How to Choose Between Different Cement Brands?

Selection of materials for any construction material is a challenging process. The material selection
decides the quality of product and the project. Cement, being the most common and major building
material used in construction, its fail to give quality would affect the construction quality.

In this article we will discuss some important questions that must be answered to finally choose the best
cement brand for the construction project.

Cement Brand Selection

Some homework we must perform before buying cement are

1. Selection of Type of Cement

2. The Applications of Cement
3. Brand of Cement
4. Availability of the Cement

Selection of Type of Cement

There are several types of cement used in the construct. In terms of strength, they can be 33, 43 and 53
grade cement. In terms of composition, they can be either Portland cement , pozzolana cement and
Portland slag cement.

Applications of Cement

An OPC 53 grade cement is recommended for footings, columns, beams and slabs. The pozzolana and
slag cements are used for general construction works likes tiling works, masonry, plaster works.

Hence, same cement cannot be used for all the application. Higher grades are used for works that
require higher initial and ultimate strength.

Brand of Cement

There are huge number of good brands available in the market. This creates confusion among the
customers to choose the best. Some of the major brands are Ultra tech, ACC, Ambuja and Jaypee.

Hence, the deciding factor is the cost they charge for the products. In most cases, the selection of brand
is considered on which is easily available to the construction site. This is decided by taking into
consideration, the transportation, the requirement and objectives.
Availability of Cement

The cement brand you have selected for your project must be available throughout the project.
Different stages of construction project requires different types of cement, its substitutes and availability
of local brands. These concerns would empower one to choose the right cement for your work.

OPC or PPC Cement for Building Construction?

When it comes to the selection of cement for building construction, the two main available category of
cement in the market are Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and Portland Pozzolanic Cement (PPC). Both
the cement vary based on the constituent particles preset in it and the nature of rate of hydration and
curing period.

In current situation, there is sever shortage of water that restricts the curing days, hence demand
cement or concrete mix that will cure within a shorter period. The cement selected hence is dependent
on the project type, the location of site and the curing facilities available.

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

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OPC is a cement product obtained my mixing together calcareous and argillaceous materials with or
without silica, alumina or iron oxide at a higher temperature and burning it into clinkers. This is later
grinded with gypsum to obtain cement. This is hence the traditional process of cement making without
the addition of any modern materials.

OPC is apt for all buildings types that are not exposed to extreme moisture, salt and chemical attacks.

Among OPC, there is 33-Grade, 43-Grade and 53-Grade. OPC 33-Grade is used for small works like
plastering, 43-Grade is used for non-RCC works and plastering works, while 53-Grade is used for RCC
Structures, bridge construction, buildings and prestressed concreting works. All these number represent
the compressive strength of cement after 28 days.

Portland Pozzolanic Cement (PPC)

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Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) is called as blended cements as fly ash is mixed with cement. In
eastern regions, fly ash from steel plants are available in plenty and they meant to be the cheapest
material available for the manufacture of PPC. Hence, the availability of raw material and manufacture
of cement decides the selection of a cement type for a construction. In such regions, PPC would be more
cheaper compared to OPC.
PPC is obtained by grinding portland cement clinkers, gypsum and pozzolano material like fly ash to get
a uniform mixture called as the pozzolana cement. The difference between the PPC and OPC is the
pozzolana content. The pozzolana is a siliceous and aluminous material. Fly ash is the major source of
pozzolano which is obtained from thermal power plants. As per Indian standards, 15 to 20 percent of
cement raw material of fly ash added to make PPC.

The presence of moisture, undergo reaction with fly ash making compounds that imparts additional
strength to cement.

Benefits of PPC over OPC

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 PPC is obtained from a by-product which primarily makes it an sustainable and green cement
compared to OPC.
 The use of pozzolano for cement helps to provide more hydration products that create a more
well packed and dense structure. This improves the impermeability and resistance to water
penetration of PPC made structures.
 The use of PPC reduces the heat of hydration of cement, which makes working at site easier.
 PPC concrete have a really compact microstructure that improves its resistance to chemicals.
 PPC is sold cheap compared to OPC, as the limestone used in OPC is replaced by fly ash.

Due to the following benefits, PPC is used for mass concreting works. PPC possess a darker color
compared to normal OPC. Due to the high benefits of PPC, it is sold as a premium product compared
to OPC.

Which Cement is Best for R.C.C Slab Construction?

With increasing studies and researches, several types of cements are being developed in order to meet
specific concrete construction process. When it comes of to strength of concrete, the type of cement
used for concrete manufacture have a greater influence. So it is necessary to choose the right cement
for slab construction.

Cement Used for Slab Construction

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Mainly, the two common cement type used for slab construction are Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
and Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC).

OPC is a traditional cement type while Pozzolana Portland Cement (PPC) is made with a pozzolana
material like fly ash. OPC is composed of 95% cement clinkers and 5 % gypsum, while PPC is composed
of 75 percent of cement clinker, 20 % of fly ash and 3 to 5 percent of gypsum.

As fly ash is a cheap by product and a waste material, the use of PPC is considered safe, sustainable and
cheap.

So, PPC is used for the construction of residential buildings, commercial buildings and other utility
structures , not only for slabs, but for all structural elements.

Choosing PPC cement for Concrete Slab Construction

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The main reasons, why PPC is opted for slab construction are:

1. The use of pozzolana material like fly ash offers greater strength to the slab.
2. Fly ash replaces the cement amount used in normal slab construction, thus reducing cost, heat
of hydration and achieves sustainability.
3. These ingredients impart chemical resistance to concrete slabs.
4. The cost of PPC made concrete slab is lesser than OPC made concrete slabs.
5. PPC provide uniform surface to slab after casting.
6. PPC concrete helps to design slabs with varied shape and thickness.
7. PPC concrete provide slabs with crack resistance.
8. PPC concrete take hydration process of slab setting slowly, which hence result in lesser heat of
hydration and good quality hydration products.
9. PPC concrete slabs requires less curing care compared to OPC concrete. Hence, it is used easily
for concrete slabs.
10. Quality construction, more strength with less labor is guaranteed by PPC concrete for slab
construction.

But to conclude, the strength of the concrete is reliable on the mix, construction and curing quality.
Always take the advice from the expert structural engineer before deciding the type of cement for slab
construction. Always choose the best cement brand based on quality and economy.

Hydration of Cement | Heat of Hydration |Stages of Hydration of Cement

The hydration of cement is an exothermic reaction that is carried out when cement comes in contact
with water. The reaction will result in several by-products that will contribute to the strength of the
concrete or mortar formed.
Fig.1. Hydration Reaction - Changing Microstructure of Cement

Hydration of Cement

The chemical reaction that takes place between the cement and water is referred to as hydration of the
cement. The hydration reaction is an exothermic reaction.

The cement hydration will liberate a considerable amount of heat. This is called as Heat of liberation or
Heat of Hydration. The mixing of cement with water will result in rapid evolution of heat that will last for
few minutes. This evolution of heat is probably due to the reaction of a solution of aluminates and the
sulfates. This rapid heat and reaction are depressed by the addition of gypsum. The Early heat of
hydration is due to the hydration of C3S.

The rate of development of heat is greatly influenced by the fineness of the cement. The normal cement
generally produces 89-90J/g in 7 days and 100J/g in 28 days.

The hydration process is not instantaneous. The reaction is faster in the early stages and will go
decreasing with the time period. It is observed that the complete hydration is possible only for cement
particles that have a particle size smaller than 50 microns. With the increase in the fineness, there is an
increase in the rate of hydration. The table-1 below shows the bogues compounds present in cement
material that is involved in the hydration process.

Rules for Bricklaying:

Following are the rules for bricklaying:

i) The brick to be used should be of uniform size. The length of the bricks should be twice the breadth of
brick plus one mortar joints.

ii) The bricks should not absorb water more than 1/5 times or 20% of their weight when kept inside the
water for 24 hours.
iii) The amount of lap should be minimum half brick across the thickness of the wall.

iv) The use of brickbats should be minimum.

v) Before use, the brick should be sucked in the water for at least 1 hour.

vi) The thickness of the mortar should not be more than 13 mm.

vii) The brick and mortar used in masonry should be as per the specification.

viii) Proper bonding should be adopted.

ix) The wall should be raised truly vertical and regular checking should be done by a plumb bob.

x) All the finished masonry walls should be cured for at least one week.

xi) If the large voids appear in masonry, they should not be fed only by the mortar.

xii) Wall masonry should not be raised more than one meter a day.
Sand

Sand is the main part of construction. Sand used for plastering, concreting, brick work and stone
masonry.

Sand is one of the main constituent of mortar and concrete, in concrete purpose of mixing of sand is to
fill the voids between course aggregates. And in between voids of sand is filled with cement.

Sand is known as fine aggregate. Sand is formed buy the action of weather on the rocks. Many types of
sands are used in construction field . They are river sand, Sea sand and pit sand . But cement mortar and
concrete works mostly river sand is used.

The size of aggregate live between 75 microns to 4.75 mm is called fine aggregate ( sand) .
If the quality of sand is not good then the quality of work is not satisfied. Because sand is major part of
concrete and mortar, so it affects work quality.

A good quality generally has particle size between 150 microns to 4.75 mm is sieve size and if the
particle size in sand is less than this size, it is known as silt in sand. If silt content in sand exceed more
than 8% which may result in reduction in bonding capacity of mix materials, also affect strength and
durability of final product.

PROPERTIES OF GOOD SAND

 . It should be clean and coarse.

 It should be free from any organic or vegetable matter; usually 3-4 per cent clay is permitted.
 . It should be chemically inert.
 . It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.
 It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the atmosphere.
 . It should be well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of various sizes in suitable proportions.
 • It should be strong and durable.
 • It should be clean and free from coatings of clay and silt.

The sand or say blended sand is characterized by

 . Grain Size
 • Grain Shape
 Surface smoothness
 • Density
 . Contaminants
 . Moisture content
 . Clay content
 • Compactibility

Quality Control of Construction Aggregate - Factors Affecting, Advantages

The quality control is a corporate, dynamic program to assure that all the aspects of materials,
equipment, and workmanship are well looked after. The quality control should have conformity to the
specification, no more, no less.

For the manufacturer of the concrete, the quality control process will involve material, personnel,
equipment, and workmanship in all stages of concreting.

Quality of Concrete
The concrete is generally produced in batches at the site with the locally available materials at variable
characteristics. It is therefore likely to vary from one batch to the other. The magnitude of this variation
is depending upon several factors like:

1. The variation of quality of constituent materials

2. Variation in the mix proportion

3. Variation in the quality of batching and mixing

4. The quality of overall workmanship and supervision at the site.

Moreover, concrete undergoes a number of operation like transportation, placing, compacting and
curing. During these operations, considerable variations occur partly due to the quality of the plant
available and partly due to the differences in the efficiency of the techniques used.

Hence, there is no attributes to define the quality of concrete. Under such situations, the concrete is
treated as good, poor or fair. Hence it is necessary to judge the concrete based on the performance
characteristics, economics, safety, aesthetics, durability and other factors.

The main aim of quality control of concrete is to reduce the above variations and produce uniform
material providing the characteristics desirable for the goals.

Factors Affecting Variation in the Quality of Concrete

The following are the three main factors that affect the quality of concrete.

1. Personal Factors

2. Material, Equipment, and Workmanship

3. Field Control Factors

1. Personal Factors

The success of the quality control plan is the availability of experienced, knowledgeable and trained
workers at all the levels. The designer and the specification writer should have the knowledge of the
construction operation as well.

2. Material, Equipment, and Workmanship

 For the uniform quality of concrete, the ingredient (particularly the cement) should preferably
be used from a single source. When ingredients from different sources are used, the strength
and other characteristics of the materials are likely to change and therefore these materials
should be used only after the proper evaluation and testing.
  Cement should be tested initially once from each source of supply and subsequently once for
every month. Adequate storage under cover is necessary for protection from moisture set
cement with hard lumps is to be rejected.
 Aggregates should be well graded, free from deleterious substances. Grading, maximum size,
shape and moisture content of aggregate are the major sources of variability.
 Equipment used for batching, mixing and vibration should be the right capacity. Weight batchers
should be frequently checked for their accuracy weigh – batching of materials is always
preferred to volume batching.
 The vibrators should have the required frequency and amplitude of the vibration.
 The fresh concrete should be handled, transported and placed in such a manner that it does not
get segregated. The time interval between the mixing and placing the concrete should be
reduced to the minimum as possible. The expected targets of strength, impermeability and
durability of concrete can be achieved only by thorough and adequate compaction.
 1% of air content left in concrete due to incomplete compaction can lower the compressive
strength by nearly 5%. Adequate curing is essential for handling and development of strength of
the concrete.
 Long-term compressive strength of concrete moist cured for 3 days or 7 days will be about 60%
or 80% respectively, given the concrete is cured for 28 days or more.

3. Field Control

The field control i.e. inspection and testing, is an important factor to be considered for quality control.
Concrete should be tested at its fresh and hardened stages to assess their strength. Accelerated strength
tests by which a reliable idea about the potential 28 day strength can be obtained within few hours are
effective control tools.

Advantages of Quality Control in Concrete

Quality Control means a rational use of the available resources after testing their characteristics and
reduction in the material cost.

 In the absence of quality control at the site, the designer is tempted to overdesign, so as to
minimize the risks. This adds to the overall cost.
 Quality Control reduces the maintenance cost
 In the absence of quality control, there is no guarantee that overspending in one area will
compensate for the weakness in another
 Checks at every stage of the production of concrete and the rectification of the faults at the
right time expedites completion and reduces delay.

Check Before Pouring Ready Mix Concrete

Following steps to be followed before pouring Ready Mix Concrete(RCC)
1) Transit trucks shall comply with the relevant code, with an agitating speed between 2 and 3
RPM and mixing speeds in the range of 10-20 RPM.

2) Before unloading of any truck at the site, the RMC supplier shall supply a certificate/batch
sheet (a computerized sheet) along with moisture correction for the concrete, mentioning
proportions of all the ingredients, w/c ratio, dosage of plasticizer and relevant admixtures etc.
(please refer Specification for Supply of RMC).

3) The maximum water cement ratio, as specified in the approved mix design shall not be
exceeded.

4) The information provided by RMC supplier shall be cross checked at site, and in all cases
slump shall be taken prior to concreting. The accuracy of the measuring equipment shall be
within + 2 percent of the quantity of cement and mineral admixtures being measured and
within + 3 percent of the quantity of aggregate, chemical admixture and water being measured.

5) Concrete which needs to be pumped shall have workability between 120 to 150 mm or as
specified when the transit mixer arrives. Any concrete shall be designed for a minimum three
hours retention/open time. The workability of the concrete shall be controlled on a continuous
basis during production and any corrective action necessary shall be taken. No additional water,
other than the amount required to produce the specified grade of concrete as per mix design,
shall be added to the truck mixer drum before discharge unless specifically requested and
signed for by representative. Redosing or split dosing shall be allowed subject to the written
permission of trained technicians and Engineers . In any case, the total dose should not exceed
the maximum dose of admixture declared by Supplier or recommended by Admixture supplier.

6) It shall be ensured that the retardation time achieved by the use of admixtures does not
exceed the time required for transit and actual placement of concrete. This shall be achieved by
checking the time of dispatch of transit mixer mentioned on challan. Any Concrete is being
designed with the help of water reducing agents and retarders for a stipulated retention time.
So the concrete must be consumed within the same time as considered in design. Our all
concrete mixes must be designed for 3 hours retention time, so concrete must be consumed
with in 3 Hours from the time of batching. If the workability of concrete is higher than desired
workability and segregation & bleeding is observed, we should allow some time to elapse
before discharge till workability drops to the range of 120 to 150 mm. If workability is less, then
redosing or split dosing shall be allowed but in any case, the total dose should not exceed the
maximum dose of admixture declared by Supplier of concrete or recommended by Admixture
supplier. We must avoid over dosing which may cause delay in setting of concrete

7) Temperature of concrete at the time of pumping shall be less than 40 degree or as mutually
agreed between engineer and Supplier of Concrete.
8) The cohesiveness and mixing of the concrete should be checked, there should be no lumps,
bleeding or segregation in the concrete.

9) During every day’s concrete unit weight of concrete as specified in IS: 1199 shall be checked
and compared with theoretical density of concrete (sum of weight of all ingredients). If any
significant deviation is observed, it indicates corrective measures are required in Concrete Mix
Design. Supplier of concrete shall be immediately informed as this variation may impact yield of
concrete or desired properties of the concrete

10) Concrete carrying pipes shall not be allowed to rest on top reinforcement which is likely to
bend. Leakage of slurry from concrete pipeline should be checked and rectified.

12) At high altitudes wind breakers shall be provided while concreting.

TESTING OF CONCRETE.

1. FIELD TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE

(a) SLUMP TEST

A slump test is performed to determine the workability of fresh concrete and to

check the uniformity of concrete from batch to batch. The test is conducted
where the nominal size of the aggregate does not exceed 40mm, The apparatus
consists of a mold shaped like the frustum of a cone, with the following
dimensions.

 Bottom diameter 200mm.

 100mm.
 300mm.

Tamping rod of steel 16mm in diameter, 600mm long and rounded at one end.

slump test results

slump test results

PROCEDURE OF MEASURING SLUMP

1. The rod should penetrate every underlying layer.

 2. Strike off excess concrete clean the internal surface of the mould.
3. Fill the mould with concrete in 4 layers.
4. Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rod.
5. Distribute the strokes uniformly over the entire cross-section of the mould.
after the top layer, with a trowel.
6. Remove the mould slowly and vertically.
7. The concrete will slump or slide.
8. Measure the height of the slump in mm.
9. For normal workability, the slump should not exceed 50mm.
10. Clean the slump cone.

(b) TEMPERATURE OF FRESH CONCRETE

This test is carried out to determine if fresh concrete is too hot or too cold. Hot
concrete stiffens rapidly and develops lower strengths at later stages. As per the
I.S., in hot weather, the temperature of hot concrete should not exceed 38
degrees centigrade while placing. In cold weather, a minimum temperature of 4.5
degrees centigrade is prescribed for the concrete at the time of placing.

Minimum 3 liters of fresh concrete is required for the test. At least 3 readings in
different parts of the batch should be taken. If the concrete is too hot. the
subsequent batches can be mixed by using cold water. Also, cool the aggregates
by sprinkling them with water.

2. LABORATORY TESTS OF HARDENED CONCRETE

Making cubes & curing for the required period.

This test is carried out for the following purposes.

1. To check that the mix proportions are adequate for the strength prescribed
as a basis for acceptance for quality control.
2. To determine the time of removal of forms when a structure may be put
into service.
 3. To assess the 28 days compressive strength of the concrete in 24 hours,
using accelerated curing methods such as the boiling or warm water
method.

A. FREQUENCY OF THE TEST For quality control of concrete for major

construction projects, the number of samples is proportionate to the quantity of
concrete produced, subject to a minimum of three samples.

B. PROCEDURE FOR CASTING OF CUBES

1. Clean the standard cube moulds, 6 Nos. thoroughly & tighten all the nut-
bolts properly.
2. Apply oil to all contact surfaces of the mould. The size of the mould is
normally 150mm x 150mm x 150mm.
3. Take random samples from the mix in a ghamela, while concreting.
4. Pour concrete into the cubes in 3 layers.
5. Compact each layer with 35 Nos. of strokes with the tamping rod.
6. Finish the top surface by thapi trowel after compaction of the last layer.
7. Cover the mould by a damp Hessian cloth immediately to prevent loss of
water.
8. Each specimen should be taken from different locations of the proposed
concreting.
9. After 24 hours, remove the specimen from the control of the quantity of
three the mould.
10. While removing, take care to avoid breaking of the edges.
11. Code the cubes with paint or marker. Coding should be self-explanatory,
showing the site name, concrete location, building no., and the date of
casting.
12. Submerge the specimen in clean, freshwater until the time of testing.
13. Test 3 specimens for 7 days & 3 specimens for 28 days curing concrete.

C. TESTING OF CONCRETE CUBES

For testing the cubes in the in-house lab of the organization, observe the
following procedures

1. Check the coding & numbers of cubes received.

2. Enter the details of the cubes in the testing register.
3. Weigh the cubes & note the figures in the register.
4. Inform the concerned person about any damages.
5. Check the dates of casting & testing for 7 & 28 days.
6. Place the cubes in the testing machine, so that the load is applied to the
opposite side of the cube as case i:e, not on top & bottom. (Opposite sides
of the cube surfaces are in contact with sides of the metal mould).
7. Apply the load without interruptions & increase the load continuously, at a
rate of approximately 400kg/min until the resistance of the specimen
breaks down & no additional load can be sustained.
8. Record the maximum load applied to the specimen.
9. Observe the appearance of concrete connection with the failure & note the
same.
10. Calculate
compressive strength = (Maximum load at failure.) / (Contact Area of the
cube.)
11. Take average strength of 3 specimen cubes.
12. This average strength represents the strength of concrete of a particular
portion of the structure.
13. Prepare the test report & submit to higher authorities.
14. Cubes of the same lot should not vary.
15. Inspect the particular portion of the structure immediately, if results are
considerably below normal.

D. AGE ATTEST

Tests shall be carried out at ages prescribed for the test, the most usual being 7
days and 28 days.

E. PRECAUTIONS
 1. Remove the mould after 24 hours and store the specimens in clean,
freshwater.
2. The place where specimens are stored shall be free of vibrations.
3. The water in which the specimens are submerged shall be replaced every 7
days.
4. Specimens shall not be allowed to dry out at any time before testing.

3. NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE

A non-destructive test is defined as one that does not damage the structural
element or member under investigation.

Following are a few non-destructive tests generally performed

1. The ultrasonic pulse velocity test

2. Rebound hammer test
3. Test on cores cut from hardened concrete.

The purpose of carrying out these tests are

1. To determine the uniformity of concrete in/between members.

2. To detect the presence and approximate extent of cracks, voids, and
other defects.

Reason concrete cube samples 150mm and Procedure

Reason concrete cube samples 150mm

In concrete compression test, normally 150mmx150mmx150mm concrete cube samples is used for
testing.Why isn’t 100mmx100mmx100mm concrete cube samples used in the test instead of
150mmx150mmx150mm concrete cube samples?

Basically,the force supplied by a concrete compression machine is a definite value.For normal concrete
strength application,say below 50MPa, the stress produced by a 150mmx150mmx150mm cube is
sufficient for the machine to crush the concrete sample.
However,if the designed concrete strength is 100MPa,Under the same force(about2,000kN) supplied by
the machine,the stress under a 150mmx150mmx150mm cube Is not sufficient to crush the concrete
cube.Therefore,100mmx100mmx100mm concrete cubes are used instead.To increase the applied stress
to crush the concrete cubes.For normal concrete strength,the cube size of 150mmx150mmx150mm is
already sufficient for the crushing strength of the machine.

Cube Test

Instrument And Material.

Concrete cube mould of size 150mm or 100mm. It is used for aggregate size of not greater than 40mm
and 25mm. Cube mould for test must be made from steel or cast iron with smooth inner surface. Every
mould must have steel plate to support and to prevent leakage.

Compacting steel rod with 16mm diameter and 600mm long.

Compression test machine.

Procedures

 Mould and base plate must be clean and applied with oil to prevent concrete from sticking to
the side of the cube. Base plate is attached to the mould by using bolt and nut.
 Fill the cube with concrete in three layers.
 Every layer must be compacted for 25 times. This process is carried out systematically and
compaction is done uniformly to all surfaces of the concrete. Compaction can also be conducted
using machine.
 The surface of concrete must be smoothen so it will has the same level with the upper side of
the mould.
 Cubes which are made at construction site must be covered with plastic cover for a period of 24
hours before the moulds can be dismantled.
 After remoulded, the concrete cubes are submerged in water for curing.
 Compression strength test must be carried out for concrete at age 7, 14, and 28 days by using
compression test machine.

Result

The Strength value of each cube must be recorded and compared with the targeted strength value. The
purpose of carrying out concrete test on 7 th day and the 14 th day is to predict whether the concrete
could archive the targeted 28 th day strength.In general, concrete would have acquired 70% strength on
the 7 th day.

Procedure for Casting of Concrete Cubes

The following Procedure for Casting of Concrete Cubes detailed given below:
SAMPLE OF CONCRETE

Sample of concrete for test specimen shall be taken at the mixer or in the case of ready mixed concrete
from the transportation vehicle at the time of discharge. Such samples shall be obtained by repeatedly
passing a scoop or pail through the discharge stream of the concrete. The samples thus obtained shall
be mixed on a non-absorbent base with shovel until it is uniform in appearance.

Number of samples to be taken depends on the quantity of concrete. As per IS-456, the following table
shall be followed during sampling.

Note:- Frequency of sampling may be agreed upon internally by supplier and purchaser.

Procedure for Casting of Concrete Cubes

1.Clean the standard cube moulds 6 Nos thoroughly and tight all nuts-bolts properly.

2.Apply oil to all contract surface of mould.

3.Size of mould is normally from the mixing spot while concreting.

4.Take the random sample from the mixing spot while concreting.

5.Fill the concrete in cubes in 3 layers.

6.Compact each layer with 35 Nos of stroke by tamping rod.

7.Finish the top surface by trowel after completion of last layer.

8.Cover the mould by damp hessian cloth immediately to prevent loss of water.

9.Each specimen should be taken from various locations of proposed concreting.

10.After 24 hours remove specimen out of mould.

11.While removing,take care to avoid breaking of edges.

12.put coding on cubes by paint or maker,coding should be self explanatory showing site name,concrete
location,building number and date of casting.

13.Submerge the specimen in clean fresh water till the time of testing.

14.Test 3 specimens for 7 days and 3 specimens for 28 days curing.

15.Average strength of 3 cubes represents the strength of concrete of particular portion of the
structure.

Precautions should be taken during placing of concrete

Following precautions should be taken during placing of concrete.

• The formwork or the surface which is to receive the fresh concrete should be properly cleaned,
prepared and well watered.

• It is desirable to deposit concrete as near as practicable to its final position.

•The large quantities of concrete should not be deposited at a time. Otherwise the concrete will start to
flow along the formwork and consequently the resulting concrete will not have uniform composition.

•The concrete should be dropped vertically from a reasonable height. For vertical laying of concrete,
care should be taken to use stiff mix. Otherwise the bleeding of concrete through cracks in forms will
take place. The term bleeding is used to mean the diffusion or running of concrete through formwork.

•The concrete should be deposited in horizontal layers of about 150 mm height. For mass concrete, the
layers may be of 400 mm to 500 mm height. The accumulation of excess water in upper layers is known
as the laitance and it should be prevented by using shallow layers with stiff mix or by putting dry batches
of concrete to absorb the excess water.

•As far as possible, the concrete should be placed in single thickness. In case of deep sections, the
concrete should be placed in successive horizontal layers and proper care should be taken to develop
enough bond between successive layers.

•The concrete should be thoroughly worked around the reinforcement and tapped in such a way that no
honeycombed surface appears on removal of the formwork. The term honeycomb is used to mean
comb or mass of waxy cells formed by bees in which they store their honey. Hence, if this precaution is
not taken, the concrete surface so formed would have a honeycomb like surface.
•The concrete should be placed on the formwork as soon as possible. But in no case, it should be placed
after 30 minutes of its preparation.

•During placing, it should be seen that all edges and corners of concrete surface remain unbroken, sharp
and straight in line.

•The placing of concrete should be carries out uninterrupted between predetermined construction
joints.

Effect of Temperature on Concrete

Similar to other materials, cone expands with increase in temperature and contract with decrease in
temperature. The range of variation in temperature varies from localities to localities, season to season
and day to day.

The objectionable cracks may occur in cone due to contraction combined with the effect of shrinkage.

Occasional y large and harmful stress may develop due to deformation because temperature changes.

The coefficient of thermal expansion of contraction depends on the type and quantity of cement,
aggregate, relative humidity and sizes of section.

Concrete at high temperature:

In some industrial application such as aluminum plants and brick works the cone may be occasionally or
frequently subjected to temperatures. These temperatures are likely to be applied linearly.

General y with and rather a long period.

Similarly jet aircraft and vertical take aircraft may subject the payment to very high temperature.

Heat may affect concrete and as a result of,

The removal of evaporable water.

The removal of combined water.

Alteration of cement paste.

Disruption (of beam) from disparity of expansion and resulting thermal stresses.

Alteration of aggregate.

Change of the bond bet aggregate and paste.

Other effects on cone due to temperature.

Cycles of temperature can have a progressive effect on the reduction of strength even longer curing did
not improve the loss.

Tensile strength of cone is more effect by heat than its com strength.

During rapid rise and fall of temperature the response of cone is affected by the interaction of thermal
expansion, drying thermal incompatibility and enhanced every at high temperature.

If the heating is sufficiently rapid, high stresses can be included; hence failure and instability may result.

Effects of steel at high temperature:

The influence of temperature on steel appears as a change in yield stress, ultimate strength and
modules of elasticity.

The changes depend on the type of steel and are greater in cold-weathered steel.

The strength of hotroled steel bars are not reduced if the temperature does not reach to 300° C. But at
temperature of 500-600°C the yield stress is reduced to the order of the working stress and the elastic
modules is reduced by one-third.

Bars heated to this temperature virtual y recover their normal temperature.

Bars heated to 800 o C have a lower residual strength after cooling to room temperature.

Pre-stressing wire and stand starts to lose strength at 150° C and may have only 50% of its room
temperature strength when heated to about 400° C.

The below fig shows the summery of,

Behavior of fire:

Failure in a fire occurs either through the spread of fire from the compartment or through structural
failure of a member or assembly of members.

Structural failure of a member most frequently occurs when the temperature of the steel reduces the
yield stress to the working stress. The length of time of this fire occurs depend upon the severity of fire,
the thermal conductivity of the protecting concrete and weather spalling of the protection covers.

Cracking in Concrete and Types

Random cracking in concrete is not desirable, it can make your concrete look ugly and lead to structural
weakness of the concrete.Reinforcement and joints are used to control cracking. Bad cracking leaves the
reinforcement exposed to air and moisture, which may cause it to rust and weaken concrete.
Types of Cracks

Two types of cracks happen in reinforced concrete:

Pre-Setting Cracks Cracks that happen BEFORE concrete hardens,while it is still workable.

Hardened Cracking Cracks which happen AFTER concrete hardens.

Pre-Setting Cracks

Pre-setting cracks are cracks which form during placing, compaction and finishing caused by movement
of concrete before it is dry.

There are three types of pre-setting cracks:

Plastic Settlement cracks

Plastic Shrinkage cracks, and

Cracks caused by Movement of The Formwork.

Pre-setting cracks can be prevented by looking for them as they happen, while the concrete is still
setting.

If they are detected early on they can be easily fixed by re-compacting, re-trowelling or re-floating the
concrete surface.

Plastic Settlement Cracks

When do they form? They form soon after concrete is placed, while it is still plastic.They get bigger as
concrete dries and shrinks and tend to follow the lines of reinforcement.

Prevention

Revibrate the concrete.

Re-trowel the surface.

Look for cracks as the concrete is setting. At this stage they can easily be fixed.

Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

When do they form? On very hot days or in low humidity and moderate winds. Crackingis more
common in summer but may occur during winter.Plastic shrinkage cracks appear in lines,roughly parallel
or in a crazed haphazard way. They are usually 300–600 mm long but may be between 25 mm and 2 m
in length.

Prevention

Dampen the subgrade and forms and protect concrete from the wind.

Keep all materials cool on hot days.

Place, compact and cure as quickly as possible on hot days so concrete won’t dry out.

Once the concrete has been compacted, screeded and floated apply a uniform spray film of
EVAPORATIVE RETARDANT (Aliphatic Alcohol) to prevent rapid loss of surface moisture, then continue
with finishing.

Try to place at the cooler times of the day.

Repair Cracks may be closed by reworking the plastic concrete.

Formwork Movement

If formwork is not strong enough it may bend or bulge. Formwork movement may happen at any time
during placement and compaction.

Prevention Make sure formwork is strong.

If the concrete collapses, strengthen the formwork and re-vibrate the concrete.

Thermal Shock

Applying cold water, as curing, over concrete on a hot day can result in cracks from the sudden
contraction.

Prevention : Use warm water.

Cracks After Hardening

Cracks after hardening may be caused by drying shrinkage, movement or settling of the ground, or
placing higher loads on the concrete than it was designed to carry.Little can be done with cracks after
hardening. Careful and correct placement helps prevent serious cracking after hardening.

Only uncontrolled cracks are a possible problem. Cracks at control joints or controlled by steel
reinforcing is expected and acceptable.

Selecting the cement to use

10. You should use ordinary Portland cement (OPC), which is the standard, most widely available type of
cement. It has the characteristics of setting and hardening in the presence of water while producing heat
and shrinking in volume.

11. Remember that a mortar too rich in cement will crack while hardening.

Note: Portland cement strongly deteriorates in the presence of waters rich in calcium sulphate (more
than 0.5 g/l) or sodium chloride (more than 4 g/l). In such cases, for example in acid sulphate soils or
near brackish waters, a sulphate-resistant cement should preferably be used for constructions (see
Section 1.8, Soil 6). This particular type of cement should never be mixed with Portland cement. If it is
not available, use a slightly richer mix of OPC (see paragraph 19), taking particular care in mixing, using
and setting and making sure the cement has cured well before letting it come into contact with the soil
or water.

12. Portland cement is usually classified according to its potential resistance to compression, which is
usually either about 250 kg /cm2 or about 325 kg /cm2. For fish farm constructions you mostly use the
"250" grade.

13. Portland cement is sold in thick paper sacks. The weight and volume of the sacks vary according to
the country:

European system: weight is 50 kg and volume about 40 l ;

American system: weight is 42.6 kg and volume about 28 l .

14. Check which system is used in your country to avoid errors when preparing cement mixes.

15. To guarantee the top quality of your cement, you should take the following precautions.

(a) Check the freshness of the cement before buying. It should be free from any lumps which cannot be
pulverized between thumb and forefinger.

(b) Bring on site only the number of sacks needed for a short period.

(c) Protect your cement from humidity. Store it off the ground (a simple wooden platform is suitable) in
a dry, well-sheltered place.

(d) Use the cement while it is as fresh as possible, and rotate your stocks properly.

(e) Never use hardened cement, but throw it away.

Selecting the water to use

16. The water should be clean and neutral or slightly alkaline (pH 7 to 8.5). It should be free from organic
matter, oil, alkali or acid. Avoid using saltwater or a water too rich in sulphates (more than 250 ppm).
17. If you have to use brackish water or dirty water, add a tablespoon of soap powder for every sack of
cement used. Dissolve the soap into a small amount of water and add it to the mix.

Characteristics of a Good Mortar Mix

The important properties of a good mortar mix are:

1. Mobility
2. Placeability
3. Water Retention

Mobility of Mortar Mix

This indicates the consistency of the mortar that may range from stiff to fluid. The mortar is made
sufficiently mobile to use it for finishing works.

Mortar Mobility

Placeability of Mortar Mix

The placeability of mortar mix is the ease with which the mortar can be placed in the form of a thin
uniform layer.
Placing Mortar

Water Retention of Mortar Mix

The mortar mix must possess and retain adequate humidity during its transportation and laying. If the
mortar do not retain adequate moisture, the mortar becomes poor in strength and quality.

Rubble (boulder) soling procedure for the foundation and footing.

Soling is the process of hand packing rubble stones one adjacent to another, to provide a stable base to
the foundation and footing, before concreting work.

Rubble or boulder soling is done to enhance the bearing capacity of the soil, where hard strata are not
available. The stones used for the soling purpose are basalt, black trap, granite, or locally available hard
stones, that fit under the soling specification.

Rubble stone.

After the excavation for the footing or after murum filling in the plinth, the next sequential work we
follow is, providing rubble soling over them.

Now, let us go through the different steps that should be followed for the rubble soling work.

1. Surface cleaning:
The base over which the soling should be laid is cleared of all the loose materials, formworks, props, etc.
If you find any leftover building raw materials over the base surface, they should be shifted beforehand
to clear the area.

2. Leveling and compaction :

You have to ensure that the moorum ( construction soil ) filled in the plinth or excavated footing pit is
properly compacted and leveled, using rammers and compactors to provide an even surface.

Moorum filled plinth.

3. Laying stones:

Usually, the thickness of the rubble soling varies from 150mm ( 6 inches) to 250mm. (10 inches). The
stones selected for the soling should be of uniform size with a maximum variation of ± 20mm. It should
be elongated in shape with a broader base.

While laying them, the stones should be packed with minimum voids between the two. The elongated
side is kept in the upright vertical position, with a broader base at the bottom.

Rubble soling in the plinth.

First, you have to place the rubble soling, at all four corners and at the center of the working area with
the specified thickness. You have to check their top-level using a water tube or any other leveling
instruments. By using lineout strings and tying or holding them from one to another, you can cover the
leftover soling area easily, by maintaining the needed thickness and required top level.

Soling for the footing.

4. Void filling :
After packing the stones, any voids left in between the soling should be filled with stone chips by
inserting them in the gaps. Spreading the stone chips over the rubble soling using ghamela, without
packing the voids should be avoided, as it does not slide in between the gaps.

5. Hammering :

After filling the voids, any protrusions of the stones should be knocked off by using hammers to maintain
a leveled top surface. If you find some stones that are hard to break, then water the ground beneath the
soling and press them inside the subsurface.

6. Compaction:

Use mechanical compactors or manual rammers to compact the soling. First, you have to spray sufficient
water all over and then compaction work has to be carried out starting from one end and finishing at the
other end, by covering all the surface area.

Specified moorum is thinly spread all over the soling surface and watered again, so that the moorum
enters the narrow voids if left any, to provide a robust stabilized base for the concrete.

Final ramming is done and excess moorum if left over the soling surface is then removed to provide a
leveled base for the concrete.

The construction process of Building/House

The Construction Process of building or House in Step by Step of each activity is as follows in 9 steps
explain

Step 1 Study of the drawings

-we study all the Architect, RCC drawings finishing drawings of the building before starting the building
construction work, after study of drawings we next do site preparation work

Step 2 Site Preparation Work

-As per the drawing, plot area is marked on the field Construction process of building/House

-The Building construction site needs to do cleaning work before the excavation work is executed.

-The removal of debris, cutting of trees, other unwanted materials removed from the site.

-After Cleaning nee to do leveling work of the ground

Step 3 Excavation Work

-As per building foundation drawings, starts excavation of the ground.

-Excavation work is done with the help of excavating machines such as JCB, Poclain,etc DND
Construction and manually with the help of labors by Hoe or shovels,etc.

-Excavation work done till hard strata is visible.

Step-4 PCC (Plain Cement Concrete) work

-We remove all excavated materials from the site and cleaning is done properly.

-Concrete low grades like M10, M12.5, or M15 is used for PCC work.

Step 5 Foundation Work

-A foundation is a lowermost part of a building structure that transfers all building load to the earth.

Foundation work of activity includes

-Reinforcement work of footings

-Shuttering work of footing

-Concrete Pouring work of footings

As per the above steps we complete all footing work as per RCC drawings

Step-6 Backfilling work

-Backfilling is the process of filling the excavated Plinth or trenches after the construction of footing.

-Plinth filling is done to fill the area within the Plinth.

-Soil well compacted before starting the plinth work

Step 7 Plinth beam and slab work

-Plinth beam and slab make the structured composite

-Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and its foundation.

-The plinth beam is provided to prevent the extension or propagation of cracks from the foundation into
the wall above when the foundation suffers from the settlement.

-Plinth beams distribute the load of the wall over the foundation evenly.

Step 8 Column Construction Work

-Column is a vertical structural member of building that carry loads mainly in compression.

construction activity of column as follows

-Reinforcement work of column

-Shuttering work of column

-Concrete Pouring work of column

Step 9 Slab Construction work

-A slab is a structural element, made of concrete, that is used to create flat horizontal surfaces such as
floors, roof decks, and ceilings.

-Reinforcement work of slab

-Shuttering work of slab

-Concrete Pouring work of slabThis is how Residential building Construction activities of step by step
going on-site. this step varies as per site conditions, these are the basic sequence of activities

Plinth filling and back-filling procedure.

Plinth filling and back-filling are the methods of filling the building plinth, footing pits, excavated
trenches, with the construction soil (moorum), after completing the necessary construction work.

Following are the step-by-step procedures, that should be followed in the filling work.

First, we will go through the pre-filling checklist, and after that, we will see the actual filling procedure.

A. Pre-filling checklist:

1. Concrete works:

All the concrete structures like footings, columns, plinth beams, etc. should be completed with de-
shuttering of the formwork, removal of stagings, etc. All the honeycomb in the structures should be
repaired before doing the plinth filling.

2. Plinth masonry :
All the plinth masonry work should be completed with the internal plaster, or by filling the leftover joints
in a proper way.

Plinth before backfilling.

3. Curing period :

Before doing filling, ensure that all the concrete structures and masonry works have completed its
minimal curing period. It should be properly set, attaining its design strength.

4. Cleaning & dewatering :

The plinth area and footing pit should be checked for any leftover formwork materials and should be
removed before filling. Any organic matter, wooden logs, plant roots, etc. should be cleaned, as they
form voids after decay, causing settlement in the filling, due to weak compaction.

If there is any water in the pit, trenches, and in the plinth areas, it should be drained out.

5. Soil test :

The construction soil (moorum) should be free from organic matters, plant roots, clay lumps, chemicals,
etc. The soil should be granular in structure, with a reddish-brown color.

Construction soil.

6. Excavated soil :
If the soil excavated from the footing pit is black cotton, it should be removed completely and strictly
avoided from refilling. Any other type of excavated soil should be checked as per the soil specification,
before using them in refilling.

Black cotton soil.

B. Soil filling procedure:

7. Soil spreading :

Construction soil should be spread in layers of 15 to 20cm. thickness, if you are using manual rammers,
and it can be filled up to 30cm in thickness for the mechanical compactors. In any case, you should not
fill the soil layer above 30cm depth, to achieve good compaction of the soil.

Note: 25cm (10 inches) is the ideal depth for the plate vibrators or mechanical compactors.

8. Watering & compacting :

After completing the first layer of spreading, the soil should be sprinkled with water to attain optimum
moisture content, so that we can achieve the maximum dry density of soil after compaction.

Manual rammer.

The ramming should be done from one end, covering all the areas. It is always advisable to use
mechanical compactors, as the work carried out will be more efficient.
 Mechanical compactor.

If the soil filling work is for the basement of the commercial complexes, then it is advisable to have an in
situ core test for every soil layer, to get the soil density result, and to achieve the required maximum dry
density of soil.

Core cutter.

9. Soil layers :

The above procedure should be repeated in a layer by layer manner until the filling work is completed.
For eg., if the depth of the plinth which should be filled is about 60 cm. then the work will be carried out
in 3 - 4 layers using manual rammers, and we have to spread 2-3 layers of soil when mechanical
compactors are on site.
 Plinth filled with soil.

Take the in-situ core samples before rubble soling work, to know the density and compaction of soil, if it
is a commercial structure with more live loads over the floor. In the case of residential buildings, the
tests are not necessarily required.

MINIMUM SIZE OF CONCRETE SLAB, BEAM & COLUMN

THE STANDARD SIZE OF THE BEAMS

In a residential building it is 9 ʺ × 12 ʺ or 225 mm × 300 mm standard size according to (IS codes). The
minimum RCC beam size should not be less than 9 ʺ × 9 ʺ or 225mm × 225mm with the addition of a
125mm slab thickness.

THE STANDARD SIZE OF THE COLUMN

The size of the columns depends on the total load on the columns. The minimum column size should not
be less than 9 "x9". 9 ”x9” columns are to be used for a single-story concrete grade M15 (1: 2: 4)
structure (cement: sand: aggregate).
THE MINIMUM THICKNESS FOR A CONCRETE SLAB

Concrete is generally applied with a thickness of 2 inches or more, but the thicker it is, the stronger the
slab will be. Four (150mm) inches is more common for a slab.

MAXIMUM SIZE OF CONCRETE SLAB, BEAM & COLUMN | CALCULATION

In This Article, We Will Explain About Maximum Size Of Concrete Slab, Beam & Column Calculation

MAXIMUM SPAN/LENGTH OF THE BEAM

MAXIMUM DEPTH OF THE BEAM

The maximum span & depth of a beam (cantilever / simply supported / continuous) are decided by
deflection limits

These deflection limits are defined in terms of L/d ratio, where ‘L’ is the effective span & ‘d’ is the
effective depth of the beam member.

According To Is Code On Clause 23.2.1 of IS: 456 (2000) pg. no. 37 The same provisions are stipulated
for beam spans of up to 10 m.

Cantilever; Span/d <= 7

Simply supported; Span/d <= 20

Continuous; Span/d <=26

Greater than 10m

Simply supported < = 20x10/span

Continuous < = 26x10/span

Thus, depending on the length provided, the minimum allowable depth of the beam member can be
calculated, and likewise the maximum allowable span can be calculated using the L/d ratio for a given
depth of the beam member.

Note:

Effective Span: Usually the c/c span of the beam member is taken into account for further reference.
See clause 22.2 of IS:456 (2000) pg. 34
Effective depth: d = D - (cover)- (dia of bottom bar/2)

D = effective depth

D = overall depth

MAXIMUM THICKNESS OF THE SLAB

Standards such as ACI 318 specify the minimum thickness of the slab based on the length of the slab.

 · Simply Supported Slab = L / 20

 · One End Continuous Slab = L / 24
 · Both End Continuous Slab = L / 28
 · Cantiliver = L / 10

However, in other criteria, they do not directly specify the minimum slab thickness.

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE HEIGHT OF A COLUMN WITHOUT ANY BRACE OR TIE

Columns can build as long column fails by buckling.

So if the slenderness ratio of the column is greater than 12, that the column is classified as a long
column.

Slenderness ratio=L(eff)/R(min)

L (efff) has to be determined as per IS 456:2000

R (min) = ( I(min) /Area of cross-section )1/2

But simply it can be understood as if column size is of 250X 250 mm then as per slenderness ratio limit if
12

Therefore,
Slenderness ratio = Length /shorter dimension

i.e., 12= length/250

i.e., Length= 12 x 250=3000 mm

So if you make a column of size 250mm x 250mm it should not exceeds the height of 3m. if you need to
build beyond it. It needs tie beams

MAXIMUM COLUMN SIZES FOR DIFFERENT STORIES

NOTE: These are the standard RCC column sizes, but it will increase or decrease
with respect to the load.
What is rolling margin of steel?/Necessity to calculate the rolling margin of steel.

Now, let us go through some of the quarries related to the rolling margin of steel.

1.What is the rolling margin of steel?

The allowable margin in the percentage deviation of the actual unit weight of a steel bar from its
standard or theoretical unit weight is called the rolling margin of steel. or in other words

The percentage difference in the theoretical and the actual weight of the steel bar per meter length
should be within a permissible limit as per IS-1786 (2008). The allowable margin for the steel bars to
maintain the sectional diameter, so that the weight of the manufactured steel should be within a
specified percentage, in comparison to its standard weight is called the rolling margin of steel.

2. What is the meaning of rolling of steel?

While manufacturing the steel metal, they are passed through the pair of rolls to impart a required
dimension and specified properties to the metal. This production process of steel materials is said as
rolling of steel.

3. Why it is necessary to calculate the rolling margin of steel?

When we procure the steel bars for the constructional work, the weight of the bars received on-site,
always differs from the theoretical weight.
The standard weight of the steel bar is calculated, based on the theoretical density & diameter of the
specified bar. But in the practical world, it is difficult to maintain the exact bar diameter & density,
during the manufacturing process of the steel bars.

The bars so produced may be underweight, standard weight, or maybe overweight.

Since the procurement of construction steel is always based on weight, the length of the overweight
bars will differ from the theoretical length, and ultimately we will fall short of the required bar length.

This bar shortage cumulatively affects the calculated project cost, making us spend more to procure the
extra steel bars to complete the construction project.

Similarly, if the purchased steel bars fall in the underweight category, that will affect the design strength
& stability of the building. The sectional percentage of underweight steel bars used in the construction
project will be lesser than the designed requirement, which may break the safety standards.

So, in order to curb such mistakes, it becomes necessary to calculate the rolling margin of steel.

4. What is the allowable rolling margin of steel as per IS code?

IS-1786 (2008 ) has set a standard to calculate the rolling margin of steels in percentage, to maintain the
safety of buildings, to complete the construction work in a given time, & to limit the loss in the
calculated project cost.

Allowable deviation in weight of the reinforcement bars of different diameters as per IS- 1786 are as
follows.
 8mm to 10mm 👉 ±7%

12mm to 16mm 👉 ± 5%

20mm and above 👉 ± 3%

Rolling Margin of Reinforcement Steel Bar Formula:

Cut reinforcement bar into 3 pieces, each length 1 meter Weight Each piece differently i.e. 10 mm Día
Bar,

1st one weight 0.617,

2nd one weight 0.62,

3rd one weight 0.625

Now Calculate the rolling margin of Reinforcement bar

Minimum And Maximum Spacing Of Beam, Column, Stirrups, Slab & Footing
What Is The Minimum Bar Spacing In Reinforced Beams According To IS 456?

The minimum horizontal spacing between two parallel main bars must be the diameter of the larger bar
or the maximum size of the coarse aggregate plus 6mm.

However, if compression is performed by a needle vibrator, the gap can be further reduced to 2/3 of the
nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate.

The minimum vertical distance between two main bars shall be

 · 16 mm
 · 2/3 of the nominal size of coarse aggregate
  · Maximum size of the bar In the beam

In general, the spacing between two bars in a beam depends on the maximum aggregate size used in
the concrete. The minimum spacing between the two bars can be about 50–75 mm.

What Is The Maximum Bar Spacing In Reinforced Beams According To IS 456?

Normally this spacing will be as mentioned below:

 For beams, these distances are 300 mm, 180 mm and 150 mm for grades of main reinforcement
of Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500, respectively.
 The maximum spacing between two secondary parallel bars shall be 5d or 450 mm or whichever
is less

What Is The Minimum Bar Spacing In Reinforced Column?

The minimum gap between two reinforcement bars should be equal to the maximum aggregate grain
dimension with a margin of at least 5 mm. For greases, the maximum total grain dimension is 32 mm for
normal concrete and 16 mm for self-compacting concrete.

What Is The Maximum Bar Spacing In Reinforced Column According To IS 456?

Normally these spacing will be as mentioned below:

For beams, these distances are 300 mm, 180 mm and 150 mm for the main reinforcement classes of Fe
250, Fe 415 and Fe 500, respectively.
The maximum distance between the two secondary parallel bars should be 5D or 450 mm or whichever
is less.

What Is the maximum Spacing Of Stirrups In Beam?

In rectangular beams, the maximum spacing of vertical stirrups is in the mid-span.

This is because the mid-span has very little shear and uses vertical stirrups to counteract the shear. The
spacing of the vertical stirrups is minimal near the supports due to the maximum shear force of the
supports.

Spacing of Vertical Stirrups should not exceed

 · 0.75d
 · 300mm

Criteria for fixing vertical stirrup spacing in structural members are given in IS:456 and should not be
greater than the values below.

 · Least lateral dimension

 · Sixteen times the dia of the smallest longitudinal bar.
 · 300 mm.

What Is Minimum Spacing Of Stirrups In Beam?

The formula for stirrups spacing in the beam

According to cl. 26.5.1.5 of IS 456,

Maximum spacing of the stirrups = 0.75 d

Example

Depth of beam 600

= 0.75 (600) = 450mm

So,

We select 10 mm, double legged stirrups @ 150 mm c/c.

Development Length
Development Length Calculation as per Indian Code
Development length is the extra length of bar provided beyond the required section in order to ensure
the following;

 To develop a safe bond between the bar surface & the concrete so that no failure due to
slippage of bar occurs during the ultimate load conditions.
 Also, the extra length of the bar provided as development length is responsible for transferring
the stresses developed in any section to the adjoining sections (such as at column beam junction
the extra length of bars provided from beam to column).

Importance: Provision of appropriate development is an important aspect of safe construction practices,

proper development length in reinf. bars shall be provided as per the steel grade considered in design
otherwise in scenarios where less development length against the required is provided the structures
will be prone to encounter failure due to slippage of joints, bonds, anchors & Laps, in such cases the
bars will not yield first but the failure will happen at joints & laps prior to yielding of reinforcement bars.

WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT LENGTH?

It is Used at

BEAM-COLUMN JOIN

OR

COLUMN-FOOTING JOINT.

To develop a safe bond between the bar surface & the concrete so that no failure due to slippage of bar
occurs during the ultimate load conditions.

Also, the extra length of the bar provided as development length is responsible for transferring the
stresses developed in any section to the adjoining sections (such as at column beam junction the extra
length of bars provided from beam to column).

What is development length in construction? / Reasons for providing development length & factors
affecting it.

1. What is the development length of steel bars?

The length of the reinforcement bar that is extended in the concrete, at the junction point of the two
RCC members, so that the member won't get slipped away is called the development length.

This length is provided to transfer the maximum stress to the surrounding concrete to such a length,
where the holding stress becomes zero at the discontinuous end.

2. What are the factors that affect the development length?

The factors that affect the development length are,

1. Grade of concrete:

The higher the grade of concrete, the lesser will be the development length.

2. Diameter of the reinforcement bar:

The development length of rebar increases with the increase in the diameter of a bar.

3. Yield strength & stress on the different grade of steel rebars:

The higher the stress in a bar at the section considered at design load, the more will be the development
length.

4. Type of structural member:

The development length will be 25% more in the compression member than in the tension member.

5. Calculation method for designing:

In the limit state method of designing, the development length will be less when compared to the
designing of the same structure by using the working stress method.

3. What happens if we don't provide sufficient development length?

If we provide insufficient development length, the structure may slip away at the joints or junction point
of two RCC members. The lesser development length ensures a lack of grip or holding property to safely
transfer the designed stress to the succeeding structural member, thus resulting in a failure of an RCC
member at the structural joints.

4. What is the common mistake while calculating the development length?

As you can observe in the above drawing, the development length is provided in the footings for the
reinforcement bars coming from the column. Here, the grade of concrete used in the column is M30,
and the M25 grade is used in casting the footings.

The value of design bond stress (τbd ) changes, according to the grade of concrete used in casting the
concrete members.

In the above-given example, you have to consider the concrete grade (M25) of the footing, to evaluate
the development length. The reason is, the development length of the bar is anchored in the footings,
although the bar is extended from the column into the footings.

Considering the M30 grade of the concrete used in a column for the calculation purpose is a common
mistake, that should be avoided to get an accurate development length.
How to calculate the development length for different grades of concrete as per IS 456?

As per IS-456: 2000 clause 26.2.1, the development length Ld is given by

In the IS-code 456, it is mentioned that the value of bond stress should be increased by 60% for high
yield strength deformed bars, & it should be further increased by 25% for the calculation of
development length in compression.

I have made a table of design bond stress for limit state method & working stress method as follows.

Note: For the compression, I have further increased the value of design bond stress by 25% and made a
table.
Now, let us consider 2 examples to calculate the development length for different grades of concrete.

1. Example - 1

Given data

Calculate the development length for rebar in tension, by limit state method for the below-given data.

Grade of concrete = M30

Reinforcement bar = Fe500 (σs = 500 )

Diameter of bar = 16mm. (∅ )

The development length Ld = ∅ × σs ÷ 4 × τbd

Ld = 16 × 500 ÷ 4 × 2.40

( From the above-given table, τbd = 2.40 N/mm2 for M30 in tension, for the limit state. )

= 8000 ÷ 9.6

Ld = 833mm.

2. Example - 2 :
Given data

Calculate the development length for rebar in compression, by working stress method for the below-
given data.

Grade of concrete = M25

Reinforcement bar = Fe415 (σs = 415 )

Diameter of bar = 12mm. (∅ )

The development length Ld = ∅ × σs ÷ 4 × τbd

Ld = 12 × 415 ÷ 4 × 1.8

( From the above-given table, τbd = 1.8 N/mm2 for M25 in compression, for the working stress
method. )

= 4980 ÷ 7.2

Ld = 692mm.

*TYING OF REBAR

*Tying of bars is essential in order to maintain the positions during concrete

placing.

*It is not essential to tie every intersection but staggered.

*Binding wire should conforming IS-280

What is Lap Length | Lap length of Beams | Lap Length of Slabs | Lap Length of Columns | Lap Length
Formulas

What is lap length?

Lap length is defined as the length provided to allow the overlap of the two reinforcement bars,
thereby ensuring that the load is transferred safely and efficiently from one bar to another.

When the reinforcement bars are placed; the length of a single reinforcing bar may not be sufficient. In
this case, the required design length is obtained by overlapping two bars. The overlap length is thus
provided to allow such lapping of the side-by-side reinforcing bars. In other words, the length of the
overlap between the two reinforcing bars is the length of the lap.

The length of the lap can also be provided when the diameter of the reinforcement bar needs to be
changed along the length, especially when reinforcing columns. This process of overlapping the side of
the reinforcing bar by side in order to obtain the desired design length is known as lapping.

The primary goal of providing this is to ensure an efficient transfer of axial force from the termination
bar to the new connected bar along the same line of action in the joint.

NOTE:

It is general practice to produce 12 m size steel reinforcement bars to ensure ease of transport and
handling. However, during the construction of reinforced concrete structures; Larger beams, columns
and slabs may need more then that length. In this case, the reinforcing bars must be overlapped to
achieve the desired length. Usually, such overlapping of bars is performed where the magnitude of the
bending stress is less.

When two reinforcement bars are of Equal Diameter; Lap length can be calculated using the following
formula:

Lap Length = 50d

Where,

d = diameter of the reinforcement bars

If you extend the top bar of a column from a lower (bottom) bar of Unequal Diameter, the lap length
is calculated for the smaller diameter bar.

Example Calculation:

If the Topbar of 12mm dia. Is lapped with a lower (bottom) bar of 16mm dia and if the lap length is taken
as 50d, then

Lap length 50d = 50 × 12mm = 600mm. ← Correct

Lap length 50d = 50 × 16mm = 800mm ← Incorrect

When two different diameters of bars have to be left, the lap length should be calculated based on the
smaller bar’s diameter.

SPLICE

The method used to join the reinforcement bars so that the forces transferred effectively from one bar
to another.

It is achieved in different ways, such as lapping welding or coupling.

LAP LENGTH.

Lap length is the minimum length that must be provided if two bars are joined together for the forces to
be transferred.

It mainly depends on the

Concrete strength

Type of concrete

The yield strength of the bar.

Common lap length used are

For slap, it is 50d

For beam and column 40 d if it is tension zone on 24 d if it is in the compression zone.

When two different diameters of bars have to be left, the lap length should be calculated based on the
smaller bar’s diameter.

COUPLER

Couplers are used to join two rebar without providing lapping. It avoids honeycombing. Ensure lapping
or use of couplers are staggered.

Lap Length in Tension

The following formula can be used to calculate the length of the lap, including the anchorage value of
the hooks, for the lap length in tension,

1. Lap length For flexural tension = L x d or 30 x d (The greater value among the two values calculated is
taken.)

2. Lap length For direct tension = 2 x L x d or 30 x d (The greater value among the two values calculated
is taken.)
Where,

L = development length

In such a case, the straight lapping length of the reinforcement bars should not exceed 200 mm or 15 x
d.

Lap Length in Compression

For the length of the lap in compression, the value of the lap length can be taken to be the same as the
value of the growth length for development. However, in either case, the lap length cannot be less than
24 x d.

Importance Of Providing Correct Lap Length

Lap length is essential for reinforced concrete structures to allow tensile and compression loads to be
transferred from one reinforcement bar to another by cutting or skin friction. Lack of lap length can
disrupt the load transfer mechanism and lead to failure of the entire structure. Also, when the length of
the provided lap is not sufficient, the reinforcement bars will split and thereby lead to cracks in the
concrete. Thus, lap length is essential for reinforced concrete structures.

Lap Length of Columns, Slabs & Beams

1. Lap Length of Columns:

Procedures for calculating the lap length of columns in a reinforced concrete structure is provided by
Clause 26.5.3 of IS 456: 200.

According to this code, the diameter of the bars should not be less than 12 mm. The number of
longitudinal bars to be provided in a rectangular column should be four or more and more than or
greater than Six in a circular column. The spacing of such longitudinal bars should be less than 300 mm
when measured around the perimeter of the column. The lap length of the columns can be calculated
using the following formula,

Lap Length of Column = 45d

Where,

d = diameter of the bar

2. Lap Length of Slabs:

Procedures for calculating the lap length of the slabs in a reinforced concrete structure is provided by
Clause 26.5.1 of IS 456:200.
According to this code, the diameter of the reinforcement bars should be less than one-eighth of the
total slab thickness.

The lap length of the slabs can be calculated using the following formula,

Lap Length of Slab = 60 x d

Where,

d = diameter of the bar

3. Lap Length of Beams:

Procedures for calculating the lap length of the beams in a reinforced concrete structure is given by
Clause 26.5.2 of IS 456: 200.

According to this code, side reinforcement bars should be provided if the depth of the beam web is
more than 75 cm. In such a case, the area of the reinforcement bars to be used should not exceed 0.1
per cent of the total area of the web. The reinforcement wires should be evenly distributed on both
faces of the beam, i.e. the gap should not exceed 300 mm or the thickness of the mesh, whichever is
less.

In beams, cross-reinforcement should be provided to withstand external tension and compression. In T-

beams and I-beams, such reinforcement will run around longitudinal bars located near the outer face of
the flange.

The lap length of the beams can be calculated using the following formula,

Lap length of beams = 60 x d

Where,

d = diameter of the bar

What is lap length in reinforcement bars?/ General rules while providing lap length.

Let us go through some of the FAQs to gain basic knowledge of the lap length or lap splice of the
reinforcement bars.

1. What is lap length?

The minimum length that should be provided when we overlap two reinforcement bars ( rebars ) so that
the tension force & designed loads are transferred safely at the joints from one bar to another.

Lap length is also known as lap splice.

2. Why we provide lap length for rebars?

The maximum length of the reinforcement bars is limited to 12.2m ( or 40 ft.). This limited standard
length is to facilitate the smooth manufacturing process and to avoid rebar transportation problems.

When we construct the multistorey buildings, the length of the single bar is insufficient to reach the top
building height from the footing level. So, providing a lap length becomes necessary for the safe transfer
of the load.

3. What happens if we don't provide sufficient lap length?

Cracks in RCC structure.

The provision of specified lap length is a must for the reinforcement bars to keep the structure intact in
all types of load conditions. The RCC structure may develop cracks due to the splitting of rebars at the
insufficient lap length zones. This ultimately leads to the failure of the structural member as the load
transfer mechanism fails when the rebars of insufficient lap length cannot bear the superimposed load
over the structure.

4. What are the general rules while providing lap length?

1. Lapping should be provided alternately in a staggered pattern so that the lapping zone will not fall at
the same level. This rule helps to avoid buckling of the structure.

2. The bars should be staggered with not more than 50% of bars in any section of the lapping zone. The
minimum clear distance between the lapped rebars shall be 0.25 times the lap length.

3. In any case, the staggering distance between the lapping of bars should not be less than 75mm.in any
type of bars and structures.

4. When the bars of different diameters are lapped, the lap length is calculated for the smaller diameter
bar.
5.For the bars whose diameter is greater or equal to 36mm., lapping should not be done. Instead of
lapping, these bars should be welded. If welding is not possible, then you can lap these bars with an
additional spiral of 6mm bar at the splice length.

6. The stirrups (lateral ties ) should be closely placed at the lapping portion of the rebar.

7. For flexural tension, Ld or 30d whichever is greater is considered.

8. For direct tension, 2Ld or 30d whichever is greater is considered.

9. The straight length of the lapping bars in the tension zone should not be less than 15d or 20cm.

10. In the case of compression, the lap length should be equal to the Ld calculated in compression, but
in any case not less than 24d.

5. What is the main function of lapping in the RCC structures?

1. Lapping helps to provide continuity to the reinforcement bars in all types of RCC structures.

2. Lapping is needed to safely transfer the loads (or stress) from one reinforcement bar to another.

3. Lapping helps to design the RCC structures with the required strength.

What are the different methods of splicing reinforcement steel bar?

When the length of reinforcement bar has to be extended in reinforced concrete structural member
splicing is used to join two reinforcement bars to transfer the force from one bar to the joining bar. The
forces are transferred from one bar to the other through bonds in concrete. Force is first transferred to
the concrete through bond from one bar and then it is transferred to the other bar forming the splice
through bond between it and concrete. Thus concrete at the point of splicing is subjected to high shear
and splitting stresses which may cause cracks in concrete.

Splicing is basically done by 3 methods :

1. Lapping of reinforcement bars : Overlapping of rebar as per the codal requirement which changes as
per the structural load requirements and region.

2. Mechanical joints (Couplers : Generally used for rebar with dia more than 25d)

3. Welded joints (It is not so common as welding have impact on the strength of TMT bars. although low
hydrogen electrode can be used for welding)

 The splicing should be avoided in the critical locations, such as at the maximum bending
moment locations and at the shear critical locations
 Lapping should be avoided in tensile zone of construction members. For column bending
moment at mid point is zero so try to lap at mid point. Lapping should be staggered and
alternate. Lap should not be given at same point because buckling may accur. Due to maximum
stress we can't lap at column /beam/ slab joint. Lapping should not be given at L/4 distance from
top and bottom of the slab.
 For beam lapping in top bar avoided L/3 distance from both end .for top bar lapping should be
at mid span.
 For bottom bar lap should be column junction or L/4 distance from column face but not in mid
length
 Most important point to be considered while lapping is whether it be beams, columns, slabs or
foundations, lapping should be avoided in tensile zones of the member under consideration, so
in a continuous beam because of negative moment tension is at the top, near supports, and
tension is in bottom, at mid-span, for columns, if you observe the bending moment diagram,
generally the point of contraflexure is around mid-height of column, so lapping is to be done at
mid height of the column, but always remember you need to see the bending moment diagram
to decide lapping location.

Slabs

Generally, hogging moments induce near the beams when a constant area load acting on the slab panel.
This allows us to place the bottom bar (sagging bar) in those areas. However, if the slab is doubly
reinforced, try to splice the top bar in the middle.
Beams

The typical bending moment diagram of a continuous beam will be like follows. So it’s obvious to lap the
bottom bars near the column while lapping the top hogging bars in the middle.

Columns

Columns usually have a less bending moment at the center. Verticle loads as well as lateral loads induce
bending moment at the top and the bottom of the column. It’s better to place the splice in the middle of
the column. However, this arrangement is difficult to apply. Handling 6m rebar and lapping at the center
is quite hard. Due to the weight, the bar goes here and there and reinforcement works will be difficult.

In most cases, column rebars are lapped in the bottom of the column with higher lap length. Consider
1.5 times the nominal lap length. However, this should comply with relevant earthquake detailing
guidelines.

Reinforcement lapping zone in column

Column -

Columns are usually considered as vertical structural elements, but they can be positioned in
diagonal and horizontal compression elements Columns are used as major elements in trusses,
building frames, and sub-structure supports for bridges Columns support compressive loads
from roofs, floors, or bridge decks. Columns transmit the vertical forces to the foundations and
into the subsoil.

 Columns usually have a less bending moment at the center. Verticle loads as well as
lateral loads induce bending moment at the top and the bottom of the column. It’s
better to place the splice in the middle of the column. However, this arrangement is
difficult to apply. Handling 6m rebar and lapping at the center is quite hard. Due to the
weight, the bar goes here and there and reinforcement works will be difficult.
 Lap length of the bar is defined as the overlapping length of two bars which is provided
to transfer the load one member to another member. If the length of the bar is not
sufficient to build a structure the bar is overlapped side by side to achieve the design
length.
 Over lapping length or Lap length - Over lapping length of lap length is provided for
over-lapping two rebars or reinforcement steel bars in order to safely transfer the load
form one bar to another bar.
 Suppose that we have to construct a two-store building height of each floor is 15 m but
there is 12 m single bar is available in the market. In this case, to achieve the design
length we overlapped the two bars.
 Lap length varies according to the bar size as well as concrete strength grade. Larger
bars require long lap length because the transferring load is high. Concrete with higher
strength requires less lap length because it can bear higher stress.
 Lapping position

The position of lapping is important as much as lapping length for reinforcement. We

always try to avoid the high stressing areas when locating the splice. For common
members like slabs, beams, and columns most ideal places for laps are shown below.

 The tension zone in the column is found in L/4 distance at both ends of columns. At both
ends of column, tension stress is induced more, but the middle portion of column has
zero bending moment there is no stress is induced So that Lapping is always provided in
middle of column.
 Important Point
lapping of two bars side by side is done. an alternative to this is to provide mechanical
couples
the amount of over-lapping among 2 bars is called lap length
the lap length in compression shall be equal to the development length in compression
but not less than 24ф
  We divide the column into three different zones. in this two part of zone A and one part
is zone B.
 Zone A is end of the column both side. it has more tension force it is called tension zone.
 Lapping should be avoided in tension zone.
 Column experience maximum moment in zone A.
 Moment is zero in zone B.

Lap length or overlapping length is provided for overlapping two rebars in order to safely
transfers the load form one bar to another bar as well as retain continuity.

Lapping should be avoided in tension zone.

Due to maximum moment or stress, we con't provide lap at column, slab & beam junction.

Zone A experiences maximum moment at top & bottom of column.

Ties or link shall be closely spaced in the entire lap length.

Lapping is to be done at mid height of column but always we need to observe the bending
moment diagram to decide the lap location.

Column Design s per IS 456 : 2000

in lap junction spacing should be low ie. 100mm c/c or 150mm c/c

also in zone A till spacing should be low ie. 100mm c/c or 150mm c/c

difference between lap & L/4 to L/6 spacing is high ie. 200mm c/c

Basic rules for lapping in column reinforcement. / 7 basic rules for providing Lap splice in
column.

Now, let us go through 7 basic rules while lapping the rebars in columns.
1. Lap length diameter:

When we extend the top bar of the column from the bottom bar, having an unequal diameter,
then the lap length is calculated for the smaller dia. bar.

For eg., if the upper bar of 16mm dia. is lapped with a lower bar of 20mm dia., and if the lap
length is taken as 50d, then

Lap length 50d = 50 × 16mm = 800mm. 👈correct

Lap length 50d = 50 × 20mm = 1000mm 👈 incorrect

2. Lapping zone :

When we provide lapping in a column, all the rebars should be lapped in zone-B as shown in the
drawing. The top and bottom portion of the column, i.e. zone-A ( L/4 length ) should be avoided
as there will be a maximum moment in this zone due to lateral forces acting on the column.

If the length of the column is L, then the L/4 length from the top & bottom of the column is
categorized as tension zone A and the center L/2 length of the column (zone B ) is considered a
safe area for the lapping purpose.

3. Staggered bar :
All the bars that are lapped should be staggered within zone B as shown in the above drawing.
In any case, not more than 50% of rebars should be lapped in the same level. If all the column
bars are lapped at the same level, it leads to the failure of the column.

4. Stirrup spacing :

The spacing of the stirrups in the lapping zone should be minimum when compared to the
regular column c/c stirrup spacing.

If the designed regular spacing for the column stirrup is 175 c/c, then the spacing of stirrups in
the lapping zone maybe 150 c/c or 125 c/c as according to the column design.

5. Welding the rebar :

As per IS code, if the bar diameter is greater than or equal to 36mm, then you should consider
welding those bars instead of lapping. If welding is not possible, then you can lap these bars
with an additional spiral of 6mm bar at the splice length.

6. Joggle length :

For the rebars of diameter greater than 12mm, you can consider providing a joggle of 1 in 6.
That means if the bar dia. is 20mm then the length of the joggled part of the bar can be
calculated as

J = 6 ×Diameter of rebar
 = 6 × 20mm = 120mm.

7. Rebar placing:

When we tye the rebars in the lapping zone, the joggled part of the bar should be placed over
the inner surface of the bottom bar (as shown in the above drawing ) to get a uniform clear
cover from the concrete surface.

If you tye the joggled portion of the rebar over the outer surface of the bottom bar, then the
lapping zone invades the concrete cover area provided for the bars.

Why top bar should be joggled during lapping in columns?/ Correct lapping procedure in
column bars.

The two different ways you can joggle the bars in the columns are as shown below.
As you can observe, the bottom bar of the column is joggled in the left side drawing & the top
bar is shown joggled on the right side. Technically speaking both are correct as it does not affect
the calculated design strength and load transferring ability.

But from the practical point of view, is it possible to joggle the bottom bars in columns? If not,
what are the difficulties that we have to look into?

On the construction site, always the top bar of the column is joggled for the lapping purpose.

Now, let us go through some of the reasons why we should joggle the top bar while lapping
work.

1. After concrete work if you joggle the bottom bar, it may produce cracks or break the portion
of concrete, due to the force applied for joggle work.

2. It is practically easy to joggle the top bar with greater accuracy as it is not embedded in
concrete. You can use bending machines to joggle them and then you can tie them to the
bottom bar.

3. Once the column is concreted, it is practically tough to joggle the bottom bar, due to in-situ
congestion and difficulty in handling the bending equipment.

4. Maintaining the required clear cover is possible when you use joggled top bar for the lapping
purpose.

Now, let us look into the correct lapping procedure in the columns.
1. If you place the joggled top bar on the outer surface of the bottom bar ( as shown above ),
you may not get the clear cover at the lapping zone.

Lapping should be done in such a way that the clear cover should be maintained at the lapped
portion of the bar.

The joggled part of the top bar should be placed on the inner surface of the bottom bar ( as
shown above ) so that the clear cover for the rebar is equal as specified, throughout the
column.

2. The bars in the lapping zone should be staggered, and in any case not more than 50% of the
lapped column bars should fall at the same section.
3. The spacing of the stirrups in the lapping zone should be minimum or in other words, you
have to provide more stirrups (lateral ties ) in the lapping zone of the column.

What is the difference between joggled bar & a staggered bar in civil construction?

1. Joggled bar:

When we provide lapping in the reinforcement bars, we bend either of the two bars to align
them with each other. These bent-up bars are called joggled bars in the civil field.
Sometimes, the bars provided in the structural members offset their original position due to
technical and human errors. In such cases also, the bars are joggled, to bring them back in their
required position from eccentricity.

Why we joggle the reinforcement bars in the Civil construction?

1. To maintain the uniform clear cover for the reinforcement bars.

2. To bring back the drifted rebars in their specified position.

3. To maintain the center-to-center distance between the rebars.

4. To prevent the imbalance in the load transfer from one RCC structure to another.

2. Staggered bar:
When we provide lapping in the bars, the level of the lapped part of the bar is kept in up and
down position from one another. This method of lapping in different levels in all types of
structural members is called as staggering of the bars.

Why we provide staggered reinforcement bars in the lapping zone?

1. To prevent the buckling of the RCC structure.

2. To resist the lateral loads with a given factor of safety.

3. To prevent the failure of the structure at the lapping zone.

4. To resist the bending moment and to safely transfer the superimposed load.
Where to provide lapping in beam reinforcement?/ Basic rules for providing lap splice in a
beam reinforcement.

The lapping zone of top & bottom reinforcement in beams are different. Let us now go through
the lapping rule for the top & bottom bars of a beam separately.

1. Top bar:
Given:

L1 👉 Clear span between columns 1 & 2.

L1/3 👉 One-third zone of the clear span L1.

L2 👉 Clear span between columns 2 & 3.

L2/3 👉 One-third zone of the clear span L2.

Rule 1:

The lapping zone for the top bars should be at the mid- L1/3 or L2/3 part of the beams.

Reason:

The top bars fall under the compression zone of the beam. For the compression zone, the mid-
1/3 span of the beam is said to be a safe zone for lapping. The negative moment in this section
are low & hence there is a minimal chance of failure in this area.

Rule 2:

Not more than 50% of the top beam bars are lapped in the same zone of any clear span.
As you can view in the above drawing, the beam has 2 reinforcement bars at the top. Top bar-1
should be lapped in the mid- L1/3 part of the clear span L1. Alternately, top bar-2 should be
lapped in the mid-L2/3 part of the clear span L2. If you observe the above drawing, you will
understand the concept clearly.

Reason:

Providing lapping in the alternate zone of the beam helps in the safe transfer of the load &
greatly reduces the chances of failure.

2. Bottom bar:

Given:

L1 👉 Clear span between columns 1 & 2.

L1/8 👉 One-eighth zone of the clear span L1.

L2 👉 Clear span between columns 2 & 3.

L2/8 👉 One-eighth zone of the clear span L2.

Rule 3:

The lapping zone for the bottom bars should be at the columns plus the end- L1/8 or L2/8
part of the beams.

Reason:

The bottom bars fall under the tension zone of the beam. For the tension zone, the end-1/8th
span of the beam near the column junction is said to be a safe zone for lapping. The positive
moment in this section are less & hence there is a minimal chance of failure in this area.
Rule 4:

Not more than 50% of the bottom beam bars are lapped in the same zone plus columns of
any clear span.

As you can view in the above drawing, the beam has 2 reinforcement bars at the bottom.
Bottom bar-1 should be lapped in the zone of [end- L1/8 + column 2 + end L2/8.]

Alternately, bottom bar-2 should be lapped in the zone of [end- L2/8 + column 3 + end L3/8.]. If
you observe the above drawing, you will understand the concept clearly.

Reason:

Providing lapping in the alternate zone of the beam ( not above 50%) helps in the safe transfer
of the load & greatly reduces the chances of failure.
Consideration for give lap length

Top reinforcement of the beam shall be lapped at the middle of the span of between two
supports. Bottom reinforcement of the beam shall be lapped at the end of the span of the two
supports. Considering the region where the maximum bending movement is existing.

Lapping is did the place which the tension is didn’t act. Normally 2/3 of the length is choosing
for lapping. When lapping top & bottom re-bar, it is better to follow the following
method.Otherwise, it might cause to reduce the concrete covering thickness of the topmost&
bottom most slab reinforcement

Recommended construction practices for columns

1. A minimum of 4 longitudinal rebars in rectangular and 6 in circular columns should be
provided in a column (Fig 4).

2. Rebars should be placed symmetrically across the axes of symmetry (Fig 5). With
unsymmetrical reinforcement there is always a danger of smaller amount of steel being
wrongly placed on the face requiring the larger reinforcement.

3. If column rebar is to be used for future construction or expansion, it is recommended to

apply a coat of cement slurry (cement: water = 1: 3) to the exposed portion of rebars and wrap
them with some polythene or jute cloth to prevent direct contact with atmosphere to guard
against atmospheric corrosion and therefore loss of material for joining for future
constructions.

Note: Cement slurry provides a natural guard against the atmospheric corrosion to protect it.

4. While lapping/splices column rebars, it should be ensured that the connecting rebar is given
a slope of 1 in 6 (minimum) such that the centre line of both rebar coincides (Fig 6).

5. Lapping should preferably be done in the centre part of column with a min lap length of 57
times the dia of rebar(c). So if you are using 16 mm rebars then lap length will be 3 feet.

6. The ends of the ties must be bent as 135° hooks. The length of tie beyond the 135° bends
must be at least 10 times diameter of steel bar used to make the closed tie; this extension
beyond the bend should not be less than 75 mm (Fig 7a).

If this guideline is not followed then the tie/ring holding the vertical rebars have a higher
probability of opening up during an event like earthquake. This consequently may lead to
failure of column (Fig 7b)

Concrete spalling

Concrete spalling is when the chips or fragments of a material is broken off a bigger object. The
most common reason for spalling in bricks is due to excess moisture. In concrete, especially
older concrete structures spalling is usually caused by corrosion of the steel reinforcement bars.
The rebar is used to offer strength to a material that is extremely high in compressive strength
but has very limited flexible or tensile strength. One of the properties of reinforced concrete is
that the high alkaline content of the concrete protects the embedded steel from corrosion. The
correct cover should reduce the chances of the rebar corroding in reinforced concrete.
What is the role of bundle bars in column?

Bundling of bars becomes necessary when large number of bars are required to be
accommodated in a structural member. Concrete codes dictate minimum criteria for spacing of
the reinforcing bars to ensure that during construction fresh concrete can be placed easily in
between and around the bars. Therefore, when there are large number of bars required to be
provided based on design, it may not be possible to place the bars separately with necessary
clearance. In such cases, there are two options:

1.Increase the size of the member (columns, beams).

2.Bundle the bars in groups of two, three or four bars.

However, option 1 means unnecessary cost implications due to the increase in the volume of
concrete. Hence, engineers mostly resort to bundling of bars.
It is important to note that bundled bars have low contact area with the surrounding concrete
when compared to the bars placed separately. This affects the bonding between concrete and
the rebars which is of concern especially in beams. To compensate this, the development
length is increased suitably and curtailment, wherever prescribed, is done at different points for
each bar.

The development length of each bar of bundled bars shall be that for the individual bar,
increased by 10 percent for two bars in contact, 20 percent for three bars in contact and 33
percent for four bars in contact.

-- Clause 26.2.1.2, Code 456-2000, Bureau of Indian Standards.

7 common mistakes in the plinth beam./ Plinth beam construction process.

While providing a plinth beam for the building, some common mistakes which I have observed
are given below.

1. Development length :
Provide the rebar with needed development length and 10 times bar dia. which is given as Ld +
10Db or say L -length/ hook. Curtailing the bar at the column end is technically wrong.

2. Bar diameter

The diameter of the bottom reinforcement should not be less than 12mm (IS 456) and the top
rebar should not be less than 10mm. diam. as shown in fig. Providing the rebar of 10mm. and
8mm dia. is one of the mistakes which should be avoided.

3. Nominal & clear cover :

Providing the cover for the reinforcement bar on all the 4 sides are essential, as shown in the
fig., but when the beam is placed over the brickwork, avoiding cover for the bottom rebar is a
wrong practice.

4. The spacing of stirrup :

Providing the spacing of 150 -175 mm at the center and 125 - 150 mm near column end is the
good practice to avoid the settlement of masonry work. One of the mistakes done here is
keeping the spacing at 300mm and above to save the stirrup rings is a mistake which should be
avoided.

5. Ld at the T- junction :

As explained earlier, the development length Ld should not be curtailed at the junction of the 2
beams or at the T formed at the column and another plinth beam.

6. Cleaning the beam:

After completing the plinth beam work for the building, usually, the next procedure followed
will be muroom filling in the plinth. After completing the filling work, the contractor on the site,
neglect to clean the plinth beam surface. Brick masonry work builds on such an uncleaned
beam top will result in weak bonding and ultimately ends in the cracks at such joints. Please
take care to clean them properly.

7. Formwork :
Using building blocks or bricks as the side formwork for the plinth beam is also a mistake. Do
you know why? The reason is, they absorb the water and cement slurry, making the weak
concrete of different grades.

What is Stirrup ?

A reinforcement used to resist shear and diagonal tension stresses in a concrete structural
member.

Or

The term stirrups is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in flexural members and the term
ties to lateral reinforcement in vertical compression members.
Reinforced Concrete(RC) beams have two sets of steel reinforcement, namely: Long straight
bars ( Longitudinal Bars) placed along its length & Closed loop of small dia bars( Stirrups) at
regular intervals along its length.

The two types of failures occur mainly in beam are:

1. Flexural(Bending ) failure

2. Shear failure

The beam sags under increase loading which results in flexural failure. Therefore, Longitudinal
bars are provided to resist tension due to flexure.

A Shear crack may develop which is inclined at 45° to the horizontal and it develops at mid-
depth near the support grows towards the top and bottom. Shear failure is brittle and,
therefore must be avoided.

So Stirrups are provided to resist such shearing action and also prevent the longitudinal bars
from bending outward.
Standard Length of Hook and Bend

Hook length = 9d or 75 mm (for One hook)

Bend Length for 45° = 1d

Bend Length for 90° = 2d

Bend Length for 135° = 3d (Where d = Diameter of Bar)

Stirrups have many roles in construction

1.The stirrups used are usually made out of a rectangular steel piece which is wrapped around
top and bottom bars of the beams. Stirrups help to hold in place the primary reinforcement
bars. The use of stirrups is needed to prevent the columns and beams from buckling.

2.Stirrups are sometimes placed diagonally and often vertically as well. This is done to prevent
shear failure which is usually diagonal in case of cracks in beams. The primary reason for the
diagonal shear is due to compression and tension caused by transverse and vertical tension.
Eventually diagonal tension occurs since concrete is stronger in compression as compared to
tension. This tension is bound by steel stirrup which holds the cracked surface together.

3.The spacing of the stirrup along the beam is important and should ideally be specified by the
designer. This will help the stirrups to be manufactured accordingly. They are usually placed in
places where there are high chances of shearing such as beneath large load and bearing points.
4.Concrete is made strong by running bars of steel through them. However, stirrups are used to
keep everything in a straight line. Stirrups help keep order and also add strength to the
structure at critical points of probable vulnerability from use over time.

5.Steel rebars are stronger than stirrups. However, often it is seen that stirrups are used along
with rebar. While rebar acts as the bones of the concrete, the stirrups aid the rebar to remain
straight and provide enhanced backing to the column of concrete inside which it is placed.

6.Stirrups help secure much needed resistance. When the pressure from above comes down on
the column, the stirrups act like tendons. They help the rebar and concrete provide sustainable
support for the extreme amount of load.

7.Steel stirrups are installed at around the vertical main reinforcement. Other than the function
of shear reinforcement, it helps to avoid the lateral deformation of interior concrete core so
that the strength of concrete column is increased.

8.Concrete beams vary in depth. The deeper the beam, the more shear capacity. When the
depth is not adequate, steel stirrups must be added to increase the shear capacity of the beam.
These stirrups are usually one piece of steel that is bent into a rectangular shape. Often small
diameter steel is used, such as #3 and #4 rebar. The stirrup typically wraps around the bottom
and top bars of the beams.

Stirrups in beams are mainly used to resist shear and torsion.However even when shear stress
is less than shear resistance of concrete (but greater than half of shear resistance ), nominal
shear reinforcement is provided to serve following purposes;

Main Purpose of Stirrups :-

1.to provide ductility to section i.e. to prevent sudden formation of diagonal crack in an
unreinforced web, possibily leading to abrupt failures

2.to resist any torsion

3.to restrain the growth of inclined shear cracks

4.to improve dowel action of longitudinal bars

Stirrups in columns are provided to perform following functions:

1.to provide lateral confinement to longitudinal bars

2.to provide resistance against shear and torsion

3.to hold longitudinal bars during construction

4.to confine the concrete in the core ,thus improving ductility and strength

5.to prevent premature buckling of individual bars

6.It provide shear strength to column because it is found that many column fail in shear at the
time of earthquake.

7..It provide confinement to concrete column and increases it’s compressive strength.

8.It prevent lateral buckling of main reinforcement in column.

9.At the time of concreting it prevent movement of main reinforcement .

10.It improves ductility of column.

Improve dowel action of column reinforcement.

11.In beam stirrups used for lump sum same purpose as in column.

12.To hold the longitudinal reinforcement in their place.

13.To prevent cracking, shrinkage and thermal effects in beam.

14.For confinement of cement concrete.

15.To counteract torsional and shear force

Reinforced Concrete(RC) beams have two sets of steel reinforcement, namely: Long straight
bars ( Longitudinal Bars) placed along its length & Closed loop of small dia bars( Stirrups) at
regular intervals along its length.

The two types of failures occur mainly in beam are:

1. Flexural(Bending ) failure

2. Shear failure

The beam sags under increase loading which results in flexural failure. Therefore, Longitudinal
bars are provided to resist tension due to flexure.

A Shear crack may develop which is inclined at 45° to the horizontal and it develops at mid-
depth near the support grows towards the top and bottom. Shear failure is brittle and,
therefore must be avoided.
So Stirrups are provided to resist such shearing action and also prevent the longitudinal bars
from bending outward.

**In simple words -

 Main role of Stirrups is to resist the shear forces & to hold the main reinforcement in position.
 Typically the spacing of these stirrups will be close near the supports & More at the center as
shown.
1. Stirrups are provide to resist the cracks develop due to creap and shrikage, also resist diagonal
tension cracks, and provide ductility to beam and hold the reinforcement in its place.
2. also if we use inclined stirrups then they are in effective in resisting shear developed due to shear
force but not due to torsion.
3. stirrups are provided closed loop of small dia bars( Stirrups) at regular intervals along its length.
These are provided to resist the Flexural failure and Shear failure/Diagonal crack of beam.
4. The Stirrups are provided for Shear Force.The Bar Crancking is also done for SF.If the Stirrups are
insufficient in a Beam it gives rise to the Vertical Cracks in the Beam.The SF is Maximum at Ends of
any Beam.
5. Stirrups are provided to resist shear and also to hold the longitudinal reinforcements in place.The
stirrups resist flexure-shear and diagonal tension crack formations .When crack forms due to shear
various forces resisting the shear are resistance due to uncracked concrete,vertical component of
the aggregate interlock ,shear resistance of stirrups and dowel force in the tension reinforcements.
In absence of stirrups the other three forces are not able to effectively resist the shear.But in the
presence of stirrups redistribution of these forces occurs and they effectively resist crack formation
after the stirrups have yielded. Stirrups also help in resisting cracks due to temperature and
shrinkage effects.Inclined stirrups are most effective in resisting shear as they resist the crack
formation more effectively.

What is the difference between lateral ties and stirrups?

Lateral ties are used in columns. The load is carried by the vertical steel bars, while the ties are provided
to keep the bars in their required position without getting disturbed while compacting the concrete by
the needle vibrators. The ties do not take or share any part of the load coming on the column. The ties
are evenly spaced along the full height of the column.

Stirrups. The term stirrups is used to define the transverse reinforcement provided in beams where the
primary mode of load transfer is through bending and shear. The stirrups are provided to prevent cracks
forming in the concrete beam due to tension, bending and shear. The spacing of the stirrups is not
uniform throughout the length of the beam. They are spaced closer near the supports and farther apart
in the middle portion.

CHAIRS

Chairs are metal supports for reinforcement to maintains proper positioning of rebar during concrete
placement. A certain height is to be maintained from the bottom surface. The maximum spacing of the
chair is 1 m or can be less as per requirements.

SPACERS

Space is also known as concrete cover blocks, are used to maintain reinforcement in the proper position.

DEVELOPMENT LENGTH

It is a minimum embedment length to transfer the bar force to surrounding concrete through the bond.
The formula to calculate development length is 50 70 for M 20 40 90 for M 25 on 45 d for M 30 shown is
development length, L D of a footing.

BAR SPACING

Bar spacing is the clear distance between different rebar. It cannot be less than one inch and should at
least be equal to the bar’s diameter.

PITCH

This is the gap between deformations on rebar. It is centered to center spacing between turns of a
spiral.

STIRRUPS
Stirrups are used to resist lateral shear, stress, and diagonal tension stress in reinforcement cement
concrete structure; thus, stirrups help to prevent buckling failure in columns.

stirrups

Depending upon the nature of construction, different types of stirrups used in beams and columns are
listed below.

Single leg stirrups.

Two-legged or double leg stirrups.

Four legs stirrups.

Six-leg stirrups.

HOOKS

Hooks are the bend provided at the edge of the stirrups. It helps for better bonding.

DISTRIBUTION BAR

These are thinner bars placed at right angles to the main steel. It helps prevent cracking on load
distribution.

DOWEL BARS

Dowel bars are short bars used to increase strength at construction joints.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCAFFOLDING, SHUTTERING AND FRAMEWORK AS PER

CIVIL ENGINEERING?

However , let us deal the same question from a different perspective.

1. Form work :

All arrangement done to support the green concrete till it attains the strength is known as form
work or temporary work.

Form work determines the geometry,shape.size and finish of the form work.

2.Centering :

Part of the form work which supports the horizontal surface is called centering for example slab
bottom , beam bottom etc.
3.Shuttering :

Part of the form work which supports the Vertical surface is called Shuttering for example
column sides, beam sides,slab side ,wall side etc.

4.Staging :

That portion which support centering & shuttering is called Staging. This can be :

1. Wooden Ballies
2. Pipes/Props/Jacks
3. H frames
4. Space frames using Coupler / Cup-Lock system

5.Scaffolding : That arrangement which is meant to be a supporting platform for people ( labor ,
supervisor, mason ,fitter,painter,carpenter etc. ) is known as scaffolding.

Now having defined the basic terms , let us see the site photographs for better understanding :
What is spacer bar in a beam?-purpose, spacing & its cutting length.

1. What is a spacer bar in the beam?

A piece of a steel bar provided in between the two layers of the main reinforcement in the beam is
called a spacer bar. They are inserted perpendicularly or in a tapered position in between the two layers.
2. Why the spacer bars are provided in the beam reinforcement?

As the name suggests, spacer bars are provided to maintain a uniform gap between the two
reinforcement layers. Usually, the maximum size of the coarse aggregates used in the beam concreting
is 20mm. Spacer bar maintains a gap between the bars for the easy flow of the concrete aggregate,
which otherwise would have created voids in between the bars.

Due to the spacer bars, the concrete gets filled in between the bar layers to provide adequate bond
strength as required by the beam.

3. What should be the spacing & diameter of the spacer bars?

Always, the diameter of the spacer bar should be above the maximum size of the aggregates used in
concrete. Suppose if the aggregate size is 20mm., the dia. of the spacer bar should be 25mm. or 32mm.

The spacer bars should be placed at a c/c distance of 1000mm. from each other.
What is main bars & distribution bars in a slab? / Difference between main bars and
distribution bars in a slab.

Let us go through some of the FAQs to understand the main bars & distribution bars in a slab.

1. What are the main bars in a slab?

The reinforcement bars that are placed in the tension zone of the slab to resist the bending
moment & to transfer the superimposed loads to the supports that are provided for the slab
are called main bars.

Main bars are always placed at the bottom part of the slab reinforcement and distribution bars
rest over the main bar as shown in the above drawing.

The diameter of the main bar should not be less than 8mm for the HYSD bar and 10mm for
plain bars.

2. What are the distribution bars in a slab?

The reinforcement bars that are placed above the main bar in a one-way slab, to distribute the
superimposed load to the main bar are called distribution bars.

As you can observe in the above drawing, distribution bars are provided in the longer span of
the one-way slab & main bars are placed along the shorter span of the slab.

The distribution bar helps to firmly hold the main bars in their assigned position. They also act
against shrinkage stresses due to temperature variations.
3. Is distribution bars provided in a two-way slab?

The term distribution bar is sometimes used for the top reinforcement of all types of slabs. But
in actuality, it is not correct in the case of a two-way slab as the load is transferred in both
directions. So in the two-way slabs, the reinforcement provided in both the Lx & Ly directions
should be called main bars.

4. What are the different functions of main bars in concrete?

1. To transfer the superimposed loads to the supports.

2. To resist the bending moments.

3. To withstand shear stress in the tension zone.

4. To encounter shrinkage cracks due to temperature variation.

5. What are the different functions of distribution bars in concrete?

1. To distribute the superimposed load to the main bar.

2. To firmly hold the main bars in their given position.

3. To form a mesh with the main bar in concrete for better bonding strength.

4. To resist shrinkage stress due to climatic variation.

5. To resist the development of cracks due to external factors.

6. What are the differences between main bars & distribution bars in a slab?
Sr.No Main Bar Distribution Bar

1. Used in shorter direction. Used in longer direction of one-way slab.

2. Placed in bottom part of Placed over the top of the main bar.
slabreinforcement.

3. Higher diameter bars are used. Lower diameter bars are used.

4. Designed to resist bending moment. Not designed to resist bending moment.

5. Transfers super imposed load to the Distributes super imposed load to the
supports main bar.

6. Resists shear stress at the tension Resists shrinkage stress due to climatic
zone. variation.

Crank (bent-up) bars in slab construction. /Why crank bars are provided in slab work?

Now, let us look into some of the FAQs related to crank bars or bent-up bars in slab construction.

1. Why crank bars are provided in slab construction?

When the dead load of the slab and uniform live load over it acts in the downward direction, the forces
in the end support or continuous support act in the upward direction to counterbalance the slab load.

This action creates two types of bending moments in the structure. They are +ve or sagging bending
moment & -ve or hogging bending moment as shown in the diagram below.
Crank bars are provided to resist these both types of bending moments. For your reference, I have
included the crank bar in the bending moment diagram (see below) to clearly understand this concept.

As you can observe in the above drawing, the bottom reinforcement part of the crank bar resists the +ve
or sagging bending moment, and the upper bent-up part of the crank bar tackles the -ve or hogging
bending moment.

2. What are the uses of crank bars in construction?

The crank bar

1. Helps in resisting bending moments.

2. Helps to withstand shear force i.e. maximum at the support.

3. Reduces the overall weight of reinforcement bars required in the slab.

4. Helps in reducing project costs.

5. Prevents the failure of the slab due to shear force.

3. Why we provide alternative crank bars in slab reinforcement?

It is recommended that a maximum of 50% of the bars can be cranked to resist the bending moments
so that steel is present in every cross-section of a slab. The alternative bent-up bars is sufficient to
withstand the resulting shear force near the support.

From an economic point of view, we provide alternate crank bars so that these bars are kept within a
specified limit.
4. At what distance bent-up bars are cranked in a slab?

I have downloaded the drawing below that helps you to clearly understand the bent-up distance in a
slab.

As you can observe in the above diagram, crank bars are bent up at a 45° angle with the bottom end is at
0.15L1 from the center of the end support. At the continuous support, crank bars bent-up end are at
0.25L1 & 0.25L2 distance on either side from the centerline of the support.

What is Crank Bars? Why its provided in Slabs, Beams?

1. Reinforcement bars are provided below to resist the positive (sagging)
moment created in the reinforced concrete.

2. To withstand negative moment (hogging), and shear stress, top reinforcement

bars (crank bars) are provided near the support as shown in the figure.

3. Crank bars are provided so that steel is available in the bottom and top
reinforcements. Since steel is required only where the positive and negative
moments are generated,

The crank rods are provided so that the same steel bar can be used for both the
positive moment (center of the slab) and the negative moment (end support) .

CRANK RODS ARE PROVIDED FOR THE FOLLOWING CAUSES.

1. Save on cost
2. For the economic use of steel

3. Avoid the risk of brittle failure

4. Resist sagging and hogging with single steel reinforcement

5. To withstand the shear stress created in the end support

SPECIFICATION OF CRANK BARS

1. Alternate bars will be cranked.

2. the slope of 1:10 ratio used in crank bars.

3. Crank bars of at least 300 mm length shall be provided.

4. Crank bars are provided at different angles such as 45 ° or 30 as depending on

the beam depth.

Why Crank Bars or Bent-up Bars are Provided in Slabs?

What is bent-up Bar (Crank Bar)?

When any concrete structural member gets deflected under load, two types of
zones develop in the member due to the load. These are the tensile zone and
compression zone.

The concrete material itself is good enough to take the compressive load in the
compression zone but the same concrete is very weak in nature and insufficient
to bear the tensile load.

Reinforcement bars are provided at tensile zone (tension fiber) and the same
reinforcement bars which are provided in the tensile zones bent up at 45 degrees
to the next tensile zone to take the tensile load generally at the supports in
beam/slab.
 Figure: Showing bent-up Bar (Crank Bar) in slab

Tension and Compression Zones

 The concave side upwards is called a Sagging Bending Moment. This kind of
bending moment is treated as a positive bending moment.
 The bending moment which causes a beam to bend with the concave side
upwards is called a Hogging Bending Moment. This kind of bending
moment is treated as a negative bending moment.

Figure: Bending Moment Diagram

General details of Reinforcement :

 At Support, bent-up bars are provided at L/7 distance

  At Continuous Support, bent-up bars are provided at L/5 distance

Figure: General details of Slab Reinforcement

Figure: Showing slab Reinforcement Details

Why Bent-up Bar (Crank Bar) is Provided in Slab or Beams

 To resist negative bending moment (hogging) at the supports

 To resist shear force which is greater at support.
 To reduce the risk of a brittle failure of the slab-column connection
 To reduce the amount of steel used
 For the economization of steel material
GUIDELINES FOR SLAB DESIGN | REQUIREMENTS FOR SLAB DESIGN |

• Practically, it is a common practice that if 𝐿/𝐵 > 1.5, design it one way slab.

• If 𝐿𝑥> 3 𝑚: it is advisable to provide a two-way slab.

• Common depth of slabs = 5”, 6” (125 mm, 150 mm); max=200 mm (for load = 5
KN/mm2).

L/D ratios:

• One way S.S slab L/D = 20 × m.f= 20 x 1.4 = 28 for pt = 0.3%, m. f = 1.4)

Adopt L D = 25.

One way continuous, above value

(25) shall be multiplied by 26/20 = 1.3 = 25 x 1.3 = 32.5. Adopt L/D = 32.

• Two way S.S slab L/D = 28 (for Lx ≤ 3.5m and L. L ≤ 3 kN m2)

• Two way continuous slab L/D = 32 (for two-way slab, shorter of the two spans
be used to calculate L/D ratio

Common diameter of bars = 8, 10, 12 mm. (dia. </D/8)

Approx. area of main steel in slabs, Ast = Mu/0.8d.fy (Mu = 0.138fckbd 2)

Theoretically, calculated Ast is provided in the middle strip and min. Ast is
provided in edge strip. In practice, bars are uniformly provided spaced
throughout spans in both directions.

• Assume Ast = 0.3 − 0.45% (one way slab)

• Assume Ast = 0.2 − 0.3% (two way slab)

• Assume Ast = 0.5% (one way continuous)

• Maximum area of main steel in slab = 4% of bD (As per ACI).

• All top reinforcement of slabs shall continue up to L/3 of span at both sides of
C/L of wall or Beam.

• Corners free to lift: cast over walls and no parapet above

• Roof slab with corner held down is achieved by 230 mm parapet wall, 600 mm
high and 2 m length on either side of the corner

• Area of distribution steel = 0.12% of b𝐷 (For floor slab)

• Area of distribution steel = 0.24% of b𝐷 (For roof slab)

• Short span bars are provided in the bottom layer.

• If two different dia. bars are used, provide larger dia. bars at the bottom layer.

• Due to openings in slabs, area of steel interrupted be replaced by an equivalent

amount, half of which should be placed along each edge of the opening.

Practical considerations of one-way slab

• Spacing shall be between 150-200 mm (main bars)

• Spacing shall be between 150-300 mm (distribution bars)

• Max. Spacing of bars 3𝑑 or 300 mm, whichever is less.

Needle vibrators for concrete - their size, usage, guidelines & precautions.

Now, let us look into some of the quarries to understand the needle vibrators in a better way.

1. What are the different sizes of needles in an immersion vibrator?

 vibrator needles.

The vibrator needles are available in the size range of 25mm to 90mm.

The most preferred dimensions that fall in this range are 25mm, 35mm, 40mm, 60mm, 75mm, &
90mm.

2. What should be the vibration timing & specification to run the immersion needle?

The ideal timing per immersion at a particular concrete point should be 5 sec to 10 sec. depending upon
the type of structure & w/c ratio. In any case, we should not vibrate the concrete for more than 15 sec
at the same position to prevent segregation & concrete bleeding.

The needle covers the concrete area at a radial distance of 10d to 13d from its vibration point, where d
is the size of the needle in mm. Or, we can say that the intermittent distance between the two vibration
points is between 1ft. to 3ft. depending upon the needle size and type of structural member.

3. What are the ideal needle sizes for different concrete structures?

1. For the slab, Pardi, chajja, etc. 👉 25mm to 40mm.

2. For the columns, beams, single mesh footings, etc. 👉 40mm to 60mm.

3. For the precast girders, panels, double mesh heavy footings, etc. 👉 60mm 90mm.

4. What are the different types of needle vibrators based on power or fuel used?

1. Electric vibrator:
2. Petrol/kerosene vibrator:

3. Diesel vibrator:

4. Pneumatic vibrator:
The type of vibrator is chosen according to the type of constructional structure & the availability of
power or fuel on the site.

5. What are the precautions to be taken on the construction site regarding needle vibrators?

1. The vibration period of the needle at the immersion point, in any case, should not exceed 15 sec. The
timing of the vibration should be maintained between 5 to 10 sec depending upon the type of concrete
structure.

2. We have to select the needles of a specific size, according to the type of RCC structures.

3. Vibratory needles should not touch the formwork to maintain the correct structural dimension and to
prevent the formation of gaps or openings in the formwork.

4. Standby needle and vibrator machine is a must on the construction site to carry the ongoing concrete
work smoothly.

Minimum de-shuttering period of formwork & props as per IS-456/Stripping

time of column, beam, & slab.
In the IS-456 (2000), the de-shuttering period or stripping time for the RCC structure is mentioned in
detail, and let us discuss them with the required drawings for a clear understanding.

The de-shuttering period mentioned below only holds good, if the following three criteria or conditions
are fulfilled.

Conditions:

1. The ambient temperature should not fall below 15°C.

2. The cement used for the concreting should be ordinary portland cement (OPC ).

3. Adequate curing is done.

The minimum De-shuttering period or stripping time:

1. Vertical formwork to columns, walls, & beams. 👉 16 - 24 hours.

 Formwork in a column.

As you can observe in the above drawing, the vertical formwork & props of the columns can be removed
after 16 to 24 hours. To be on the safer side & to maintain the column edges, it is better to de-shutter
after 24 hours of time.

The vertical formwork for the beam, as shown above, can be removed after 16 - 24 hours. But you
cannot remove the soffit formwork and props.

2. Soffit formwork to slabs 👉 3 days.

[ Props should be refixed in the same position immediately after the removal of the formwork.]

As you can observe in the above diagram, the formwork i.e. given at the bottom part (horizontal ) of the
beam or slab is called the soffit formwork.
For the slabs, you can remove the soffit formwork after 3 days, but the condition is, you have to
immediately refix the props i.e. given as vertical support to the formwork, as shown in the below
drawing.

3. Soffit formwork to the beams 👉 7 days.

[ Props should be refixed in the same position immediately after the removal of the formwork.]

For the beams, you can remove the soffit formwork after 7 days, but you have to immediately refix the
props in their vertical position( as shown in the above drawing ), to support the RCC structure.

4. Props left under the slabs can be removed for

a ) A slab of span i.e. less than or equal to 4.5m. 👉 7 days.

b ) A slab having a span over 4.5m. 👉 14 days.

As shown in the above drawing, if the clear span of the slab is less than or equal to 4.5m., the props can
be removed after 7 days. If the slab has a longer span i.e. greater than 4.5m., the props should be
removed after 14 days. Here, always the longer span of the slab is considered to remove the props.
5. Props left under beams & arches can be removed for

a ) A beam or arch of a span i.e. less than or equal to 6.0m. 👉 14 days.

b ) A beam or arch having a span above 6m. 👉 21 days.

The refixed props can be removed according to the span of the RCC beam & arches.

As shown in the above drawing, if the clear span of the beam is less than or equal to 6.0m., the props
can be removed after 14 days. If the beam has a longer span i.e. greater than 6.0m., the props should be
removed after 21 days.

Note: Usually in the individual residential buildings, the props are removed along with the formwork. In
such conditions, always you have to follow the stripping time of props for de-shuttering.

What is hacking in civil construction?- Purpose & technical specification of

hacking.
The word hacking carries a different meaning in the cyber world. When we say hacking in the civil
construction field, it refers to the partial removal of the concrete, stone, or brick wall material, and
synonymously chipping or indenting the concrete surface.

1. What do you mean by hacking the concrete surface?

The process of chiseling or indenting the smooth concrete surface to make it rough, so that we can
achieve the required bond strength with all the types of plasterwork or tile work is called hacking.

Hacking work can be done either manually or mechanically, depending upon the concrete work, type of
structural members, and site conditions.

In manual hacking, a masons hammer or chisel is used as a tool. Here the hacked surface looks erratic
with uneven depth as shown in fig. below.

masons hammer

In mechanical hacking, the surface is cut with the machine, using concrete cutter blades. The hacked
surface looks evenly distributed as shown in the fig. below.
 machine with the cutter blade

2. When we have to carry out the hacking work?

The best time to make hacking is not less than 48 hours and not above 72 hours from the casting time of
the concrete. This time period range gives the required hacking depth, as the hardness of the concrete
increases in the later stage.

3. The technical specification for the concrete hacking :

a. The depth of the hacking should be 2 to 4 mm. from the concrete surface.

b. The number of hacking should be 20 to 30 / sq.ft., depending upon the indented individual length.

c. The ideal hacking length should be in the range of 30 - 50 mm.

Note: If the hacked indent length is 50mm, then the hacking count per sq. ft. decreases and stands near
20/sq.ft, and vice versa.

4. Why concrete hacking is necessary?

When we apply a plaster coat or clad the tiles over the concrete surface, it needs proper bonding
without falling or dis-engaging from the surface. Roughening the surface helps to achieve this cohesive
potential for good bonding.

Although there are lots of solvents available in the market to achieve the chemical bonding between
these materials, still, hacking is the best practice having an added advantage over chemical coatings.

5. The other meaning of the word hacking in civil construction.

In some regions, the word hacking is also used when the old or damaged RCC structures were
demolished.

Sometimes when the surface of the old concrete is chipped or cut to achieve the bonding between the
old and the green concrete, then the word hacking comes into the picture. (SAID AS CONCRETE
HACKING).

7. Cube test:

After the 7 day period, you have to test the concrete cube to know the strength of the column. If the
cube fails in the test results, that particular column should be demolished. If the cube passes, you have
to test the 2nd set of column cubes for the 28 day period to confirm the final strength of the column.

How to clean the concrete mixer.

Cleaning the concrete mixer

After completing the concrete work, some leftover concrete material forms a hard inner layer,
increasing gradually in volume, if not cleaned properly. Now let us see the two different ways of cleaning
the concrete mixer to keep it clean and workable.

Cleaning the wet concrete.

1. After the completion of days work, first, you add two to three buckets of clean water and rotate the
mixer for about one to two minutes. Then drain the water fully by rotating the handle.
2. Now, add coarse aggregate, say about 30 to 40 liter (use ghamela), and rotate the mixer as said
above. The aggregate scrapes down all the adhered concrete material by rubbing action. Continue the
procedure until all the sticky material leaves the inner metal surface of the mixer. Empty the mixer by
rotating the handle.

3. Now, again flush the mixer with the water, rotate, and drain them fully as done before. It will be
better if you spray the water using the pipe(if available) forcefully. Spray the water on the outer body of
the mixer also.

Cleaning the dry concrete.

1. Add a bucket of water to the mixer and start the rotation. While rotating, gently tap the mixer from
outside using small hammers, taking care to see that no dents were placed over the mixer. Using a
rubber mallet will be the better option to avoid such dents. Most of the larger concrete layers will fall off
the inner surface by this action. Rotate the handle and drain out the mixer.

2. Now use a chisel or mini concrete breaker (if possible) to remove the smaller chunks from inside in a
gradual phase, taking care to see that tools will not damage the concrete mixer. After chiseling the
maximum part of the hard concrete, empty the mixer as said above.

3. Now make a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid(HCl) by adding 2part of the water to the one part of
the acid. It is advisable to wear protective goggles and rubber hand gloves before carrying out this part
of the procedure. Start the mixer rotation, and add the solution gradually till it spreads to all the inner
parts of the mixer. This procedure will be kept running until all the cement materials leave the mixer and
the metal part of the mixer is visible. Drain the mixer as you did earlier.

4. Wash the mixer with the freshwater and drain out completely.

Always take care to clean the mixer when the concrete is wet only. Repetitively cleaning the mixer to
remove hard and dry concrete will damage your mixer gradually in the long run.