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Experiment – 1 :-
Aim :-
To determine resistance per unit length of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus
current.
Apparatus And Material Required :-
A wire of unknown resistance (  10 ) , battery eliminator or an accumulator (0 to 3V) or two dry cells (1.5
V each), voltmeter (0-5 V), milliammeter (0 – 500 mA), rheostat, plug key, connecting wires and a piece of
sand paper.

Principle :-
Ohm's law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across its ends, provided the physical state of the conductor remains unchanged.
If I be the current flowing through the conductor and V the potential difference across its ends, then
according to Ohm's law V  I
And hence V = RI
where R is the constant of proportionality and is termed as the electrical resistance of the conductor. If V is
expressed in volts and I in amperes, then R is expressed in ohms. The resistance R, depends upon the
material and dimensions of the conductor. For a wire of uniform cross-section, the resistance depends on the
length l and the area of cross-section A. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor. At a given
temperature the resistance
R =
A
where  is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic of the material of wire.
Combining Eqs. (E 1.1) and (E 1.2) we have
V= I
A

A linear relationship is obtained between V and I, i.e. the graph between V and I will be a straight line
passing through the origin as shown in Fig. E 1.1. The slope of the graph is 1/R from Eq. (E 1.1) (Equation
of straight line passing through origin is y = mx where m is the slope of graph).
1
Slope =
R
1
R=
slope
R
If l is the length of wire then the resistance per unit length of the wire = .

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Observations :-
1. Range of ammeter = 0 ... mA to ...mA
2. Least count of ammeter = ... mA
3. Range of voltmeter = 0 ... V to ...V
4. Least count of voltmeter = ...V
5. Least count of metre scale = ... m
6. Length of the given wire, l = ...m

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Procedure :-
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper in order to remove any insulating
coating on them.
2. Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and ammeter as shown in
Figure.
3. Note whether pointers in milliammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on the measuring
scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the screw provided
near the base of the needle using a screw driver.
4. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and milliammeter.
5. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that current passing through
the resistance wire is minimum.
6. Note the milliammeter and voltmeter readings.
7. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool, if heated. Again insert the key. Shift the rheostat contact
slightly to increase the applied voltage. Note the milliammeter and voltmeter reading.
8. Repeat step 7 for four different settings of the rheostat. Record your observations in a tabular form.

Result :-

1. The potential difference across the given wire varies linearly with the current.
2. The resistance per unit length of the wire is = (...........m −1 ) .

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Experiment – 2 :
Aim :-
To determine the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge.

Apparatus And Material Required :-

Metre bridge, a wire about 1m long (of material whose specific resistance is to be determined), a resistance
box, a rheostat, galvanometer, a jockey, one-way key, a cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires,
sand paper, screw gauge.

Description of Apparatus :-
Metre bridge
It consists of one metre long constantan wire AC of uniform cross-sectional area mounted on a wooden
board with a scale (Fig. E 2.1). The two ends of the wire are attached to terminals A and C. Thick metal
strips bent at right angles are used to provide two gaps E and F to connect resistors forming a Wheatstone’s

bridge (Fig. E 2.2). The terminal B between the gaps is used for connecting galvanometer and other end of
the galvanometer is connected to a jockey J.

Principle :-
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge. As shown in Fig. E 2.2, it consists of four
resistors P, Q, R and S connected in the form of a network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to
two terminals of a cell through a key K1. Terminals B and D are connected to a sensitive galvanometer G
through a key K2.
If there is no deflection in the galvanometer G, then balance condition for Wheatstone’s bridge is
P R
=
Q S
We use this relation (E 2.1) to determine S if P, Q and R are known.

The unknown resistance S is connected in the gap E and a resistance box (RBox) in gap F of the metre bridge.
The terminal B is connected to one terminal of the galvanometer G. The other terminal of the galvanometer
is connected to a jockey J which slides along the wire AC. A source of dc current is connected between A
and C through a key K1 so as to provide a constant potential drop along AC (Fig. E 2.1).
A resistor (or wire) of known resistance is inserted in the gap F by taking out corresponding key from the
resistance box RBox. The jockey is moved on the wire AC to obtain a condition of no-deflection in the
galvanometer. It happens when the jockey is kept at a point D called the null point. In this condition;
P R Resis tan ce of wire of length DC
= =
Q S Resis tan ce of wire of length AD
Unknown resistance S of the wire, having uniform cross-sectional area, is then given by
S= R
100 −
Because, for a wire of uniform cross-sectional area, resistance is proportional to length.
Thus, knowing l and R, and using Eq. (E 2.3), the unknown resistance S can be determined.

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Observations :-
1. Length of the wire of unknown resistance, L = ...cm
2. Measurement of diameter of wire of unknown resistance
Least count of the screw gauge (L.C.) = ... mm
Zero error of the screw gauge = ...mm
Zero correction of the screw gauge = ...mm

Mean diameter (corrected for zero error) = ... mm

Radius of wire r = ... mm

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Procedure :-
1. Find the average diameter of the wire with a screw gauge. From this, obtain the value of its radius r.
2. Clean the insulation at the ends of connecting wires with a piece of sand paper. Tighten all plugs of the
resistance box (RBOX) by pressing each plug.
3. Set up the circuit as shown in Fig. E 2.1 with unknown resistance wire of known length in gap E.
4. Next, introduce some resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box. Bring the jockey J in contact
with terminal A first and then with terminal C. Note the direction in which pointer of the galvanometer
gets deflected in each case. Make sure that jockey remains in contact with the wire for a fraction of a
second. If the galvanometer shows deflection on both sides of its zero mark for these two points of
contact of the jockey, null point will be somewhere on the wire AC. If it is not so, adjust resistance R so
that the null point is somewhere in the middle of the wire AC, say, between 30 cm and 70 cm.
5. If there is one-sided deflection, check the circuit again, especially junctions, for their continuity.
6. Repeat step 4 for four different values of resistance R.
7. Interchange the position of the resistances S and R and repeat steps 4 to 6 for the same five values of R.
While interchanging S and R, ensure that the same length of wire of resistance S is now in the gap F. The
interchange takes care of unaccounted resistance offered by terminals.

Result :-
1. The unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be S = .........

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Experiment – 3:
Aim :-
To compare the emf of two given primary cells (Daniel and Leclanche cells) using a potentiometer.

Apparatus And Material Required :-

Potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a Daniel cell, a two-way key, a resistance box plug type ( 0 to 1000  ) , a
galvanometer (Weston type), a voltmeter (0-3 V), a battery eliminator/lead accumulator, a low resistance
rheostat (about 20  ), two one-way keys, connecting wires and sand paper.

Description of Apparatus :-
Potentiometer
A potentiometer consists of a uniform wire AB of low temperature coefficient of resistance stretched over a
uniform wooden scale Fig. E 4.1(a). A B is often 100 cm, but for better accuracy it is also made of wire of
length 400 cm or 1000 cm. Potentiometer wire is usually fixed on a wooden board with a 100 cm scale
fixed alongside. To keep the arrangement, compact, the wire is sometimes folded as shown in Figure.

Principle :-
With the help of a voltmeter, we can measure only the potential difference between the two terminals of a
cell, but using a potentiometer we can determine the value of emf of a given cell. The two primary cells
whose emfs are to be compared, are so connected in the circuit that their positive terminals are joined
together to the end A of the potentiometer wire AB and their negative terminals are joined to a galvanometer
through a two-way key a, b, c. The other terminal of the galvanometer is connected to a jockey J. A
resistance box, RBOX, shunted with a key across its terminals, is also connected in the circuit between the
two-way key and the galvanometer G as shown in Fig. E 4.2.
The two primary cells with emfs E1 and E2 are connected in turn to the sliding contact J through the
galvanometer G with the help of the two-way key a, b, c.

A steady potential difference could be maintained by using the battery E and rheostat Rh in series across the
ends of the wire AB; the end A being at higher potential than the end B. Note that the emf E > emf E1 and
also emf E > emf E2.
Close the gap ‘a c’ in the two way key to bring the cell E1 in the circuit. Slide the jockey on the
potentiometer wire to obtain null deflection in the galvanometer. Let it be at J. Note down the length AJ as
l1 cm. Similarly, bring E2 into circuit by closing the gap ‘b c’ and obtain the null point J1 by sliding the
jockey along the wire. Note the length AJ1 as l2 cm.
Now, according to the principle of potentiometer, when a steady current flows through a wire of uniform
thickness and material, potential difference between any two points on it is directly proportional to the
length of the wire between the points. Thus,
V
V=
Where  is potential gradient.
The length of potentiometer wire is increased to decrease  . A lower value of  makes the potentiometer
more sensitive and accurate. In case of two cells we have
E1 =  1
E2 =  2
where E1 and E2 are emfs of two cells, l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths when E1 and E2 are connected to
the circuit respectively and f is the potential gradient along the potentiometer wire.
E1 / E2 =  1 /  2 = 1 / 2

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Observations :-
1. No. of wires on the potentiometer board = ...
2. Range of the voltmeter = 0...V to ... V
3. Least count of the voltmeter = ...V
4. Potential drop across E = ...V
5. Potential drop across E1 = ...V
6. Potential drop across E2 = ...V

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Procedure :-
1. Make the circuit connections according to Fig. E 4.2. Connect positive terminals of the battery E and the
two cells E1 and E2 to zero at end A of the potentiometer wire.
2. Connect negative terminal of E to the end B of the potentiometer wire through a one way key K1 and a
rheostat.
3. Connect negative terminals of the cell E1 and E2 to the terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ of the two way key.
4. Shunt a resistance box RBOX through a key K2. Connect common terminal of the two way key to one end
of RBOX.
5. Connect other end of the resistance box to a galvanometer whose other end is joined to a jockey. Jockey
can be slided on the potentiometer wire to obtain null deflection in the galvanometer.
6. Bring the cell E1 in the circuit by inserting the plug between the gaps ‘a’ and ‘c’ of the two way key.
7. Leave the key K2 open. Make rheostat resistance minimum. Take out high resistance (of the order of
thousand ohm) from the resistance box. Make contact of the jockey at the zero end of the potentiometer
wire. Note the direction of deflection in the galvanometer.
8. Next, move the jockey to bring it in contact with the other end of the wire. Note whether the direction of
deflection of the galvanometer needle is opposite to that observed in step 7.
9. If the deflection of galvanometer needle is in opposite direction in the above two situations, connections
are correct. If not, look out for the reason. Connections might be loose or emf of the battery E might be
less than that of the cells E1 and E2. Make necessary changes as required.
10. Slide the jockey gently over the potentiometer wire till you get null deflection in the galvanometer. Plug
in the key K2 to get the accurate position of the null (or balance) point. The resistance in the resistance
box limits the current flowing through the galvanometer. Near the balance point, the current flowing
through the galvanometer is small, insertion of the key K2 short circuits the resistances and hence
increases the current. This improves the sensitivity of balance point detection.
Note the length of the wire AJ, and record it as l1. Repeat detection of balance point while moving the
jockey in opposite direction and record the second value of l1.
11. Next bring E2 in the circuit by inserting plug between the gaps ‘b’ and ‘c’ of the two way key. Obtain the
balance point J1 in the same way as you did in finding l1 and note the length AJ1 as l2.
12. Repeat steps 6 to 11 three times by shifting the contact point of the rheostat and calculate l1/l2 for each set
of readings, for E1 and E2.
13. Record your observations in tabular form.

Result :-
The ratio of emfs E1/E2 = __________

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Experiment 4
Aim:
To determine mass of two different objects using a beam balance.

Apparatus and material required:

Physical balance, weight box with a set of milligram masses and
forceps, spirit level and two objects whose masses are to be determined.

Principle:
The working of a physical balance is based on the principle of moments. In a balance, the two arms are of equal
length and the two
pans are also of equal masses. When the pans are empty, the beam remains horizontal on raising the beam base by
using the lower knob. When an object to be weighed is placed in the left pan, the beam turns in the anticlockwise
direction. Equilibrium can be obtained by placing suitable known standard weights on the right-hand pan. Since, the
force arms are equal, the weight (i.e., forces) on the two pans have to be equal. A physical balance compares forces.
The forces are the weights (mass α acceleration due to gravity) of the objects placed in the two pans of the physical
balance. Since the weights are directly proportional to the masses if weighed at the same place, therefore, a physical
balance is used for the comparison of gravitational masses. Thus, if an object
O having gravitational mass m is placed in one pan of the physical balance and a standard mass O_ of known
gravitational mass ms is put in the other pan to keep the beam the horizontal, then
Weight of body O in one pan = Weight of body O’ in other pan
Or, mg = msg
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, which is constant. Thus,
m = ms
That is,
the mass of object O in one pan = standard mass in the other pan

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Observations:

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Procedure:
1. Examine the physical balance and recognize all of its parts. Check that every part is at its proper place.
2. Check that set of the weight, both in gram and milligram, in the weight box are complete.
3. Ensure that the pans are clean and dry.
4. Check the functioning of arresting mechanism of the beam B by means of the knob K.
5. Level the wooden baseboard W of the physical balance horizontally with the help of the levelling screws W1 and
W2. In
levelled position, the lower tip of the plumb line R should be exactly above the fixed needle point N. Use a spirit
level for this
purpose.
6. Close the shutters of the glass case provided for covering the balance and slowly raise the beam B using the knob
K.
7. Observe the oscillatory motion of the pointer P with reference to the small-scale G fixed at the foot of the vertical
pillar V. In case, the pointer does not start swinging, give a small gentle jerk to one of the pans. Fix your eye
perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax. Caution: Do not touch the pointer.
8. See the position of the pointer P. Check that it either stops at the central zero mark or moves equally on both
sides of the central zero mark on scale G. If not, adjust the two balancing screws B1 and B2 placed at the two ends
of the beam B so that the pointer swings equally on either side of the central zero mark or stops at the central zero
mark. Caution: Arrest the balance before adjusting the balancing screws.
9. Open the shutter of the glass case of the balance. Put the object whose mass (M) is to be measured in the left hand
pan and add a suitable standard mass say M1, (which may be more than the rough estimate of the mass of the
object) in the right-hand pan of the balance in its rest (or arrested) position, i.e., when the beam B is lowered and
allowed to rest on stoppers Xl and X2. Always use forceps for taking out the standard mass from the weight box and
for putting them back. The choice of putting object on left hand pan and standard masses on right hand pan is
arbitrary and chosen due to the ease in handling the standard masses. A left-handed person may prefer to keep the
object on right hand pan and standard masses on left hand pan. It is also advised to keep the weight box near the end
of board W on the side of the pan being used for putting the standard masses.
10. Using the knob K, gently raise the beam (now the beam’s knife edge E will rest on plate T fixed on the top of
the pillar V) and observe the motion of the pointer P. It might rest on one side of the scale or might oscillate more in
one direction with reference to the central zero mark on the scale G.
Note: Pans should not swing while taking the observations. The swinging of pans may be stopped by carefully
touching the pan with the finger in the arresting position of the balance.
11. Check whether M1 is more than M or less. For this purpose, the beam needs to be raised to the full extent.
12. Arrest the physical balance. Using forceps, replace the standard masses kept in the right pan by another mass
(say M2). It should be lighter if M1 is more than the mass M and vice versa.
13. Raise the beam and observe the motion of the pointer P and check whether the standard mass kept on right hand
pan is still heavier (or lighter) than the mass M so that the pointer oscillates more in one direction. If so, repeat step
12 using standard masses in gram till the pointer swings nearly equal on both sides of the central zero mark on scale
G. Make the standard masses kept on right hand pan to be slightly lesser than the mass of object. This would result
in the measurement of mass M of object with a precision of 1 g. Lower the beam B.
14. For fine measurement of mass add extra milligram masses in the right-hand pan in descending order until the
pointer swings nearly equal number of divisions on either side of the central zero mark on scale G (use forceps to
pick the milligram or fractional masses by their turned-up edge). In the equilibrium position (i.e., when the masses
kept on both the pans are equal), the pointer will rest at the center zero mark. Close the door of the glass cover to
prevent disturbances due to air draughts.
Note: The beam B of the balance should not be raised to the full extent until milligram masses are being added or
removed. Pointer’s position can be seen by lifting the beam very gently and for a short moment.
15. Arrest the balance and take out masses from the right-hand pan one by one and note total mass in notebook.
Replace them in their proper slot in the weight box. Also remove the object from the left-hand pan.
16. Repeat the step 9 to step 15 two more times for the same object.
17. Repeat steps 9 to 15 and determine the mass of the second given object.

Result
The mass of the first given object is ... g and that of the second object is ... g.

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