Army officer, who identified that the Anvil is a separate
piece of metal in the primer and contains one vent or flash hole. Boxer primer was patented in June 29, 1869.

2. Berdan Type Primer - Introduced by Col. Hiram Berdan of the United States Army. He stated the fact that the Anvil is not
an integral part of the primer but of the cartridge case and having two vents or flash hole. Berdan type was patented in
March 20, 1866.

3. Battery Cup Type – usually used for shotgun shell, which is simply a variation of the Boxer type.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN “BOXER” AND “BERDAN

The two primer types differ in their internal construction aside from their size.

Berdan
 1. The primer cup contains only the priming mixture.
2. The Anvil is a part of the cartridge case not an integral part of the primer.
3. Contains two vents or flash hole and placed upon at the top of both sides of the primer cup.
4. Required special tool to remove and Berdan primed cases are not generally reloaded.

Boxer
1. The Anvil is an integral part of the primer assembly not a cartridge case.
2. Contains only one vent or flash hole and centered on the top of the primer cup.
3. Boxer primed cases are generally reloaded.

END OF THE TOPIC

MODULE 2 PROGRESS CHECK

Progress Check includes three types of questions such as Multiple Choices, Identification or short answer. Each correct
answer will be given one point.

I. Multiple Choices: Select the letter of your chosen answer and write it on space provided before the number

_____ 1. Functions of cartridge cases are the same regardless of the firearms used, except:
a. It holds together the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
b. Serves as a water proof container for the gunpowder.
c. Serves as a gas seal at the breech end of the barrel.
d. Pushes the projectile to go in flight.
_______ 2. Refers to manufacturers identification imprinted or embossed on the lowest part of shell?
a. Rim
b. Headstamp
c. Base
d. Crimp
_____ 3. It is the circular groove where the extractor of the firearm hooked when the bolt rammed a fresh round from a magazine
going into the chamber. This is also designed for automatic withdrawal of the case after firing?
a. Cannelure
b. Extracting groove
c. Rim
d. Head and body
_____ 4. A tubular metallic container for the gun powder, bullet and primer.
a. Shell
b. Cartridge case
c. Casing
d. All of the above
____ 5. Part of the cartridge case constitutes the cork that plugs the breech or chamber of the barrel against the escape of gases.
a. Neck and shoulder
b. Head and shoulder
c. Head and primer pocket
d. Head and body
_____ 6. It is the circular or serrated grooves around the bullet which is also referred to as lubrication groove located always where
the shell crimped.
a. Shell cannelure
b. Extracting groove
c. Bullet cannelure
d. Cannelure
____ 7. A primer with two flash holes or vents:
a. Boxer type
b. battery cup
c. Berdan primer
d. none of the above
_____ 8. A type of bullet designed to be fired at night in which emits a bright flame at its base and usually colored red lip:
a. Armor piercing
b. dum-dum
c. Incendiary
d. tracer
_____ 9. Cartridge case with a rim diameter smaller than the body:
a. Rimmed type
b. rebated type
c. Rimless type
d. belted type
_____ 10. Is the term given when the bullet has been lodged and remained in the body.
a. Coppering
b. Metal fouling
c. Souvenir bullet
d. Tandem bullet
_____ 11. Refers to two or more bullets that leave the barrel one after the other.
 a. Bullet migration
b. Metal fouling
c. Souvenir bullet
d. Tandem bullet
_____ 12. Bullets containing nitrate compounds which sets on fire when it is projected?
a. Incendiary bullet
b. tracer bullets
c. Ball bullet
d. explosive bullet
_____ 13. Revolver cartridges such as .38 revolver, .357 revolver, and .22 revolver are the best examples of?
a. rimless type
b. semi-rimmed type
c. rimmed type
d. belted type
_____ 14. The portion of the cartridge which consists of a brass gilding metal cup containing a highly sensitive mixture of chemical
compound, which when struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite:
a. anvil
b. primer
c. priming mixture
d. propellant
_____ 15. It refers to the outer covering of the bullet.
a) Coating
b) Jacket
c) Covering
d) Mixture of lead
_____ 16. Part of the primer in against which the priming mixture is pressed when firing:
a) Flash hole
b) anvil
c) Paper disc
d) primer pocket
_____ 17. Generally speaking, it refers to reloadable primer type?
a. Berdan
b. Boxer
c. Battery type
d. all of these
_____ 18. The following are the compositions of ancient priming mixture. Which is not?
a. Potassium Chlorate
b. Charcoal
c. Potassium Nitrate
d. Sulphur
_____ 19. What do you call a part of the shell which is occupied by the bullet?
a. base
b. neck
c. shoulder
d. mouth
_____ 20. It is the “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder?
a. hollow point
b. hollow base
c. vent or flash hole
d. cannelure

II. Identification: Use word or group of words to answer the following.

_______1. This is a standard cartridge case wherein size of the body is the same as that of the base.

______2. Any metallic body referred to as a bullet.

______3. In Layman’s point of view, what refers to the so called bullet?

______4. Term used in referring to the curved forward part of the bullet?

______5. Bullet that has depression at the tip to expand or mushroom at impact on hard object.

______6. A slug that the free end is dome-like and commonly observed in short firearm.

______7. The term given for the container of the priming mixture.

______8. The ignition of the priming mixture.

______9. These are bullets made with an explosive or flammable mixture in the tip which are designed to ignite on contact
with the target.
_______10. A bullet when it strikes a target is designed to open up expanding its surface area as much as twice the
original diameter of the bullet. This expansion is typically known as?

________11. The etymology of the bullet.

________12. These type of cartridge cases were made to accommodate more quantity of the propellant for the greatest
power capacity of the ammunition and commonly used in rifles.

________13. This class of projectile is designed to break apart into small pieces upon impact on the hard target.

_________14. Bullet intended for target shooting competition due to its broad shoulder, thus ensuring an accurate scoring.

_________15. Tracer bullet is usually has a mixture that emits what color?

_________16. A machine operation of making cartridge cases.

__________17. Projectile used in shotgun?

__________18. A bullet kind used in almost revolver and small calibers ammunition.

__________19. A bullet used against personnel only with no significant effect on the target.

__________20. A primer which is simply a variation of boxer type.