SUBJECT CODE: MT 111

DESCRIPTIVE TITLE: PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY PRACTICE 1

MODULE 1
TOPIC: HISTORY OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY PROFESSION

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the history of medical technology in the global context
2. Identify the important personalities that played significant roles in the progress of the
medical technology profession; and
3. Cite inventions and innovations in the medical technology field.

HISTORICAL NOTES

HISTORY IN GLOBAL CONTEXT

In the early years, diagnosis of disease was believed to be caused by negative interaction between the
environment and the human body. In 300 BC to 180 AD, Hippocrates and Galen have their
observations in the context of history. Hippocrates, “Father of Medicine”, author of Hippocratic
Oath, and Galen, a Greek physician and philosopher, both introduced the qualitative assessment of
disorder through the measurement of body fluids, as Hippocrates named as the four (4) humors of the
body. The four humors includes blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile.

1096 – 1438
✔ First specimen – urine
✔ Urinalysis – first/ oldest laboratory procedure

Hippocrates advocated the testing of urine. He concluded that the appearance of bubbles,
blood and pus in urine indicated kidney disease and chronic illnesses. Galen, described
diabetes as “diarrhea of urine” and established relationship between fluid intake and urine
volume output.
In 900 AD, first book was written detailing the characteristics of urine such as color,
density, quality by uroscopy, the simple examination of urine.

14th Century
✔ Anna Fagelson believed that medical technology started when a prominent Italian
doctor at the University of Bologna employed Alessandra Giliani to perform different
tasks in the laboratory but unfortunately died due to laboratory acquired infection.

1500 B.C.
✔ Ebers Papyrus, the oldest preserved Egyptian compilation of medical texts is a 110-
page long scroll which measures 20 meters long, contains chapters on contraception,
pregnancy, eye and skin problems, surgery, burns and intestinal diseases and
parasites. Papyrus believed the medical technology began when a book for the
treatment of disease published also contained the description of the three stages of
hookworm infection and the disease it could produce to human.
✔ Vivian Herrick, Mt, traces the beginning when intestinal parasites such as taenia and
ascaris were first identified.

1632 - Anton Van Leeuwenhoek improved the compound microscope.

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 - First to described red blood cells to see protozoa, and to classify bacteria
according to shape. His invention led to the rapid progress of microbiology and
pathology
- Father of Microbiology (because of his scientific discoveries)

1628-1694 – Marcello Malphigi – greatest of the early microscopist

-Founder of Pathology, with his contributions to embryology and
anatomy

- Jean Baptiste van Helmont introduced the gravimetric analysis of urine by

weighing a number of 24-hour urine specimens but unfortunately no significant
conclusions were derived from his experiments

17th Century
- Frederick Dekkers observed that proteins in the urine precipitated when boiled
with acetic acid and this finding remains a useful diagnostic indicator of
proteinuria.
- Experiments on blood transfusion were also in progress, Richard Lower, a
Cornish physician, investigated and showed that it is possible to transfuse blood
from one animal to another.

18th Century
- William Hewson, an English physiologist, discovered that when the blood
specimen was clotted, a plasma could be separated from the blood cells. He also
described that coagulable lymph could be precipitated from the plasma upon the
application of temperature slightly lower than 50⁰C. this coagulable lymph is now
known to be the fibrinogen.

1847 – Rudoph Virchow – pathology was practiced in his time

- Was one of the youngest of medical specialist, Founder of the Archives of
Pathology in Berlin

1848 - Herman Fehling performed the first quantitative test for urine sugar.
- Discovery of different dyes such as the aniline dyes used in staining
microorganisms was in the middle of the 15th century. These dyes led to the
development and advancement of microbiology because bacterial study were
made possible.

MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY BREAKTHROUGH

19th century – spirometer, sphygmomanometer
1816 – stethoscope, Rene Laennec
1840 – microscope, Anton van Leeuwenhoek
1850 – ophthalmoscope, Hermann von Helmholz
1855 – laryngoscope, Manuel Garcia
1859 – x-ray, William Roentgen
1903 – ECG, William Einthoven
1910 – Kenny Method, use by the PT for Infantile paralysis (Polio)
1927 – drinker respirator, Philip Drinker
1939 – heart lung machine, Hermann Helmholz
1941 – Cardiac catheterization & angiography
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HISTORY OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE U.S.

1854 - John Snow studied a cholera outbreak in London and brought the situation under
control by tracing that the cholera was due to contaminated water in the Broad street
pump and so, access to this water source had to be restricted.

1861 - Louis Pasteur discovered the concepts of aerobic bacteria

1857, he successfully produced immunity to rabies

1867 - Pasteur’s discovery that wine spoiling due to microbes could be prevented by partial
heat sterilization (pasteurization) at a temperature of 55⁰C - 60⁰C. He also
developed a vaccine against anthrax in 1881.

1877 - Robert Koch, a contemporary of Pasteur, formulated the so-called “Koch’s

postulates which stipulated that the specificity of a pathogen can only be established
if:
(1) it is present in all cases,
(2) inoculations of its pure culture produce disease in animals
(3) from these cultures, it can again be obtained, and (4) then it can again be
propagated in pure cultures. Koch received a nobel prize in 1905.

1878 - Dr. William H. Welch established another laboratory at the Bellevue Hospital
Medical College. He gave the laboratory course in pathology ever offered in an
American Medical School

1885 - Dr. William Welch became the first professor of Pathology at John Hopkins
University

1896 - first clinical laboratory was opened at John Hopkins Hospital by Dr. William Osler.
- routine examination were carried out, special attention being given to the
search for malarial parasites in the blood
- William Pepper Laboratory was also opened at the University of Pennsylvania

1908 - Dr. James C. Todd wrote “Clinical Diagnosis: A Manual of Laboratory Methods”,
which described the techniques and procedures of the laboratory tests available then.
The was edited by John Bernard Henry and named the book “Clinical Diagnosis and
Management by Laboratory Methods” and this book became the fundamental source
in the practice of laboratory medicine

1900 census - 100 technicians, all male were employed in the U.S. This increased to 3,500
in 1920. In 1922, 3035 hospitals had clinical laboratories.

1915 - the state legislature of Penssylvania enacted a law requiring all hospitals and
institutions to have an adequate laboratory and to employ a full-time
laboratory technician.

World War I
- produced a great demand for technicians, practicing physicians with the knowledge
of the laboratory work began to teach their assistants to do some of the tests for
them.

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1921 - the Denver Society of Clinical Pathologists was organized and more societies
were developed

1922 - University of Minnesota, the first school for training workers and the course
bulletin was entitled “Courses in Medical Technology for Clinical and Laboratory
Technicians”.

1923 - University of Minnesota was the first to offer a degree level program
1936 - American Board of Pathology was established

World War II - marked effect on laboratory medicine. The use of blood increased and
the “closed system” of blood collection was widely adopted.
Instrumentation was advanced, the measurement of the intensity of
color production, dozens of new chemical tests became possible.
Automated equipment appeared and quality programs became common
place.

HISTORY OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

December 7, 1941
- Pearl Harbor was invaded by Japan.
- World War II occurred from 1939 to 1945. The effects of the war between two
rivals were very grave. Sickness and death due to illness were rampant.

1944
- US bases were built in Leyte, brought members of the health care team to the
Philippines to resolve the health problems of soldiers and Filipinos.

January 9, 1945
- 850 US ships of the 6th US Army began a round-about to Lingayen Gulf
attempting to mislead the Japanese. Manila was taken and Corregidor was
liberated.
- “26th Medical Laboratory of the 6th US Army with real medical facilities was
located at Quiricada, Sta, Cruz, Manila (now the Public Health Laboratory), a
division of Manila Health Department.

June 1945
- 6th US Army left the laboratory and was endorsed to the National Department of
Health but the department did not seem interested in pursuing the objectives of the
laboratory.

September 1945
- World War ended and a month after, the laboratory was formerly re-organized by
Dr. Pio de Roda and assisted by Dr. Mariano Icasiano who was then the Manila
City Health Officer. The laboratory was later named Manila Public Health
Laboratory.

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1947
- A training program for individuals aspiring to become laboratory workers was
offered by Dr. Pio de Roda, in collaboration with Dr. Prudencia Sta. Ana.
Trainings were mostly high school graduates and paramedical graduates. But
training were ineffective because trainees were never motivated and there was no
program that was supposed to last for a definite period and no certificates were
issued to trainees.
- Realizing this, Dr. Pio de Roda instructed Dr. Sta. Ana to prepare a formal
syllabus of the training program.

1954
- Training began using the syllabus and it was to last for 6 months. Dr. Briones
joined the two later.
- The training program offered by Dr. Pio de Roda did not last long for during the
same year, the formal education for Medical Technology in the Philippines began.
- 1954 – Philippine Union College in Baesa, Caloocan City (now Adventist
University of the Philippines)
- Dr. Jesse Umali – first graduate of the medical technology program , then
graduated Doctor of Medicine at FEU
- 1961 – Medical Technology was recognized as an official program in UST.

INVENTIONS AND INNOVATIONS IN THE FIELD OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

1660 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Father of Microbiology, innovations of the microscope

1796 – Edward Jenner, discovered vaccination to established immunity to small pox
(immunology)
1880 - Marie Francois Xavier Bichat, identified organs by their tissue types (Histology)
1835 – Agostino Bassi, produced disease in worms by organic material injection (start of
bacteriology)
1857 - Louis Pasteur, successfully produced immunity to rabies
1866 - Gregor Mendel, law of inherited characteristics from studies of plants
1870 –Joseph Lister, surgical infections are caused by airborne organisms
1877 –Robert Koch, Bacillus Anthrax, tubercle bacilli
1886 –Elie Metchnikoff, described phagocytes in blood
1886 –Ernst von Bergmann, stam sterilization in surgery
1902 –Karl Landsteiner, ABO Blood group system
1906 –August von Wassermann, developed immunologic test for syphilis
1906 –Howard Ricketts, discovered rickettsiae
1929 –Hans Fischer, structure of hemoglobin
1954 –Jonas Salk, developed poliomyelitis vaccine
1973 –James Westgard, westgard rules for quality control
1980 - Baruch Samuel Blumberg, Hepatitis B vaccine
1985 –Kary Mullis, developed PCR
1992 –Andrei van Steirteghem, Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (IVF)
1998 –James Thomson, derived the first human Stem Cell line

SUBJECT CODE: MT 111

Page 5 of 16
DESCRIPTIVE TITLE: PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY PRACTICE 1

MODULE 2
TOPIC : DEFINING THE PRACTICE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY / CLINICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE PROFESSION

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Discuss the practice of medical technology focusing on the nature of the profession in
relation to the detection and diagnosis of diseases
Differentiate medical technologists from other laboratory personnel such as laboratory
technicians, pathologists and the like
NATURE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

Through the years the medical technology profession continues to develop. This profession
has greatly evolved because of its development to modern equipment, new procedures &
techniques which aims to help in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

The importance of understanding the nature of medical technology is its connection in the
science and technology. Studies in the science progress constantly to adapt to the changing
needs in the universe particularly the human beings.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Science primarily deals with the study of the natural world and interrelationship in the
biological, psychological and even for the social world. Many principles of medical
technology are mostly dependent on developments in the scientific disciplines and areas in
chemistry, electronics, optics and mechanics in order to develop a utilizable biotechnology
that will help in the diagnosis of diseases.

On the other hand, technology is the application of science in ways that are considered
beneficial to society. It can be define in three (3) ways by Howell in 1996:
As physical artefact (machine or equipment)
As an activity, a means to accomplish one goal
As a knowledge, information resources, it derives from human thoughts, intelligence

Technology as defined by Rogers, in 1983, as a design for instrumental action that reduces
the uncertainty in the cause-effect relationships involve in achieving a desired outcome. It
consists of physical elements such as equipment, material, products and intangible elements
like knowledge, skills, procedures, principles or information-based. Overall, technology is an
avenue for humans to alter or modify environment in order to extend their abilities to create,
invent, innovate, discover and make a better world.

MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Designed to improve the detection, diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of diseases.(Evans,
et.al., 2003)
Its nature is contextual, interdisciplinary, interdependent and systems-based.
Dependent on its application, purpose, environment and setting where it is applied.
Definition:

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Medical Technology aka Clinical Laboratory Science/ laboratory Medicine refers to the
application of diagnostic, preventive and therapeutic medicine to monitor and improve the
management of health conditions.

Anna Fagelson. 1961, defined it as a branch of medicine concerned with the performance of
laboratory determinations and analyses used in the diagnosis and treatment of disease and the
maintenance of health.

Ruth Heinemann, 1963, it is the application of the principles of natural, physical and
biological sciences in laboratory procedures to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of disease.

Norma J. Walters, 1996, defined it as a health profession concerned with performing

laboratory analyses in view of obtaining information necessary in the diagnosis and treatment
of diseases as well as the maintenance of good health.

Republic Act No. 5527 (The Philippine Medical Technology Act of 1969), it is an auxiliary
branch of medicine which deals with the examination of tissues, secretion and excretion of
human body and body fluids using various electronic, chemical, microscopic, bacteriologic
and other medical laboratory procedures or techniques either manual or automated which will
aid the physician in the diagnosis, study and treatment of disease and in the promotion of
health in general.

CLINICAL LABORATORY

Its testing plays a crucial role in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases.
Involves the examination and analysis of body fluids, tissues and cells
Identifies presence of bacteria, parasites
Analysis of chemical contents of fluids, cross-matching for blood transfusions, and the like
Prepares specimens for examinations, to cell counts, look for abnormal cells
Use of laboratory equipment & facilities

Medical Technology Practice Defined:

In the Philippines, the medical technology and its practice is governed by Republic
Act no. 5527, and its definition stated in Section 2 of the act.
RA no. 5527, also known as “The Philippine Medical Technology Act of 1969” began on
June 21, 1969. Definition of Medical Technology practice in Section 2 was amended by RA
6132, PD 498 and PD 1534.

RA 6132 (August 31, 1970), sections 16, 21, 22;

PD 498 (June 28, 1934), (11) sections 2,3,4,7,8,11,13,16,17,21,29; and
PD 1534 (June 11, 1978), 3, 8, 13.

Republic Act No. 5527, Section 2. Practice of Medical Technology

Purpose:
Aids the physician in the diagnosis
Study and treatment of diseases
Promotion of health
Examination of tissues, secretions and excretions of the human body and body fluids by
various electronic, chemical, microscopic, bacteriologic, hematologic, serologic,

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immunologic, nuclear and other laboratory procedures & techniques either manual or
automated.
Blood banking procedures and techniques
Parasitologic, mycologic & microbiologic procedures & techniques
Histopathologic and cytotechnology; provided that nothing in this paragraph
shall inhibit a duly registered medical laboratory technician from performing
histopathologic techniques and procedures
Clinical research involving patients or human beings requiring the use of and/or application
of medical technology knowledge and procedures
f. Preparations and standardization of reagents, standards, stains and others,
provided such reagents, standards, stains and others are exclusively for the use of their
laboratory
g.Clinical laboratory quality control
h. Collection and preservation of specimens

Code of Ethics of Medical Technologist

As I enter the practice of Medical Technology, I shall,

Accept the responsibilities inherent to being a Professional

Uphold the law and shall not participate in illegal work
Act in a spirit of fairness to all and in a spirit of brotherhood toward other members of the
profession
Accept employment from more than one employer only when there is no conflict of interest
Perform my task with full confidence, absolute reliability and accuracy
Share my knowledge and expertise with my colleagues
Contribute to the advancement of the professional organization and other allied health
organizations
Restrict my praises, criticisms, views and opinions within constructive limits
Treat any information I acquired in the course of my work as strictly confidential
Uphold the dignity and respect of my profession and conduct myself a reputation of
reliability, honesty and integrity
Be dedicated to the use of clinical laboratory science to promote life and benefit mankind
Report any violations of the above principles of the professional conduct to authorized
agency and to the ethics committee of the organization

To these principles, I hereby subscribe and pledge to conduct myself at all times in a manner
befitting the dignity of my profession.

Original Version by Dr. Nardito Moraleta

Revised Version by: (1) Prof. Rodolfo Rabor
(2) PAMET

Roles and Responsibilities of Medical Technology Professionals

The role of medical technologist is to collaborate with other healthcare practitioners and
provide humane and dignified health service. Tasks of medical technology professionals in
the practice of laboratory science are as follows:

Perform clinical laboratory testing

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Capable of performing basic and advanced laboratory tests in all areas of disciplines in the
laboratory
Expected to show competency in performing routine laboratory examination

Perform special procedures

Operation of advanced diagnostic equipment, special test procedures in molecular and
nuclear diagnostics

Ensure accuracy and precision of results

Should always be conscious of accuracy and precision of both testing process and results
interpretation

Be honest in practice
Must be honest at all times in the conduct of test procedures
Should act according to the pledge oath of his/ her practice

Ensure timely delivery of results (ASAP vs. STAT)

Must be aware of the urgency of delivering results on time

Demonstrate professionalism
Perform duties according to the professionals code of ethics
Aware of the laws and regulations governing the medical technology practice, clinical
laboratory laws, its organization (PAMET, PASMETH)

Uphold confidentiality
Ensure confidentiality of patients’ information/ data as its core duty in the medical practice
RA no 10173

Collaborate w/ other health care professionals

Well-functioning team with other health care professionals to achieve desired result/ outcome

Conduct research
Engaged in research activities for updates of skills and other areas that promote health

Involvement in health promotion programs

Cooperate with other health care professionals in health promotion campaigns like in
hygiene, sanitation, waste management and disease prevention
Implement pre-planned programs of health promotion campaigns
Offer free laboratory testing beneficial to the entire community

Clinical Laboratory Practitioners

HEAD PATHOLOGIST
Pathology, from the Greek word “pathos” mean suffer and logia as “study of”, thus study and
diagnosis of diseases. A broad science that seeks to figure out the causes of and solutions to
diseases. This field involves looking at samples of body fluids and secretions and conducting
laboratory tests.

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Pathologist , on the other hand, is a physician who examines tissues, checks the accuracy of
laboratory tests and interprets the results in order to facilitate the patient’s diagnosis and
treatment
He/ she works closely with the patient’s other doctors and is a vital member of the patient’s
primary health care team
One who is authorized and specializes in autopsy examination
Often serve as the Laboratory Director (anatomic or clinical)

Anatomic Pathologist – a licensed physician usually trained for an additional 4 to 5 years

after graduating from medical school, to examine all the surgically removed specimens from
patients which include frozen sections, tissues samples and autopsy specimens.

Clinical Pathologist – a licensed physician with additional training in clinical pathology or

laboratory medicine.

CHIEF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST

A supervisory, administrative and technical analytical work in performing standardized or
highly specialized tests and examinations in a clinical laboratory or highly specialized and
independent technical tasks.

Duties and Responsibilities

1. serves as chief technician for the blood bank, hematology and histology
laboratory
2. supervises and participates in the performance of all standard clinical laboratory
tests and procedures
3. provides clerical supply and administrative support required in laboratory
administration
4. arranges schedules for subordinate technicians, assists in revision of
methodology, supervises the maintenance of laboratory records and reports
5. participates in the selection and training of personnel, orders supplies
6. supervises and participates in obtaining samples and making chemical analyses of
blood to determine the quantitative presence of non-protein nitrogen, creatinine,
blood sugars, total protein, blood calcium, making other special tests as required
such as bile tests, special protein analyses, glucose tolerance, kidney function tests
and related analytical procedures

SECTION HEAD
Medical technologist responsible for building, testing and maintaining all tests in their related
technical section.
Purpose: plan, organize and oversee the activities of technical section
Directs the administrative activities of the sections and assumes responsibility for daily
operations to assure provision of timely, accurate and comprehensive hospital laboratory
service for physicians, patients and other customers.

Accountabilities:
1. perform simple, moderately and/or highly complex analyses with accuracy and
precision, understanding basic and complex principles of methodology
2. provide leadership, including planning and coordinating the daily operations for a
24-hr/7-day per week services related technical section and to ensure timely,
accurate and customer oriented services at all time.

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3. provides supervision to assigned associates and those working in the related
technical section
4. develops and maintains section quality control programs to ensure that test
results are precise, accurate and timely and that laboratory standards and
regulations are met.
team building

SENIOR MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST

Administrative direction, responsible for complex laboratory procedures and has broad
decision-making authority and independence.
Requires extensive knowledge of science and laboratory procedures, specialized medical
diagnostic laboratory tests, blood tests procedures and medical terminology in order to
perform specialized medical laboratory diagnostic tests
Responsible for employee training and development

Principal Duties and Responsibilities

1. acts as lead worker, supervises, directs, plans, develops, implements, evaluates
and oversees the execution of daily operations of the clinical and anatomic
laboratories
2. performs laboratory tests and chemical, microscopic, and bacteriologic
procedures using special lab equipment
3. analyzes blood, urine, tissue and other body fluid specimens.
4. verifies specimen and patient information, determines internal or external testing
of specimen and enters data. Prepares and sends specimen to reference
laboratories.
5. supervises daily activities/ acts as a resource to solve problems, schedule and
assign work. Monitor QA and CLIA requirements, writes policies and procedures.
6. provide input for interviewing / hiring/ evaluating employees. Orient and train
new staff and supervise students
7. facilitate communication on a daily basis, ensure that the staff are aware of all
pertinent departmental information. Serves as liaison between departmental staff
and physicians. Provides leadership, training and complex problem solving, acts as
a resource to other medical personnel
8. performs phlebotomy procedures
9. composes test procedures for laboratory procedure manuals
10. order supplies and monitor expenditures, provide input for budget
11. serves as a resource for nurses and physicians
12. performs other duties as assigned.

JUNIOR MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST

Responsible for delivery of patients’ service in the work area in a personalized, specialized
and cost-effective way in accordance to established hospital policies, procedures and standard
of practices.
Provides laboratory support for all clinical cases in pathology/ digestive departments
Ensure meeting the delivery of testing services
Ensure regulatory compliance of the laboratory
Performs technical assignments and testing
Maintain and set-up equipment, instruments and apparatus for the specific laboratory
procedures described

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MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY TECHNICIAN
Assists the superior medical technologist
Prepares the equipment needed for examinations/ procedures
Works in diverse fields

Other Laboratory Personnel

PHLEBOTOMIST
Generally speaking, is someone trained to collect blood samples either through a skin
puncture, venipuncture or arterial puncture.

CYTOTECHNOLOGIST
Aka “cell processor”, is a laboratory practitioner who examines human specimens to
detect cancer cells or diseases. The most common specimen they examine is the genital smear
for cervical cancer, but other body fluids or tissues may also be examined for abnormal
changes in color, size or shape, thus providing clues to a possible disease.

HISTOTECHNOLOGIST
Aka “tissue processor”, routinely prepare, process and stain biopsies and tissue
specimens for microscopic examination by a pathologist. They may initiate or develop new
procedures, evaluate quality control data or operate an electron microscopy

OTHERS:
BLOOD BANK TECHNOLOGIST
- Specialize in the testing and preparation of blood for transfusion

CYTOTECHNICIAN
- Prepares samples
- Inspecting cell samples

HISTOLOGY TECHNICIAN
- Prepares tissue specimens for routine and special procedures to confirm a patient’s
diagnosis
- Performs complex histological procedures, records and analyses data and maintains
and repairs instruments
- Works under supervision of a histotechnologist

NUCLEAR MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST

The nuclear medicine technologist is a highly specialized health care professional who apply
their knowledge of radiation physics and safety regulations to limit radiation exposure and
prepares and administers radiopharmaceuticals to patients.

TOXICOLOGIST
Toxicologists study the effects of toxic substances, the safety and biological effects of drugs,
chemicals, agents, and other substances on living organisms. They develop methods to
determine harmful effects, the dosages that cause those effects, and safe exposure limits.

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SUBJECT CODE: MT 111
DESCRIPTIVE TITLE: PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY PRACTICE 1

MODULE 3
TOPIC : ETHICS

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Discuss the human existence in relation to ethics
Identify school of ethics
Explain the concept of professional ethics

HUMAN EXISTENCE AND ETHICS

ETHICS
It is defined as principles of conduct governing an individual or a group. A
philosophical and practical science that deals with the study of morality of human acts or
human conduct.
Usually profession includes among its distinguishing characteristics a provision for self-
regulation and a code of ethics. Most of the health-related professionals including medical
technology have such codes.
Ethics is the moral code that guides how an individual should behave, it deals mainly
with moral principles. Other meaning signifies individuals’ search for meaning while dealing
with human problems which may be logical (of reasoning), epistemological (of the truth),
cosmological (universe), ethical (of morality), aesthetical (of art & beauty), or scientific
problems.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

BIOETHICS – a science that deals with the study of the morality of human conduct
concerning human life in all its aspects from the moment of its conception to its natural end.

HEALTH ETHICS – a science that deals with the study of the morality of human conduct as
it concerns with the health care delivery services.

HEALTH CARE – it is a method of preventing, treating and managing illness and preserving
man’s physical well-being, which can be made through the services offered by the medical
and allied health profession.

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS – a branch of moral science that treats of the obligations which a
member of a profession owes the public, to the profession and to his clients.

SCOPE OF ETHICS
1. concerned with ethical problems associated with medical practices and biosciences
2. dealt not only to patient-physician relationship from a moral point of view, but
extends to social issues related to health, animal welfare and environment concerns.

PROBLEM OF ETHICS

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 Advances posted by biotechnology and its power over life and death.

HUMAN – a person, especially as distinguish from other animals or as representing the

human species

EXISTENCE – presence in the world as the real thing

ETHICS – deals with moral principles; moral principles that govern a person's behavior or
the conducting of an activity.
Deals with a diverse prescription of universal concepts and principles that serves as
foundation of moral beliefs.
Morality - principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad
behavior.
a quality of human act where the act could either be good or right, evil or wrong.
a particular system of values and principles of conduct, especially one held by a specified
person or society.
SCHOOLS OF ETHICS
Ethics
Morality
Theoretical/ prescriptions/ critiques
Based on principles practiced by a particular community
the nature of the good
the nature of human person
criteria of judgment
fundamental convictions
character of moral agents
use of norms
situational analysis
illustrated by James Gustafson (1974)
for Donal Harrington – morality can be viewed in different perspectives- as a law, as an inner
conviction, as love, as personal growth and as social transformation.

Ethical Relativism
It is also known as moral relativism, a school of ethics anchored on the principle that morality
is relative to the norms of a particular culture.
Its theory is based on norms relative to a particular culture or society.
Acknowledges societal diversity, that every society has a unique moral design and culture
where people’s beliefs are greatly influenced by culture.
Preservation of cultural uniqueness and acknowledgment of cultural differences

Ethical Pragmatism
Pragmatism is a philosophical approach or movement that began in 1870s and was coined by
Charles Sanders Pierce and further developed by William James.
It is more a theory of knowledge, truth and meaning rather than morality
Conception of good and truth can be applied in the medical context especially in terms of
decision-making and moral reasoning.

Ethical Ulitarianism

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Founded by 2 English Philosophers, Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832), and John Stuart Mill
(1806 – 1873)
This states that the rightness or wrongness of actions is determined by their consequences.
The Principle of Utility formulated by Mill, states that the action are good insofar as they
tend to promote happiness, bad as they tend to produce unhappiness. The utility or usefulness
of an action is determined by the extent to which it promotes happiness rather than its
reverse.

MORAL ISSUES IN THE MEDICAL FIELD

Ethical issues in the medical field are deliberately notable nowadays. There advanced
medical procedures that are debatable because of the controversial nature following ethical
issues, whether such actions is acceptable or not.

Abortion
Article II, Section 12 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution states that, “The state recognizes the
sanctity of life and shall protect and strengthen the family as a basic autonomous social
institution. It shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from
conception”
It can be induced, direct or even caused by natural cases or accidents.
In some instances, it can be necessary if one’s life is at stake especially the mother.
Debate continues due to the opposing perspectives, the anti-abortion and pro-abortion.

Euthanasia (mercy killing)

The practice of ending a life intentionally in such situations the individual is terminally ill to
relieve the patient from suffering.
A merciful release from an incurable sickness of an individual
Voluntary euthanasia – with consent
Non-voluntary euthanasia – permission is unavailable
Involuntary euthanasia – do not have the consent

Genetic Engineering
It is a genetic manipulation, perceived to be against the moral standards set by the
society. The following are some of the many procedures which involved in genetic
engineering:

Genetic Screening
Main purpose of this procedure is to screen, choose and select the genes for proper detection
of any genetic disease and other chromosomal malformations (Ciabal).
It is usually done for diagnosis of disease.

Genetic Interventions
Techniques in genetic control, therapy, surgery
People can now “intervene” in the biological process, and “control” bad or defective genes
(Ciabal, 2003)

Stem Cell Therapy

Use of stem cells to treat or prevent disease
also known as regenerative medicine, promotes the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional
or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives.

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 In-Vitro Fertilization
laboratory fertilization
https://ethics.org.au/the-ethics-of-in-vitro-fertilization-ivf/

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
A branch of moral science that treats of the obligations which a member of a profession owes
to the public to his profession and to his clients
Bioethics – bios (life); ethics (way of acting)
Ethics to a special focus on challenges arising from modern biotechnology.
Covers the morally accepted behavior of individuals
It serves as a guiding principle in the ethical practice of certain profession
Guide individuals in dealing with issues and conflicts to remain functional

OBJECTIVES OF THE PROFESSIONAL CODE OF ETHICS

1. Perform duties with objectivity, due diligence and professional care, in accordance
with professional standards and best practices.
2. Serve in a lawful and honest manner, while maintaining high standards of conduct
and character and not engage in acts discreditable to the profession.
3. Maintain the privacy and confidentiality of information obtained in the course of duty
unless disclosure is required by legal authority. Such information should not be used
for personal benefit or released to inappropriate parties.
4. Maintain competency in respective fields and agree to undertake only those activities
which you can reasonably expect to complete with professional competence.

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