MA 105 : Calculus

Division 1, Lecture 01

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade

IIT Bombay

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01

Generalities about the Course

Instructor: Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, 106B, Maths Dept.

Lecture Hours: Mon, Thu 2.00 – 3.25 PM, in LA 001.
Tutorial: Wed, 2 – 2.55 pm, in LT 001 – 006.
Attendance: Compulsory! (Also, it will be good for you!)
Office Hours: Mondays 11.30 am – 12.30 pm.
Evaluation Plan: Short Quizzes in Tuts (10 %), Common
quizzes (10% × 2), Mid-Sem (30 %), End-Sem (40%).
More Information:
The Booklet
Moodle page of the course
Instructor’s web page, and especially, the course page:
http://www.math.iitb.ac.in/∼srg/autumn2019.html

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01

Text, References, and Acknowledgements
The treatment of calculus in these lectures will be based on
the following two books by S. R. Ghorpade and B. V. Limaye,
which are published by Springer, New York.
[GL-1] A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis, 2nd Ed., 2018.
[GL-2] A Course in Multivariable Calculus and Analysis, 2010.
Besides these, the other references listed in the booklet,
especially the book of Thomas and Finney, may be consulted.
For later parts of the course, it is also useful to see the book
Basic Multivariable Calculus by J. E. Marsden, A. J. Tromba
and A. Weinstein (Springer, New York, 1993).
Acknowledgement: I shall mainly use the slides of Calculus
lectures prepared recently by Prof. B. V. Limaye. These slides
acknowledged the use of the lecture notes of similar courses
given by myself and by Prof. Prachi Mahajan in the past.
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Notation
N := {1, 2, 3, . . .} [the set of positive integers]
Z := {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} [the set of integers]
Q := the set of all rational numbers
= {m/n : m, n ∈ Z, n 6= 0}

There is no rational number whose square is 2.

Proof: Suppose not! Then (p/q)2 = 2, that is, p 2 = 2q 2 for

some p, q ∈ Z such that q 6= 0, and p and q have no common
factor. Now p 2 is even, and so p is even. Hence there is an
integer r such that p = 2r . Then 2q 2 = p 2 = (2r )2 = 4r 2 ,
and so q 2 = 2r 2 . Thus q 2 is even, and so q is also even. Thus
2 is a common factor of p and q, which is a contradiction.
Optional Exercise: If d ∈ N is not the square of an integer,
then show that there is no rational number whose square is d.
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Let R denote the set of all real numbers. We will assume the
following things about the set R.
The set Q of all rational numbers is contained in R, and the
set R of all real numbers satisfies
Algebraic Properties regarding addition and multiplication.
Order Properties: There is a subset R+ of R such that
(i) Given a ∈ R, exactly one of the following holds:
a ∈ R+ or a = 0 or − a ∈ R+
(ii) a, b ∈ R+ =⇒ a + b ∈ R+ and ab ∈ R+ .
Define a < b if b − a ∈ R+ . Thus R+ = {x ∈ R : 0 < x}.
Completeness Property, which we shall state later.
Elements of the set R \ Q, that is, those real numbers which
are not rational numbers, are called irrational numbers.

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01

Notation: We write a ≤ b if a < b or a = b.
Also, we write a > b if b < a, and a ≥ b if a > b or a = b.

Boundedness of a subset of R

Let E be a subset of R, that is, E ⊂ R.

E is called bounded above if there is α ∈ R such that
x ≤ α for all x ∈ E .
Any such α is an upper bound of E .
E is called bounded below if there is β ∈ R such that
x ≥ β for all x ∈ E .
Any such β is a lower bound of E .
E is bounded if it is bounded above and bounded below.
We say that M is the maximum of E if M is an upper bound
of E and M ∈ E , and we say that m is the minimum of E if
m is a lower bound of E and m ∈ E .
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Supremum (sup or lub) and Infimum (inf or glb)
Let E ⊂ R.
A real number α is called a supremum or a least upper
bound of E if α is an upper bound of E (that is, x ≤ α
for all x ∈ E ), and α ≤ u for every upper bound u of E .

A real number β is called an infimum or a greatest

lower bound of E if β is a lower bound of E (that is,
β ≤ x for all x ∈ E ), and v ≤ β for every lower bound v
of E .

If E has a supremum, then it is unique, and it is denoted

by sup E or lub E . Similarily, if E has an infimum, then it
is unique and is denoted by inf E or glb E .
Example: Let E := {x ∈ R : 0 < x ≤ 1}. Then sup E = 1 and
inf E = 0. Also, max E = 1, but E has no minimum.
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Completeness Property of R:
A nonempty subset of R that is bounded above has a
supremum, that is, a least upper bound.
Consequences of the Completeness Property:
A nonempty subset E of R that is bounded below has an
infimum, that is, a greatest lower bound.
In fact, the set F := {−x : x ∈ E } is bounded above, and
if α is the lub of F , then β := −α is the glb of E .
Archimedean Property: Given x ∈ R, there is n ∈ N such
that n > x.
Proof: Suppose not! Then n ≤ x for all n ∈ N, that is, x
is an upper bound of the set N. Let α := sup N. Then
α − 1 is not an upper bound of N, that is, there is n0 ∈ N
such that α − 1 < n0 . But then α < n0 + 1 ≤ α, since
(n0 + 1) ∈ N and α is an upper bound of N. Thus we
obtain α < α, which is a contradiction.
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Let x ∈ R. Applying the Archimedean property to x and
−x, we see that there are `, n ∈ N such that −` < x < n.
The largest among finitely many integers k satisfying
−` ≤ k ≤ n and also k ≤ x is called the integer part of
x, and is denoted by [x] or by bxc. Note that [x] is the
largest integer ≤ x and it is characterized by the following
two properties: (i) [x] ∈ Z and (ii) x − 1 ≤ [x] ≤ x.
Let a ∈ R+ and n ∈ N. Then there is a unique b ∈ R+
such that b n = a. This real number b is called the
positive nth root of a, and we denote it by a1/n .
Example (the positive square root of 2):
Let S := {x ∈ R : x 2 ≤ 2}. Then S is nonempty since
1 ∈ S and S is bounded above by 2. By the completeness
property of R, let b := sup S. Then b ≥ 1 > 0. Also, we
obtain b 2 = 2 by showing that both b 2 < 2 √
and b 2 > 2
lead to contradictions. (Verify!) Thus b := 2. Since
b ∈ S, we see that b = max S.
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
 Let a < b in R. Then there is a rational number r such
that a < r < b. In fact, we can consider r := m/n, where
n > 1/(b − a) and m := [na] + 1.
Let a < b in R. Then there is an irrational
√ number
√ s such
that a < s < b. In fact, √
since a + 2 <√b + 2, let
r ∈ Q be√such that a + 2 < r <√b + 2. Then
a < r − 2 < b, where s := r − 2 is an irrational
number.
Thus we obtain the following important result.
Between any two real numbers, there is a rational number as
well as an irrational number.
Optional Exercise: Write down more detailed versions of the
“proofs” sketched above. Consult [GL-1], if desired.

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01

Intervals
Given any a, b ∈ R, we define
(a, b) := {x ∈ R : a < x < b} [open interval]
[a, b] := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b} [closed interval]
Semi-open intervals (a, b] and [a, b) are defined similarly.
It is also useful to consider symbols ∞ and −∞ and
define the infinite intervals
(a, ∞) := {x ∈ R : x > a}, [a, ∞) := {x ∈ R : x ≥ a},
(−∞, a) := {x ∈ R : x < a}, (−∞, a] := {x ∈ R : x ≤ a}.
Also, one writes R = (−∞, ∞) and refers to this as an
infinite interval, or sometimes, a doubly infinite interval.
In general, a subset I of R is an interval if
x, y ∈ I , x < y =⇒ [x, y ] ⊆ I .
One can show that every interval in R is open, closed,
semi-open, or infinite interval.
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Absolute Value
For x ∈ R, the absolute value or the modulus of x is
(
x if x ≥ 0,
|x| :=
−x if x < 0.
Basic Properties: For any x, y ∈ R,
|x + y | ≤ |x| + |y | [Triangle Inequality]
||x| − |y || ≤ |x − y |.
Optional Exercises: (i) Show that for any a, b ∈ R with
a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0, and n ∈ N,
√ √n
 p
 a − b  ≤ n |a − b|.
n 

(ii) For any n ∈ N and any nonnegative real numbers

a1 , . . . , an , prove the AM-GM inequality:
a1 + · · · + an √
≥ n a1 · · · an .
n
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Functions
Given sets D, E , a function f : D → E assigns to each
x ∈ D, a unique element of E , denoted f (x). We refer to
D as the domain of f and E as the co-domain of f . The
set {f (x) : x ∈ D} of all values taken by the function is
called the range of f . [For a formal definition, see [GL-1].]
A function f : D → E is said to be:
one-one (or injective) if for any x1 , x2 ∈ D,
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2 .
onto (or surjective) if its range is E .
If f : D → E is bijective, then it has an inverse
g : E → D with the property that the composites g ◦ f
and f ◦ g are identity functions, i.e.,
g (f (x)) = x for all x ∈ D and f (g (y )) = y for all y ∈ E .
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Examples and Types of Functions
Example/Exercise: Consider f1 , f2 , f3 : R → R and
f4 : R \ {0} → R defined by
1
f1 (x) = 2x+1, f2 (x) = x 2 , f3 (x) = x 3 , and f4 (x) = .
x
Are these one-one/onto/bijective?
Functions that mainly arise in Calculus are usually of
following types.
Polynomial functions
Rational functions
Algebraic functions
Transcendental functions (this includes logarithmic,
exponential and trigonometric functions).
Besides these, we can construct functions by pieceing
together known functions (such as those belonging to the
above classes). A good example is the absolute value
function x 7−→ |x|.
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Sequences

Definition
Let X be any set. A sequence in X is a function from the set
N of natural numbers to the set X .

The value of this function at n ∈ N is denoted by an ∈ X , and

an is called the nth term of the sequence.
We shall use the notation (an ) to denote a sequence.
Note: {an : n ∈ N} is the set of all terms of the sequence (an ).
Thus if X := R and an := (−1)n for n ∈ N, then the sequence
(an ) is given by −1, 1, −1, 1, . . ., but {an : n ∈ N} = {−1, 1}.
Initially, we let X := R, that is, we consider sequences in R.
Later, we shall consider sequences in R2 and in R3 .

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01

Examples
Examples:

1 an := n for n ∈ N: 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
2 an := 1/n for n ∈ N: 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .
3 an := n2 for n ∈ N: 1, 4, 9, 16, . . .
√ √ √
4 an := 2 for n ∈ N: 2, 2, . . . This is an example of a
constant sequence.
5 an := 2n for n ∈ N: 2, 4, 8, 16, . . .
6 an := (−1)n for n ∈ N: −1, 1, −1, 1, . . .
7 a1 := 1, a2 := 1 and an := an−1 + an−2 for n ≥ 3:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, . . . This sequence is known as
the Fibonacci sequence.
8 an := 1/2 + · · · + 1/2n for n ∈ N. Check: an = 1 − (1/2n ).

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01

Bounded sequences
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded
above if the set {an : n ∈ N} is bounded above, that is, if
there is a real number α such that an ≤ α for every n ∈ N.
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded below
if the set {an : n ∈ N} is bounded below, that is, if there is a
real number β such that β ≤ an for every n ∈ N.
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded if it is
bounded above as well as bounded below, that is, if there are
real numbers α, β such that β ≤ an ≤ α for every n ∈ N.
If a sequence is not bounded, it is said to be unbounded.
Let us check which of the sequences mentioned earlier are
bounded above and/or bounded below.

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01

Examples of bounded and unbounded sequences:

an := n for n ∈ N: β = 1.
an := 1/n for n ∈ N: β = 0, α = 1.
2
an := n for n ∈ N: β = 1.
√ √
an := 2 for n ∈ N: β = 2 = α.
an := 2n for n ∈ N: β = 2.
n
an := (−1) for n ∈ N: β = −1, α = 1.
a1 := 1, a2 := 1 and an := an−1 + an−2 for n ≥ 3: β = 1.
an := 1/2 + · · · + 1/2n for n ∈ N: β = 1/2, α = 1.

Note: The sequence given by an := n for n ∈ N, is not

bounded above by the Archimedean property of R.

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01

Toward convergence of a sequence
Let (an ) be a sequence in R, and let a be a real number.
Convergence of a sequence (an ) to a real number a
should mean that the term an is as close to a as we like
for all sufficiently large n.
Fix any positive number. Construct the sequence

|a1 − a|, |a2 − a|, . . . , |an − a|, . . .

After a certain stage, all the entries from this sequence

should be smaller than the fixed positive number.
The fixed positive number is often denoted by  (epsilon).
Let n0 indicate how far one needs to go in the sequence
to ensure that the entries from |an0 − a| onward are
smaller than , that is, an0 , an0 +1 , an0 +2 , . . . all belong to
(a − , a + ).
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
Definition of convergence of a sequence
Definition
Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers. We say that (an ) is
convergent if there is a ∈ R such that the following condition
holds. For every  > 0, there is n0 ∈ N such that
|an − a| <  for all n ≥ n0 .

This is known as the -n0 definition of convergence of a

sequence.
In this case, we say that (an ) converges to a, or that a is a
limit of (an ), and we write

lim an = a or an → a (as n → ∞).

n→∞

If a sequence does not converge, we say that the sequence

diverges or it is divergent.
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01
The convergence of a sequence is unaltered if a finite number
of its terms are replaced by some other terms.
Examples:

(i) Let a ∈ R and an := a for all n ∈ N. Then an → a. We

can let n0 := 1.
(ii) an := 1/n for all n ∈ N. Then an → 0.
Let  > 0 be given. We want to find n0 ∈ N such that
|(1/n) − 0| <  for all n ≥ n0 .
Choose any n0 ∈ N which is greater than 1/. This is
possible because of the Archimedean property of R.
For example, we can let n0 := [1/] + 1.

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 1, Lecture 01