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Chapter XII

DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURIES


CAUSED BY EXPLOSION
Explosion is the sudden release of potential energy producing a
localized increase in pressure.
Investigation of death or physical injuries that is produced by ex-
plosion must be concerned in determining the following:
1. What exploded?
2. What caused it to explode?
3. H o w it produced the injury?
4. H o w was it initiated?

Classification of Explosion as to the Source of Energy:


1. Mechanical (Hydraulic) Explosion — This occurs when the pres-
sure inside a container exceeds its structural strength. Explosions
of air pressure tanks for cleaning or paint spray, water pressure
tanks to establish water pressure, and the air pumped kerosene
burner are examples of mechanical explosions. These explode
when the pressures applied are in excess of the strength of the con-
tainers. As the container disintegrates, there is a rapid localized
increase in pressure resulting in the characteristic explosive sound.

2. Electrical Explosion — When electricity arcs through the air, a


phenomenon that occurs when two objects of different electrical
potential are brought close to one another, a large amount of heat
develops. This heat rapidly expands the air in and around the arc
which produces the popping sound of an arc. Lightning though
it occurs in a much complex form with extremely high temperature,
may be an example of an electrical explosion.
3. Nuclear Explosion — The release of a significant amount of energy
by fusion or fission and consequently with a significant increase of
destructiveness.
Atomic Explosion — Atomic nuclei can be regarded as stored
condensed energy. The uncontrolled release of this energy con-
stitutes atomic explosion.

4. Chemical Explosion — Chemical explosion occurs when a chemical


reaction'produces heat and gas at a rate faster than the surroundings
can dissipate. At the start of the reaction the initial heat or gas

322
DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURIES CAUSED BY EXPLOSION 323

pressure increases the rate of reaction, which progresses at a faster


rate until the explosion results.

Types of Chemical Explosion:


a. Diffused Reactant Explosion — This is caused by the mixture
of gas and air. If the gas and air are mixed in correct pro-
portion, product of heat and subsequent pressure is produced.
Explosion of diffused reactants must be initiated by flame,
spark or sometimes heat. Mixture of gases with other materials
may cause production of flame. The most common example
of dispersed gas explosion is in the internal combustion engine.
b. Condensed Reactant Explosion — This chemical explosion
occurs when large quantity of heat and gas is produced as a
result of rapid chemical reaction in a solid or liquid material. It
has a point of origin so that the most severe damage is closest to
the source and the effects diminish as the distance from the
center increases. There is no need of atmospheric oxygen and
if oxygen is required in the reaction it is incorporated into the
explosive. Condensed reactant explosives may be classified as:

( 1 ) Low Order Explosive (Deflagrating Explosive) — Those


which rely on burning and confinement to produce ex-
plosions. When the reaction is confined, the built-up of heat
and pressure causes the reaction rate to increase rapidly to an
explosion. Gunpowder is the best known low order explosive.
When sufficiently heated the nitrate content is decomposed
to nitrate and oxygen. The oxygen reacts with sulfur and
carbon producing sulfur oxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide in various combinations.
( 2 ) High Order Explosive — This is the kind that detonates.
Detonation is a chemical process which results in the ex-
tremely rapid decomposition of nitrogenous compounds.
Releasing heat and gas is its reaction by-product. It is the
shock wave spreading out of the explosion that causes the
destructive effect of high explosive. Dynamite is an example
of a high order explosive.
(a) Stable High Order Explosive — This compound will
not detonate unless they are subjected to detonation.
This includes dynamite (nitroglycerin made stable by
clay absorption).
( b ) Unstable High Order Explosive — Easily detonates from
heat, flame, spark or percussion. This includes trinitro-
benzene (Picric acid), fulminate of mercury, lead,
antimony or bismuth and nitroglycerine (Clinics in
324 LEGAL MEDICINE

Laboratory Medicine by V. Di Maio, Vol. 3, No. 2,


June 1983, pp. 309-314).
Death or physical injuries due to detonation of high explosives
may be due to the following causes:
The destructive effects varies with the kind and amount of
explosive used and the location of the victim at the time of the
explosion. The explosion is accompanied by blast, flame and
fragment primarily. The nature and extent of the injuries
suffered by the victim may be:
(a) If the victim is in contact with the explosive, as when he is
manipulating, carrying or sitting on it at the time of the
explosion, there is complete disruption or fragmentation of
the body. Pieces of the body may be found several meters
away from the site of explosion. Some parts of the body may
be found hanging on the electric power line, bones completely
shattered, skin and other soft tissues may be found scat-
tered at a certain distance from the site of the explosion.

Burns a n d other injuries b r o u g h t a b o u t b y d y n a m i t e e x p l o s i o n .

The explosion causes sudden increase of atmospheric


pressure which is immediately followed by a sudden fall.
This compression-decompression effect causes displacement,
distortion and bursting effects on body parts, especially in
the brain and abdominal visceral organs. Aside from these
injuries, there is rapid development of scattered foci or small
DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURIES CAUSED BY EXPLOSION 325

hemorrhages mostly in organs which easily change in shape


and which are rich in blood supply.

( b ) If the victim is not so close to the site of explosion, the


body though badly injured may remain in one piece. Some
parts may be dismembered but may be recovered within a
few meters. Certain areas of the body may show severe
injury, but the triad of punctate bruises, abrasions and
lacerations may be found distributed all over the body.
(All of these injuries have still the effect of the blast wave
with a diminishing intensity.)
(c) The peppering kind of injuries may be observed as the
distance from the site of explosion increases. The density
and severity becomes less until it disappears. However, one
or more metallic fragments travelling with moderate
velocity may strike the vital parts of the body and may
cause death.
( d ) Other effects of the blast wave:
i. The impact of the high pressured wave can knock down
the person.
ii. In the respiratory organ, the bronchus may be lacerated
or the mucosa of the trachea may develop petechial
hemorrhages. This effect is not due to the entry of the
high pressured wave along the trachea and bronchi but
by its passing directly on the body wall.
iii. The ear is the organ most vulnerable to the blast. Most
person at the vicinity of the explosion may suffer from
slight reddening of the tympanic membrane which
signifies that the cochlea has been damaged
(e) Burns from the flame or heated gas — The instantaneous or
momentary flame of high intensity during explosion may
cause singeing of the eyebrow, scalp hair and eyelashes.
Clothings may also be burned. Body surface in contact with
the flame or exposed to the heated air may develop burns,
the degree of which depends upon the intensity and duration
of exposure.
(f) Asphyxia due to lack of oxygen — Explosion causes con-
sumption of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere, thereby
limiting the amount available for human consumption.
(g) Poisoning by inhalation of carbon monoxide, nitrous or
nitric gases, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, or hydro-
cyanic gas — The by-products of combustion may be proto-
plasmic poison or may cause death by interfering with the
326 LEGAL MEDICINE

normal transportation and utilization of air by the tissues


of the body.
(h) Direct injury by the flying missiles — The injury due to
flying missiles is influenced by the proximity of the in-
dividual to the site of explosion, velocity of the missiles,
manner or approach of the missiles on the body surface
involved and the subsequent complications arising from
such injuries.
The shrapnel wound may go much deeper or the foreign
body may lodged inside the body. The edges of the missiles
may be irregular or smooth so that the lesion on the skin
may appear like an incised wound. If lacerated, the sur-
rounding tissues may be contused.
The following explosives may cause shrapnel wound:
Grenade — Rifle or hand.
Bomb — Demolition or incendiary.
Mine.s — Underground or submarine.
Exploding missiles — Anti-aircraft
( i ) Injuries from the falling debris — If the explosion took place
in a building the victim may be injured and buried under the
rubbles. The victim may suffer from multiple injuries of
whatever description or die of traumatic or crash asphyxia.

Identification of the Site of Explosion and Collection of Evidences:


The site of explosion may be identified by the presence of a crater.
The original location of other objects located near the blast may be
useful clues in the determination of the site of explosion. Soil and
other debris may be collected for laboratory examination.
The entire area must be systematically searched for traces of the
detonation mechanism. All blown out materials must be tested for
explosive residues.
If the investigator arrived at the site immediately after the explo-
sion, he may be able to smell the odor of the gas. One of the simplest
way of collecting gas samples for analysis is to take a bottle full of
water in the area where odor is the strongest and pour the water out
of the container. The surrounding air will immediately replace the
water removed from the bottle. Then the bottle must be tightly
sealed and sent to the laboratory for examination.
Scrapings from the debris and other materials at or near the site of
the explosion may be subjected to extensive stereoscopic and micro-
scopic examination. Particles of unconsumed explosive may be
recovered.
DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURIES CAUSED BY EXPLOSION 327

Fragments of the explosive materials and debris recovered may be


rinsed with hot water so that water-soluble inorganic substances
(nitrates and chlorates) may be extracted. The materials may be
rinsed with acetone inasmuch as most explosives are highly soluble
to acetone. The extract is concentrated and analyzed.

Color Spot Tests for Common Chemical Explosives:


Substances Griess Diphenylamine Alcoholic KC
Chlorate No color Blue No color
Nitrate Pink to red Blue No color
Nitrocellulose Pink Blue-black No color
Nitroglycerin Pink to red Blue No color
PETN Pink to red Blue No color
RDX Pink to red Blue No color
TNT No color No color Red
Tetryl Pink to red Blue Red-violet

Griess Reagent:
Solution 1 — Dissolve 1 mg. sulfanilic acid in 100 ml. of 30% acetic
acid.
Solution 2 — Dissolve 1 g. alpha-naphthylamine in 230 ml. of boiling
distilled water, cool.
Decant the colorless supernatant liquid and mix with 110 ml. of
glacial acetic acid. A d d solutions 1 and 2 and a few milligrams of
zinc dust to the suspect extract.
Diphenylamine Reagent:
Solution 1 — Dissolve 1 g. diphenylamine in 100 ml. concentrated
sulfuric acid.
Alcoholic KOH Reagent:
Solution 1 — Dissolve 10 g. of potassium hydroxide in 100 ml. of
absolute alcohol.
(Criminalistics by Richard Saferstein, p. 242).
Other Tests on Extract:
1. Infra-red spectrophotometry.
2. X-ray diffraction.
3. Gas chromatographic analysis.

ATOMIC B O M B E X P L O S I O N :
Atomic nuclei can be regarded as storage of highly condensed
energy and that the uncontrolled release of this energy constitute an
atomic explosion. The explosion is caused by the fission of about
100 pounds of uranium and liberates energy equal to that of a
328 LEGAL MEDICINE

million tons of T N T . It produces millions of pounds per square


inch of gas pressure, with heat comparable to the sun and light of
more than 30 times as bright as the sun at noontime. After ex-
plosion, it produces a luminous ball of fire containing radioactive
fission products, which increases upward in size and creates shock
waves moving sidewards in all directions. The fireball may have the
diameter of 7,200 feet in ten seconds and in one minute time it may
reach a height of 4-1/2 miles.
Place of Atomic Explosion:
1. Aerial Explosion — The bomb is made to explode on the air.
2. Ground Explosion — Explosion is made when the bomb reaches
the ground.
3. Submarine Explosion — Explosion takes place underneath the
surface of a body of water.
Rays Emitted by Radioactive Substances During Explosion:
1. Alpha Rays — Composed of positively charged helium, having a
high linear energy transfer and with a poor penetrating power
that can be stopped by a sheet of paper.
2. Beta Rays — Composed of positively or negatively charged elec-
trons with a higher penetrating power than the alpha rays but the
ionizing power is much less. The electrons are travelling at a very
high velocity and in some cases approaching the speed of light.
3. Gamma Rays — Composed of short rays with high energy and
greater penetrating power and like neutrons it extends a significant
distance and causes much damage to the human body.
4. Neutron Rays — Uncharged and composed of highly penetrating
particles and basic element in nuclei of atoms.
Characteristics of Nuclear B o m b Explosion that Distinguishes it from
Conventional High Explosive B o m b Explosion:
1. It is many thousand times as powerful as a highly conventional
bomb explosion and the effects of the blast are very prominent.
2. A large proportion of its energy is emitted as thermal radiation,
causing skin burns and it is capable of starting a fire at a con-
siderable distance.
3. The explosion emits a highly penetrating and harmful radiation,
and the substance which remains after the explosion continues to
emit radiation over a long period of time.
(Forensic Medicine by Tedeschi, Eckert & Tedeschi, Vol. 1, p. 633).
Effects of Atomic Explosion to the Human Body:
The effects of atomic explosion of the human body are inversely
proportional to the distance. One megaton of atomic bomb exploded
DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURIES CAUSED BY EXPLOSION 329

in air can cause fire of up to a 10 miles radius. The pressure front of


the blast can be felt one mile away in 2 seconds time. The blast
wave is of sufficiently long duration which is accompanied by
transient blast winds causing damages to the people and the sur-
rounding structures.
Other effects of atomic explosion are the same as that of ordinary
chemical bomb explosion but of a much more severe intensity.
Aside from the immediate traumatic effects, the radiation emitted
by the radio-active substances can also have an effect which may be
local or general.
1. General Effects:
Massive dose causes generalized erythema, disorientation
followed by coma and death.
Lesser dose may-cause nausea, vomiting followed by prostration
and rapidly developing and persistent leukemia.
Later symptoms may develop in the form of rise of temperature,
ulceration of lymphoid, easy fatigability, oro-pharyngeal ulce-
ration and severe leukopenia.
2. Local Effects:
a. Individual Cells — It causes retardation of cell division, structural
changes in the chromosomes and cytoplasm, vacuolization, and
with evidence of maturation. There is loss of the supporting
mesenchymal cells.
b. Skin — Epilation of the hair with the follicles remaining intact,
sweat glands lose their function, erector pili muscles not much
affected. The skin become edematous and later disquamated
and ulcerated. Radiation dermatitis is persistent, usually pain-
ful with patchy keratitis and foci of ulceration. Hyperpigmen-
tation or depigmentation may later develop.
c. Blood Vessels — There is endothelial necrosis and localized
thrombosis. The blood vessels thicken because of the hyalin-
ization of the collagen. Some blood vessels are occluded with
the loss of the muscular layer.
d. Eye — Cataract develops.
e. Genital Organ — In female it causes sterility, abortion or still-
birth. In men, it also causes sterility without loss of sexual
potency. •
Factors Responsible for the EffectB of Radiation:
1. Age — Children and old persons are more susceptible to radiation.
2. Dosage — Bigger dose of radiation will cause more damaging
effects on the body tissues.
330 LEGAL MEDICINE

3. Kind of Radiation — The biological damage is not always pro-


portional to the energy absorbed, but it depends on the kind of
energy emitted. Gamma and neutron radiations are most destruc-
tive.
4. Fractional Doses — A single dose may be lethal when administered
fractionally over a long interval of time.
5. Sensitivity — Muscles and connective tissue are radioresistant while
actively dividing tissues like blood forming organs, intestinal
epithelium are quite radiosensitive.

Other Sources of Radiation:


1. Natural Source:
a. Cosmic Origin — Radiation from the sun or from outer space.
b. Terrestial Origin — Chiefly from radiothorium series of granite
rocks.
2. Man-made Source:
a. Diagnostic X-ray Equipment:
The filament inside a vacuum tube is heated by a strong
electric current so that it will emit electrons. The electron is
driven on an anode target (Rhenium and molybdenum) which
causes the development of electromagnetic energy, the wave
length and the ability to penetrate depends on the kilovoltage
applied. The higher the voltage, the shorter is the wave length
and the more penetrating are the X-rays.

As the X-ray passes the tissues of the body, the degree of


absorption depends on the density. The bones absorb more
X-ray than the air containing tissues. Naturally the film behind
receives a differential amount of X-ray. The denser substance
like the bone, will be represented by a lighter image while the
less denser organs will have a darker image.
In a fluoroscope, the X-ray after passing the body goes to a
screen and the differential absorption of X-ray by the body is
reflected in the fluoroscopic screen (Legal Medicine by Tadeschi
p. €86).

b. Clinical nuclear pharmaceutical agents.


c. Therapeutic radiation apparatus.
d. Radiation sources used in industry, like nuclear power plant
The problem of the use of nuclear power in generating plants
is the disposal of the radioactive waste which may be in the
form of:
( 1 ) Gases chiefly emitted from the vapor.
Chapter XIII

/ G U N S H O T WOUNDS

D E A T H O R P H Y S I C A L INJURIES B R O U G H T A B O U T B Y
POWDERED PROPELLED SUBSTANCES

Death or physical injuries brought about by the powder propelled


substances may be due to the following:
1. Firearm Shot — The injury is caused by the missile propelled by
the explosion of the gunpowder located in the cartridge shell and
at the rear of the missile. The direction of the movement of the
missile is influenced by the desire of the person firing the fire-
arm. The missile may be single as in the case of a pistol or revolver
or may be of multiple shots or pellets as in the case of a shotgun.
The cartridge shell is physically preserved after the fire.
2. Detonation of high explosives, as in grenades, bombs and mine
explosion. Explosion of the gunpowder inside the metallic con-
tainer will cause fragmentation of the container. Each fragment or
shrapnel is moving with certain velocity without any predeter-
mined direction.

I. FIREARM W O U N D

Definition of Firearm:
1. Technical Definition:
A firearm is an instrument used for thejpropulsion of a projectile_7
by the^expansive force of gases^coming from the burning of gun-
powder.
2. Legal Definition:
Section 877, Revised Administrative Code — "Firearm" defined:
"Firearm" or "arm", as herein used, includes.jrifles,^muskets,
shotguns, revolvers,^pistols, and jill other deadly weapons from
w

"which a bullet, > a l l , shot, shell, or pfher missile may be discharged


by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also
includes air rifles except such as being of small caliber and limited
range are used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be con-
sidered as a complete firearm for all purposes thereof.

Penal Provisions of Laws Relative to Firearm:


Section 2692, Revised Administrative Code:

332
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 333

Unlawful manufacture, dealing in acquisition, disposition, or


possession of firearms, or ammunitions therefor, or instrument
used or intended to be used in the manufacture of firearms or
ammunition: yj<KL
A n y person who manufactures, deals in, acquires, disposes, or
.possesses any firearm, parts of firearms, or ammunition therefor, or
instrument or implement used or intended to be used in the manu-
facture of ammunition in violation of any provision of sections eight ^To-ltfv
hundred seventy-seven to nine hundred and six, inclusive, of the
code, as amended, .shall, upon conviction, be punished by imprison-
ment for a period of not less than pjie year and one day nor more*^' \^<ku\
than five years, or both such imprisonment and a fine of not less^^* R

than one thousand pesos nor more than five thousand pesos, in the
discretion of the court. If the article illegally possessed is a rifle,
carbine, grease gun, bazooka, machine gun, submachine gun, hand
grenade, bomb, artillery of any kind or ammunition exclusively
intended for such weapons, such period of imprisonment shall be not
less than five years nor more than ten years. A conviction under this
section shall carry with it the forfeiture of the prohibited article or
articles by the Philippine Government.

Section 2690, Revised Administrative Code: ^


Selling of firearms to unlicensed purchaser:
It shall be unlawful for any dealer in firearms or ammunition to
sell or_deliver any firearms or ammunition or any part of a firearm
to a purchaser or other person until such purchaser or other person
shall have obtained the necessary license therefor. A n y person
violating the provisions of this section, upon conviction in a court of
competent jurisdiction, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding
two thousand pesos, or by imprisonment not exceeding two years,
or both. U 11**

Section 2691, Revised Administrative Code: /


Failure of personal representative of deceased licersee to surrender
firearm:
When a holder of any firearm license shall .dfc ° r become subject
to legal disability and any of his relatives, or his legal represenative,
or any other person shall knowingly come into_j>ossession of any
firearm or ammunition covered by such license, such person, upon
failure to deliver the same to the Chief of .Constabulary in Manila
or to the senior officers of Constabulary in the province, shall be
punished by a fine not exceeding five hundred pesos or by imprison-
ment not exceeding six months, or both. If £r**
334 LEGAL MEDICINE

Art. 155, Revised Penal Code:


Alarms and Scandals:
The penalty of arresto menor or fine not exceeding 200 pesos shall
be imposed upon:
1. Any person who within any town or public place, shall discharge
any firearm, rocket, firecracker, or other explosive calculated to
cause alarm or danger;
2
Art. 254, Revised Penal Code:
Discharge of firearms:
A n y person who shall shoot at another with any firearm shall
suffer the penalty of prision correccional in its minimum and medium
periods, unless the facts of the case are such that the act can be held
to constitute frustrated or attempted parricide, murder, homicide or
any other crime for which a higher penalty is prescribed by any of
the articles of the code:
y
Classification of Small Firearms:
Small firearms are those whichQpropel projectile] of less than one
inch in diameter.
1. As to Wounding Power:
a. L o w Velocity Firearm — These are firearms with muzzle velo-
city of not more than 1,400 feet per second.
Example: Revolver,
b. High Power Firearm — These are firearms with muzzle velocity
of more than 1,400 feet per second. The usual muzzle velocity
is 2,200 to 2,500 feet per second or more.
Example: Military Rifle.
2. As to the Nature of the Bore:^*-
a. Smooth Bore Weapon — This firearm has the inside portion of
the barrel that is perfectly smooth from the firing chamber to
the muzzle.
Example: Shotgun,
b. Rifled Bore Firearm — This is a firearm with the bore of the
barrel with a number of spiral lands and grooves which run
parallel with one another, but twisted spirally from breech
to muzzle.
Example: Military Rifle.
3. As to the Manner of Firing:
a. Pistol — Firearm which may be fired only by a single hand.
Example: Revolver.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 335

b. Rifle — Firearm which may be fired from the shoulder.


Example: Shotgun.
4. As to the Nature of the Magazine:
a. Cylindrical Revolving Magazine Firearm — The .cartridge is
located in a cylindrical magazine which ^ t a t e s at the rear
portion of the barrel.
Example: Revolver.
b. Vertical or Horizontal Magazine — The cartridge is held one
after another vertically or horizontally and also held in place
by a spring side to side or end to end.
Example: Automatic Pistol.

Types of Small Firearms which are of Medico-legal Interests


1. Revolver — A revolver is a firearm which has a cylindrical maga-
zine situated at the rear of the barrel, capable or revolving motion
and which can accommodate five or six cartridges; each of which
is housed in a separate chamber. After a shot, the circular magazine
rotates by the cocking of the hammer in a way that the next
cartridge is brought in the proper position for firing. The usual
muzzle velocity of a revolver is 600 feet per second.
Kinds of Revolver as to Construction or Mechanism:
a. Revolver with the barrelffirmly fixed to the frame and the
revolving cylinder may swing oufjto the side for the purpose
of loading or extraction of the spent shell.
b. Revolver with the barrel Vhinged to the frame and the revolver
cylinder may be brokerfjto load by releasing the barrel latch.
c. Revolver with barrel£firmly fixed to the frame and the revolving
cylinder may be removed} by taking out the cylinder pin on
which it rotates.
2. Automatic Pistol — This is a firing weapon in which the empty
shell is ejected when the cartridge is fired and a new cartridge is
slipped into the breech automatically as a result of the recoil.
The cartridge is contained in a vertical magazine which holds six
to seven cartridges. It is not automatic in action in the sense that
a continuous pressure on the trigger will not make the firearm
fire continuously. It is more correct to call it a "self-loading
firearm." It has a usual muzzle velocity of 1,200 feet or more per
second.
3. Rifle — A rifle is a firearm with a long barrel and butt. It may be
a military rifle or a miniature rifle. A military rifle has a magazine
and volt action of various types. The miniature rifle is a single
self-loading weapon. A military rifle usually has a muzzle velocity
336 LEGAL MEDICINE

of 2,500 feet per second and a range of 3,000 feet. Unlike a


revolver or automatic pistol which can be fired by a single hand,
a rifle is fired from a shoulder.
4. Shotgun — A shotgun is a firearm whose projectile is a collection
of lead pellets which varies in sizes with the type of the cartridge
applied.
A Weapon, In Order to Cause Injury must have T w o Principal Com-
ponent Parts, Namely:
1. The Cartridge or Ammunition — a complete unfired unit con-
sisting of bullet, primer, cartridge case and powder charge.
2. The Firearm — the instrument for the propulsion of a projectile by
the expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder.

CARTRIDGES OR AMMUNITION
The Principal Parts of a Cartridge or Ammunition are:
1. The cartridge case or shell.
2. Primer.
3. Powder or propellant.
4. Bullet or projectile.

1. Cartridge Case or Shell:


The cartridge case or shell is a cylindrical structure with a base
which houses the powder, the primer at the base and with the
bullet attached at the tip. In ordinary hand guns the cylindrical
structure is made of brass while in shotguns it is usually made of
cardboard. The base is always made of metal. Inscription at the
base may show the manufacturer, the caliber and even the date it
was manufactured.
Depending upon the relationship of the diameter of the base
with that of the cylindrical portion, a cartridge may be classified
as:
a. Cartridge With a Rim — The base of the cartridge has a dia-
meter more than the cylindrical portion. The rim is used to
prevent the cartridge from going through the barrel. This is
common among revolvers.
b. Rimless Cartridge — The base or head of the cartridge has the
same diameter as that of the cylindrical body. There is a groove
cut between the base and the cylindrical body for the extractor
to hook into. This is usually found in self-loading firearms.
c. Semi-rimless Cartridge — This looks like a rimless at first glance
but actually the rim does project very slightly above the line of
the cylindrical part.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 337

d. Belted Cartridge — The cartridges are attached in a series in a


canvass belt for successive fires.

2. Primer:
The primer compound is located and sealed at the cartridge
base covered by a small disc of soft metal, which is usually a lead-tin
alloy known as percussion cap or primer cap. The main function
of the primer is the transformation of mechanical energy by the
hit of the firing pin on the percussion cap to chemical energy by
its rapid combustion. As the firing pin hits the primer cap (per-
cussion cap), the primer compound hits the anvil which causes the
generation of a flash which in turn ignites the powder. The time
of the primer activation is approximately 0.00001 second.
Although, there are variations in the chemical constituents of
the primer in the past, it is composed of a mixture of mercury
fulminate, stibnite (antimony sulfide), potassium chlorate and
powdered glass. Later, mercury fulminate is partially or com-
pletely replaced by lead azide and lead stypnate together with
potassium chlorate which are replaced by barium nitrate to
reduce the development of rust. Lead stypnate is utilized as base,
tetracene is sometimes added to control sensitivity and barium
nitrate acts as moderator and oxidizer. The most common consti-
tuents of primer are lead, antimony and barium.

As to the location of the percussion cap at the base, cartridge


may be:
a. Cartridge with Center Fire — The percussion cap is located at
the center of the base of the cartridge. This is the most com-
mon.
b. Cartridge with Rim Fire — The primer is placed inside the rim
of the shell. This is common in 0.22 caliber firearms.
c. Firearm with Pin — The firing pin strikes a needle which is
placed at the rim of the shell. The needle will then press on the
percussion cap which is inside the cartridge. This type is
obsolete and now rarely found.

3. Gunpowder or Propellant: ^
The propellant is the primary propulsive force in a cartridge
which when exploded will cause the bullet to be driven forward
towards the gun muzzle.
There are Different Types of Powder Propellant Used:-
a. Black Powder — A mixture of potassium nitrate (75%), sulfur
(15%) and charcoal (10%).
338 LEGAL MEDICINE

Explosion of one grain of black powder (one grain = 0.065


gm.) will produce 200 to 300 cc. of gas composed of carbon
dioxide (50%), carbon monoxide (10%), nitrogen (35%),
hydrogen sulfide (3%) and traces of methane and oxygen. The
solid residues following its combustion are potassium sulfate,
potassium sulfide, potassium carbonate together with its original
components.
b. Smokeless Powder — It may be:
(1) Single Base — When it contains either cellulose nitrate or
nitroglycerine.
( 2 ) Double Base — When the powder is composed of both
cellulose nitrate and nitroglycerine.
Explosion of one grain (one grain = 0.065 gm.) of smokeless
powder will cause the development of 800 to 900 cc. of gas
consisting of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen with some
unburnt powder in the form of nitrate and cellulose nitrate
which can be detected chemically.
c. Semi-smokeless Powder — This is a mixture of 80% of black and
20% of the smokeless powder.
Smokeless powder causes development of less flame and less
powder residue as compared with black powder.
There is more complete burning of gunpowder in smokeless
as compared with the black powder.
Inasmuch as the gas produced by combustion of smokeless
powder is three times more than the black powder, the muzzle
velocity of bullets with smokeless powder is also approximately
three times greater than the bullets using black-powder.
Smokeless powder granules are usually coated with graphite
and consequently form different shapes. They may appear as
a ball, square, cylinder, disc or flakes. Consequently when
discharged from the firearm after explosion they will cause
individual shapes of tattooing. The flake or disc shape powder
may cause varying shapes of the tattoos depending upon how the
grain struck the skin. Ball powder may cause small, hemor-
rhagic punctate marks. The cylindrical shape powder grains
may cause heavy tattooing with deposition of soot at 6 inches
range.

4. Bullet (Slug, Missile, Projectile):


It is the metallic object attached to the free end of the cy-
lindrical tip of the cartridge case, propelled by the expansive force
of the propellant, and responsible in the production of damages
in the target. In some instances bullets are not metallic but made
Bullets lodged and extracted from a victim

of rubber, plastic, or even paraffin, but their uses are primarily


confined to target practice.
Classification:
a. Shape of the free end:
(1) Conical — The free end of the bullet is tapering and pointed.
The purpose is to minimize the resistance offered by the
atmosphere, to increasing its penetrating power and to
minimize deflection upon hitting the target.
( 2 ) Hemispherical — The free end is dome-like and commonly
observed in short firearms.
( 3 ) Wad-cutter (Square Nose) — The free end is flattened
commonly used in target practices.
(4) Hollow-point — There is a depression at the tip to expand
or "mushroom" at impact on hard object, to slow its speed
in the body so that more kinetic energy will be released
thereby increasing its shocking effect.
b. As to presence or absence of jacket:
(1) Naked Lead Bullet — Bullet without outer coating.
(2) Jacketed Bullet — Bullet with external coating usually
copper, nickel, steel or zinc. The purpose of the coating
are to:
(a) To prevent fouling of the barrel;
340 LEGAL MEDICINE

( b ) To withstand deformity in automatic loading process;


and
(c) To prevent deformity when carried and exposed to
rough handling.
A jacketed bullet may be:
i. Full Jacketed Bullet — the whole bullet up to the
base is enveloped with a metallic jacket.
ii. Semi-jacketed Bullet — The nose or free end is partly
or fully exposed while there is relatively thin but
tough coating of the base and the cylindrical portion.
This is made to permit expansion of the bullet when
it hits hard objects. Semi-jacketed bullets may be
hollow-point.
The general rule is that soft-metal, round nose
bullets are fired from a revolver; full-jacketed bullets
are fired from a rifle and self-loading firearm; semi-
jacketed bullets are fired from an automatic (self-
loading) firearm or rifle.
Special Bullets:
a. Armour Piercing Bullet — made of steel with copper coating
(jacket).
b. Phosphorus Flare or Tracer Bullet — This consists of an alu-
minum tip and is packed with incendiary (phosphorus) which
burns during flight. It is used to determine the direction of the
fire. The speed of sound in air is 1,087 feet per second or 331.3
meters per second.
c. Plastic Bullet — used for target practice.
d. Bullet with Plastic Sabot — The bullet together with the sabot
travel up to the bore. The bullet never comes in contact with
the barrel and therefore there will be no rifling marks imparted
in the bullet but on the sabot. The front half of the sabot has
six slits. As the sabot leaves the barrel it offers resistance and
the slit part of the sabot will fold backward, causing resistance
and falls away.
At three feet, the sabot and bullet are still in line.
At 6 to 7 feet, they strike the target separately.
The sabot itself travels approximately 50 feet.
e. Bullet with Secondary Explosion — The bullet may leave the
barrel and upon reaching a certain distance it produces second-
ary explosion and shrapnel splinters.
f. Soft Point Bullet — A bullet which is easily flattened upon
hitting the target to increase the wounding effect.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 343

FIREARM

For purposes of Medico-legal Investigation, the following Parts of a


Firearm are important:
1. The trigger with the firing pin.
2. The barrel.
Other Parts of a Firearm:
1. Handle or Butt — The portion of the firearm used for handling it.
It may house the magazine.
2. Firing Chamber — The place where the cartridge is held in position
before the fire mechanism starts.
3. Breechblock — The steel block which closes the rear of the bore
against the force of the charge. The face of this block which comes
in contact with the base of the cartridge is known as the breech-
face.
4. Trigger Guard.
5. Front and Rear Sight.
6. Safety Device like safety lock.
7. Sling.

In a Self-loading Firearm, the following are the Additional Parts:


1. Extractor — The mechanism by which the spent shell or ammu-
nition is withdrawn from the firing chamber.
2. Ejector — The mechanism by which the empty shell or ammu-
nition is thrown from the firearm.

1. Trigger:
This is a part of the firearm which causes firing mechanism.
Except in a single action firearm, pressure on the trigger is the
commencement of the whole firearm mechanism. To avoid acci-
dental firing, the trigger is surrounded by a trigger guard.
Classification of Firearm Based on Trigger Mechanism:
a. Relation of Cocking and Trigger Pressure:
(1) Single Action Firearm — The firearm is first manually
cocked then followed by pressure on the trigger to release
the hammer.
Example: Home-made "Paltik".
( 2 ) Double Action Firearm — A pressure applied on the trigger
will both cock and fire the firearm by release of the hammer.
Example: Standard Revolver.
b. Number of Shots on Pressure on the Trigger:
344 LEGAL MEDICINE

(1) Single Shot Firearm — A pull or pressure on the trigger will


cause only one shot.
Example: Revolver.
(2) Automatic Firearm — A continuous pressure on the trigger
will cause a series of shots until the trigger pressure is
released.
Example: Machine gun.
Trigger pressure is the amount of force (pressure) on the trigger
necessary to fire a gun. Its determination is necessary in the
assessment of whether the firing can possibly be accidental.
"Hair trigger" is a vague term used when the firearm trigger
pressure is 1.0 lb. (pound) or less. It is intrinsically unsafe and
should only be used under rigorously controlled situations because
of the possibility of unintended or accidental fire.
In general, the single action firearm varies from 3-1/2 to 10
pounds and in double action, it varies from 6 pounds to as much
as 18 pounds. The following are the approximate trigger pressures
of certain types of firearms.
a. Shotgun 4 lbs.
b. Self-loading pistol 3 to 4 lbs.
c. Revolver 3 to 5 lbs.
d. Service rifle 6 to 7 lbs.

2. Barrel:
a. Riflings:
The inner surface of a shotgun and that of a home-made
gun is smooth while single shot standard firearms are with
riflings.
The inner surface of the barrel has a series of parallel spiral
grooves on the whole length called riflings. The space between
the two grooves is the land. The riflings are made to have a
strong barrel grip on the bullet, to stabilize its movement and
to impart a rotational movement on the bullet. Incidentally,
the rifling reflected on the bullet becomes an important factor
in the identification of firearms.
Gun manufacturers vary the way the riflings are imprinted
in the inner surface of the barrel on the following aspects:
(1) Number — The number of lands and grooves varies from 2
to 12.
Most high velocity firearms have 4 to 6 grooves. Some
firearms have multiple shallow grooves and this is known
as microgroove6 rifling.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 345

( 2 ) Twist or Rate — This is the expression for one complete


turn of the rifling on a certain length of the barrel. We say
the twist rate is 1:12 when there is one complete spiral
groove in 12 inch of the barrel. Spiral groove twist or rate
may be:
(a) Fast Twist — When the number of inches of the barrel
required for a complete turn is small, like 1:8.
( b ) Slow Twist — When a greater number of inches in the
barrel is necessary to have one complete turn, like
1:14.
( 3 ) Direction — The direction of rifling may either be righ£
(clockwise) or left (counterclockwise).
( 4 ) Width of the Groove and Land — The width of the groove
varies with the manufacturer and caliber. Some have
the width of the groove different with that of the land while
others are the same or equidistant.
Example:
Colt 0.32 has 6 lands and grooves, twist to the left, the
width of the land and groove are 0.048 and 0.108 respect-
ively.
Smith and Wesson 0.32 has 5 lands and grooves, twist to
the right and are equidistant at 0.095 inch.

Table of Number of Grooves and the Direction of Riflings


No. of Direction of
Grooves Riflings
1. Revolvers:
- Webley, 455, .38, .32 7 right
— Colt, all calibers 6 left
— Smith and Wesson, .45, .32 5 right
- J.T. & S. & W. model 4 right
2. Automatic Pistols:
- Webley, .455, .32, .25 6 right
— Browning 6 right
— Mauser, .25 6 right
- Colt, .45, .38, .25 6 left
— Delta 6 left
— Victoria (Spanish make) 6 left
— Luger P-08, 9 mm. (German) 6 right
— Fibrique National, 9 mm. (Belgian) 6 right
Aside from those marks previously mentioned, the bullet or the
shell shows individual or accidental characteristics which are deter-
346 LEGAL MEDICINE

mutable only after the manufacture. They have characteristics whose


existence is beyond the control of men and which have a random
distribution. Their existence in a firearm are brought about through
the failure of a tool in its normal operation, through wear, abuse,
mutilation, corrosion, erosion, or other fortuitous causes. Those
marks may be imprinted in the bullet or shell and may be used for
identification purpose.
When the bullet or the shell or both has been recovered and a
suspected firearm has been found in the possession of a person, the
procedure is to fire the suspected firearm at a recovery box and com-
pare the shell and bullet in the comparison microscope with the one
in question.

How to Determine the Caliber of Firearm:


The caliber is the diameter of the barrel between two lands.
Table showing the relation between American, English and Con-
tinental Caliber:
American Caliber English Caliber Continental Caliber in Mm.
.22 Inch .220 Inch 5.6
M
.25 " .250 6.5(6.35)
M M
.28 .280 7.0
M
.30 (.32 Rev.) .300 " (.303) 7.65
.32 .320 " 8.0
.35 •• (.351) .350 9.0
.38 » .360 " 9.3
.38 .370 » 9.5
.38-.40-.41 Inch 410 •• 10.0
.405 Inch 10.5
.44 " .440 " 11.0
M
.45 .450 " (.455) 11.25
(From: Modern Criminal Investigation by Harry Soderman and
John O'Connell, 4th ed., p. 201).
To convert millimeter calibration to inches, multiply the caliber
in millimeters by 0.03937 or divide by 25.4.
To convert inches calibration to millimeters, multiply by 25.4 or
divide by 0.03937.

MECHANISM OF FIREARM ACTION:


Generally, the principles involved in all firearm actions are the
same. When the firearm is cocked and ready to fire, a pull on the
trigger will cause the firing pin of the hammer to hit the percussion
cap of the cartridge in the firing chamber which is aligned with rear
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 347

portion of the barrel. The hit by the firing pin on the percussion
cap will cause generation of a sufficient heat capable of igniting the
primer. The primer will in turn ignite the gunpowder or propellant
which will cause evolution of gases under pressure and temperature.
The marked expansion of the gases will force the projectile forward
with certain velocity. Owing to the presence of the rifling at the
inner wall of the bore, the barrel offers some degree of resistance
to the projectile. Inasmuch as the rifling marks are arranged in a
spiral manner, the projectile will produce a spinning movement as
it comes out of the muzzle.
Together with the bullet passing out of the barrel are the high-
pressured heated gases, unbumt powder grains with flame and
smoke.
During explosion, there is a backward kick of the firearm which
in an automatic firearm causes the cocking and the empty shell thrown
out by the ejector. The backward movement is called recoil of the
firearm.

Things Coming Out of the Gun Muzzle After the Fire: ^


1. Bullet.
2. Flame.
3. Heated, compressed and expanded*gas.
4. Residues coming from:
a. Bullet:
(1) Fragment (jacket, lead).
(2) Lubricant.
b. Powder particles:
( 1 ) Powder grains (unbumed, burning).
(2) Soot.
(3) Graphite.
c. Primer:
( 1 ) Lead, barium, antimony, etc..
d. Barrel:
(1) Lubricant.
(2) Rust, dust, etc..
(3) Scraping from bullet by previous fire.
e. Cartridge case:
( 1 ) Copper, zinc.

Bullet's Kinetic Energy:


Kinetic energy is energy associated with motion. In the English
system it is express in foot pound or the work of a force resulting
when a weight of one pound is brought to a height of one foot.
348 LEGAL MEDICINE

In ballistics, the wounding power of a bullet is due to the mass


(weight) and its velocity, with the velocity playing a very important
role.
M = Mass (Weight)
2
MV V = Velocity
Kinetic Energy = G = Gravity
2G
Tissue damage of a bullet of a very high velocity is very much
greater than those with much less velocity.
The damage cause by a bullet with impact velocity similar to
muzzle velocity is greater than when the impact occurred at a re-
duced speed after the bullet has travelled a distance.

Bullet Efficiency:
The cartridge powder charge can be burned in approximately
0.00001 second. The conversion rate by combustion of the gun-
powder to bullet energy is about 30 to 32 percent. The loss of
some energies from the gunpowder explosion may be due to:
a. Loss of energy to force the bullet out of the cartridge case,
rifling and friction in the barrel.
b. Heating of the barrel and chamber.
c. Escape of some of the compressed gasses at the breech and
barrel.
d. N o t all gunpowder are ignited.
Obturation:
This is the sealing or prevention of gunpowder gas after ex-
plosion from escaping so as to maintain high pressure in the
firing chamber thereby increasing the propulsive power on the
bullet. This is maintained:
a. By insuring that the bullet tightly fits the bore throughout its
entire length;
b. By sealing the cartridge case to the chamber wall; and
c. By preventing leakage between the primer cap and its retaining
wall in the cartridge.

Ballistics Coefficient:
This describes the ability of a bullet to maintain its velocity
against air resistance. It may be expressed in the following formula:

C — ballistic coefficient
m — mass
i — form factor
d — diameter
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 349

The larger the coefficient, the more efficient is the bullet or


projectile. The better the ballistic coefficient of a bullet, the less
velocity loss it will suffer over a given resistance.

Movements of the Bullet as it Moves Out of the Muzzle:


1. Forward Movement — The velocity depends upon the propulsion
created by the ignition of the propellant.
2. Spinning Movement — This is due to the passage of the bullet at
the spiral landings and groovings of the barrel. The ratio depends
on the twist and length of the barrel.
3. Tumbling Movement (End-over-end flotation/-The bullet may be
rotating on the long axis of its flight while the nose and the base
are alternating ahead in its flight. This accounts why in some
instances, the bullet hits the skin with its base.
4. Wabbling Movement (Tailwag) — The rear end of the bullet aside
from spinning may also vibrate vertically or sidewise in its flight.
Like tumbling movement, it may cause hitting the target sidewise.
5. Pull of Gravity — As the bullet is moving forward, it gradually
goes downward on account of the pull of the force of gravity.
As the bullet looses its kinetic energy, the pull of the force of
gravity becomes dominant until it falls on the ground.

Flame:
Ignition of the propellant will cause the production of flame. It
is conical in shape with the vertex located at the gun muzzle. The
flame does not usually go beyond a distance of 6 inches and in pis-
tols or revolvers the flame is often less than 3 inches.
The flame causes scorching or burning of the skin and searing of
the hair at the target in a very near shot. In contact fire, the edges of
the wound of entry may be burned.

Heated, Compressed and Expanded Gas:


Ignition of the gunpowder will cause production of heat and gas.
Considering the limited space of the firing chamber and barrel, the
compressed gas propels the bullet to move forward. The volume
of the gas generated is dependent on the nature and quantity of the
propellant. Thus a 50 grain gunpowder in a cartridge with black
powder (one grain producing 200 to 300 cc. of gas) will cause the
production of 10 to 15 liters of gas while the same amount of
cartridge with smokeless powder (one grain producing 800 to 900 cc.
of gas) will cause production of 40 to 45 liters of gas confined in a
very limited space. This is on the presumption that all of the gun-
powder were ignited.
350 LEGAL MEDICINE

The sudden release of the expanded gas from the muzzle follow-
ing the bullet is known as a muzzle blast.

Smoke (Soot, Smudging, Fouling, Smoke Blackening):


This is one of the byproducts of complete combustion of the
gunpowder and other elements with the propellant. It is light,
almost black, and lack sufficient force to penetrate the skin. It is
merely deposited on the target and readily wiped off. It may be seen
with a distance of up to 12 inches.
The presence of smudging at the wound of entrance infers
a near shot. The shape may also be useful in determining the tra-
jectory. A circular shape deposition may be typical of a perpen-
dicular approach of the bullet while in case of an acute angle the
deposition may appear to be elliptical.

Powder Grains:
This consists of the unburned, burning and partially bumed
powder, together with graphite which come out of the muzzle.
Inasmuch as it is relatively heavier than smoke, it leaves the barrel
with appreciable velocity and in near shot, it is responsible to the
production of tattooing (stippling, peppering) around the gunshot
wound of entrance.
In close range, the powder grains penetrate the dermal and epider-
mal layers of the skin and may cause hemorrhage in deeper tissue
which cannot be removed by ordinary wiping. Microcontusion may
be observed around the punctured area and the shape of the puncture
may denote the shape of the penetrating grain. As the distance of
the gun muzzle to the target increases, the area of destruction in-
creases, but the density of tattooing decreases.
In case of black powder, the residue is composed of nitrates,
thiocyanates, thiosulphates, potassium carbonates, potassium sulphate
and potassium sulphide, while in smokeless powder, the residue is
composed of granules with nitrites and cellulose nitrates with graphite.
The presence of tattooing or stippling may be seen around the
wound of entrance up to a distance of 24 inches, although there may
be considerable variation from gun to gun.

Powder Burns:
Powder burns is a term commonly used by physicians whenever
there is blackening of the margin of the gunshot wound of entrance.
The blackening is due to smoke smudging, gunpowder tattooing and
to a certain extent burning of the wound margin. It is the combined
effects of these elements that are considered to be powder bums.
Actually, such blackening is primarily due to smoke smudging and
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 351

gunpowder tattooing so that the term sotting of the target rather


than powder bums is more appropriate to describe the condition.

Factors Responsible for the Injurious Effects of Missile:


1. Factors Inherent on the Missile:
a. Speed of the Bullet — The greater the muzzle velocity, the
greater is the destruction inasmuch as more kinetic energy
can be liberated.
b. Size and Shape of the Bullet — The bigger the diameter or the
more deformed the bullet is, the greater are the injuries in the
body tissues.
c. Character of the Missile's Movement in Flight — Spinning move-
ment will increase the wounding power; "Yawing" and stumbling
movement may cause sidewise penetration and entry and cause
more destruction; and ricochette may alter tissue involvement
in its course.

2. Nature of the Target:


a. Density of Target — The greater the density of the tissue struck,
the greater will be the damage. More energy will be spent by
the bullet in its course in penetrating skin, bones and clothes.
Heavy thick clothes may prevent penetration of missile; fragile
bone may fragment when hit and each fragment may act as a
secondary splinter to cause further injuries.
b. Length of Tissue Involvement in its Course — The longer the
distance of travel of the missile in the body, the more kinetic
energy it liberates, and the more destruction it will produce.
c. Nature of the Media Traversed — Bullet passing air spaces is less
destructive inasmuch as air is relatively compressible however,
bullet traveling in a liquid or solid media may accelerate trans-
mission of force to the surrounding tissue thus, causing more
destruction.
d. Vitality of the Part Involved — There is more likelihood for a
fatal consequence when vital organs are involved than those in
other parts of the body.

Abrasion Collar (Contuso-abradded Collar, Marginal Abrasion):


The pressure of the bullet on the skin will cause the skin to be
depressed and as the bullet lacerates the skin, the depressed portion
will be rubbed with the rough surface of the bullet. A perpendicular
approach will produce an even width of the collar. An acute angle
of approach will cause an abrasion collar wider at the acute angle of
approach.
352 LEGAL MEDICINE

Destructive Mechanism of Gunshot:


The following physical phenomena are responsible for the causation
of injury in the body of the victim:
1. Laceration and Permanent Cavity in the Bullet Trajectory:
The pressure of the speeding bullet produces severe pressure on
the tissues and organs causing laceration and mechanically creates
a permanent cavity. High velocity bullets can cause bigger damage
and wider cavity formation.
2. Temporary Cavity:
This is the instantaneous radial displacement of the soft tissues
during the passage of the bullet due to the liberation of kinetic
energy. The size of the cavity is dependent on the velocity of the
bullet and elasticity of the tissues. The greater the velocity, the
larger the temporary cavity formed. The diameter and volume
of the temporary cavity are many times greater than the diameter
and volume of the projectile that produces it. Although the
development is transient during the passage of the missile, it causes
loss of function to the part involved and further act as a secondary
missile to involve other areas.
3. Hydrostatic Force:
When the bullet traverses organs filled with fluid, like a full
stomach, cerebral ventricle, heart chambers, the liquid contents
within the lumen of these organs are displaced radially away from
the bullet path producing extensive laceration. The displaced
fluid carries with it the kinetic energy which in turn acts as a
secondary projectile causing destruction of tissues not on the path
of the bullet.

4. Shock Wave:
This is the dissipation of kinetic energy in a radial direction
perpendicular to the path of the bullet when the bullet velocity is
more than the speed of sound (the speed of sound is 1,087 feet
per second). The severe intensity of the wave causes severe
shocking effect on the adjacent tissues and may cause actual
destruction or lessening of function.
5. Fragmentation or Disintegration of the Bullet:
When the bullet hits a hard object (bone), it fragments to
several pieces. When the bullet velocity is more than 2,000
ft/sec. it disintegrates and each fragment has sufficient kinetic
energy to cause injuries similar to the mother bullet. It may cause
laceration, fracture and shocking effect, thus increasing the
destructive effect of gunshot. This causes more "shocking power"
or "knockdown power" of the bullet.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 353

6. Fragmentation of Hard Brittle Object in the Trajectory:


Bone involvement along the trajectory may cause comminuted
fracture and each bone fragment may cause additional damage on
the surrounding tissues and even in the wound of exit.
Passage of the bullet causes a clean-cut hole at the point of initial
contact and beveling at the point of exit. The beveling is due to
the absence of a hard support as the bullet leaves the bone.
In the skull a through and through wound will produce a round
or oval hole at the outer table with leveling of the inner table and
at the point when a bullet makes the exit, the clean cut hole will
be at the inner table and beveling will be at the outer table.
7. Muzzle Blast in Contact Fire:
When the gun muzzle is pressed on the skin when fired, all of
the products of combustion primarily the muzzle blast will pene-
trate the tissues causing severe mechanical destruction on account
of pressure. The explosive effect will cause extensive laceration of
soft tissues and fracture of bones.
8. Other Consequential Effects on the Body of the Victim:
Aside from direct involvement of vital structures of the body,
pressure to other organs and tissues, the gunshot wound may be
the source of hemorrhage, infection, paralysis, shock, loss of
functioning etc. which may cause disability or death on the
victim.

/
Gunshot Wound of Entrance (Entrance Defect, Inshoot):
The appearance of the gunshot wound of entrance depends upon
the following:
1. Caliber of the Wounding Weapon:
Excluding other factors which may influence the size of the
wound of entrance^ the higher the caliber of the wounding bullet
the greater will be the size of the wound of entrance'/ It must not
be overlooked that the manner of approach of the bullet to the
skin, the distance of the muzzle of the firearm to the skin surface,
the deformity or splitting of the bullet and the portion of the skin
surface involves modification of the size and shape of the entrance.
2. Characteristics Inherent to the Wound of Entrance:.
The wound of entrance, as a general rule, is»'oval or circular
with inverted edges,' except in near shot or in grazing or slap
wounaT'^ATUieTDuiret approaches the skin, there is an indentation
of the skin surface but later, on account of the extreme pressure;
the skin tissues give way. The rough surface of the bullet comes
in contact with the skin thereby producing a contusion or abrasion
354 LEGAL MEDICINE

collar. In most cases,' the size of the wound of entrance is smaller


than the caliber of the wounding bullet'on account of the retraction
of the connective tissues.
0
The wound of exit is usually larger than the wound of entrance*—'
It may be stellate, slit-like, cruciform, or markedly lacerated. The
deformity of the bullet in its course inside the body, the lack of
support beyond the skin, and the velocity of the missile are
responsible for the increase in size of the exit wound.
3. Direction of the Fire:
A* right angl£ approach of the bullet will make the wound of
entrance circular in shape, except when the missile is deformed
or the fire is in contact or near. In cases of an acute angle of ap-
proach of the bullet, the wound of entrance is oval in shape with the
contusion or abrasion collar widest on the side of the acute angle
of approach. There is more likelihood for deflection of the bullet
course wherever it hits the bony tissue.
4. Shape and Composition of the Missile:
Deformity of the bullet modifies the shape of the wound of
entrance. Some missiles are purposely made to enhance deformity
upon hitting hard objects like hollow-point, dum-dum and soft
point bullets. Hard or armor-piercing bullets are not usually
deformed on account of their hard metallic constituents.
5. Range:
In close range fire, the injury is not only due to the missile but
also due to the pressure of the expanded gases, flame and other
solid products of combustion. Distant fire usually produces the
characteristic effect of the bullet alone.
6. Kind of Weapon:
High power weapon has more destructive effect as compared
with low power one. The shape of the bullet also plays an im-
portant role. Conical shape free end bullets have more piercing
power without marked tissue destruction while missiles with
hemispherical free ends are more destructive.

Contact F i r e : ^
The nature and extent of the injury is caused not only by the
force of the bullet but also by the gas of the muzzle blast and part of
the body involved. T h e following factors must be taken into con-
sideration:

1. The Effectiveness of the Sealing Between the Gun Muzzle and the
Skin:
If all the gaseous product of combustion is prevented from
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 355

being spilled out, there will be more destructive effects on the


tissues.
2. The Amount of Gas Liberated by the Combustion of the Pro-
pellant:
The volume of gas liberated after explosion of the propellant is
dependent on the amount and nature of the powder, and the
extent of powder combustion. The greater is the amount of gas in
a confined area, the greater will be the tissue destruction.
3. Nature of Bullet:
Bigger caliber bullet is obviously more destructive than smaller
ones. Soft or hollow point bullet has the tendency to flatten and
causes more damage to tissues.
4. Part of the Body Involved:
The nature, character and extent of injury in contact fire is
different ( 1 ) when the bone is superficially located under the
skin, and ( 2 ) when the bone is deeply located in loose or soft
parts of the body.

Pressed and Firm Contact Fire: S


1. On Parts of the Body Where Bone is Superficial:
This is commonly observed on the head where the skull is just
underneath the scalp. The following are the characteristics of the
injuries:
a. The wound of entrance is* large," frequently star-shaped due to
tear radiating from the entrance wound caused by the blast
effect which follows the sudden release of gases into a confined
area between the skin and the underlying bone.
b. Edges of the wound may be" everted.' The creeping of the gases
between the skull and the scalp causes the skin to move towards
the muzzle.
c. Areas in the entrance wound is^ blackened by burns, tattooing
1 1
and smudging . Singeing of the hair is confined only at the site
of wound of entrance.
d. Muzzle imprint, Barrel impression (Profile of the muzzle) on the
skin — The outward movement of the skin caused by the im-
prisoned gas will add more pressure to the gun muzzle coupled
with the heat of the explosion and will cause iron-like effect on
the pressed skin.
Causes of Muzzle Imprint:
(1) The gun muzzle is pressed on the body at the time of the
fire and the heated muzzle during the blast produced an
ironing effect on the skin.
356 LEGAL MEDICINE

(2) The gun muzzle is pressed on the body, pushed momen-


tarily away and then hit the body again because of the
continuous inward pressure.
( 3 ) When the gun is fired on areas of the body where bony
tissue is superficial, like the scalp, the muzzle blast has the
tendency to creep in the loose connective tissue between
the skull and the skin thereby pushing the skin outward
to press on the gun muzzle.
e. The bullet may cause radiating fracture and the pressure of the
gases may cause fragmentation of the skull and a severe lacera-
tion of the brain and its meninges.
f. Blood and tissue become pink due to carbon monoxide.
g. Fragments of lead and bullet jacket may be found.
Metal Fouling — When the bullet travels the whole length of the
tight fitting barrel, it is rotated by the lands and grooves. Its surface
is scraped by the lands and the scraping is ejected from the barrel and
strikes the target. It may lodge on the clothings or may cause small
abrasions or superficial lacerations on the skin around the main
wound.
h. Singeing of hair.

Gunshot wound of entrance with contusion collar, powder burns and tattooing.

2. Parts of the Body Where the Bone is Deeply Located:


a. Wound of entrance is usually large, circular and without radiating
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 357

laceration. The gas from the muzzle can easily penetrate


deeper structures.
b. Edges are everted due to outward slapping of the skin. In some
instances, soft tissues (blood, fibrous and muscular tissues)
may be found inside the gun barrel. This is due to the negative
pressure created in the barrel after the blast.
c. Singeing of the hair, blackening of the wound due to fouling,
burn, and tattooing.
d. Muzzle imprint due to outward slapping of the skin and heat.
e. Pinkish color of the deeper structures due to carbon monoxide.

Loose Contact or Near F i r e : ^


1. Entrance wound may be^large circular or oval depending upon the
angle of approach of the bullet.
2^Abrasion collar**or ring is distinct.
3^Smudging, burning and tattooing are prominent with singeing of
the hair.
4. Muzzle imprint may be seen depending upon the degree of slap-
ping of the skin of the gun muzzle.
5. There is^blackening of the bullet tract to a certain depth.
6.TJarboxyhemoglobin is present in the wound" and surrounding areas.

Short Range Fire ( 1 to 15 cm. distance): ^


1. Edges of the entrance wound is inverted.
2. If within the flame reach (about 6 inches in rifle and high powered
firearms and less than 3 inches from an ordinary handgun), there is
an area of burning.
S.^mudging is present'due to smoke.
4. "Powder tattooing* is present (dense and limited dimension of
spread).
S.'vAbrasion ring'br collar is present (contact ring).

Medium Range Fire (more than 15 cm. but less than 60 c m . ) : ^


1. Gunshot wound with* inverted edges'and with abrasion collar is
present.
T
2. Burning effects (skin bum and hair singeing) is absent.
3. Smudging may be present if less than 30 cm. distance.
c
4. Gunpowder tattooing" is present but of lesser density and has a
wider area of distribution.
o. Contact ring is present.
358 LEGAL MEDICINE

Fired More Than 60 cm. Distance: /


1. Gunshot wound is'circular or ovaf depending on the angle of
approach with abrasion collar.
2. Wound of entrance has°no* burning, smudging or tattooing.
3. Contact ring is present.

Microscopic Examination of Gunshot Wound of Entrance:


1. In Contact or Near Contact Fire:
a. Epithelial damage and powder residue deposit are present.
b. Massive heat may carbonize the epithelial cells.
c. The hot bullet may produce coagulation necrosis.
d. Basilar cells are swollen and vacuolated.
e. The corium may show thermal changes manifested by nuclear
shrinkage, pyknosis and vacuolization.
2. In far Distant Fire:
a. There may be a spotty deposit of powder on skin and subcu-
taneous tissue.
b. There is cellular destruction along the course of bullet.

^instances When the Size of the Wound of Entrance Do N o t Approxi-


' m a t e the Caliber of the Firearm:
In distant fire, the rule is that the diameter of the gunshot wound
of entrance is almost the same as the caliber of the wounding firearm,
but in the following instances, the rule is not followed:
1. Factors which make the wound of entrance bigger than the caliber:

a. In contact or near fire — The size of the entrance wound in


contact and near fire is caused by the force of the expanded
gases of explosion and by the bullet.
b. Deformity of the bullet which entered — The bullet might have
hit a hard object before it pierces the skin thereby making the
wound of entrance bigger than the caliber of the missile.

c. Bullet might have entered the skin sidewise — Ordinarily, it is


the ogival portion which pierces the skin first, but occasionally
it may hit the skin sidewise on account of the inequality of
resistance of the surrounding media in its flight. The spinning
movement and the tail wag ( w o b b l e ) may cause the bullet to
enter in its vertical axis.
d. Acute angular approach of the bullet — Due to the sliding
trajectory of the bullet, the wound becomes oval in shape with
prominence of the contusion collar at the side of the acute
angle of approach.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 359

2. Factors which make the wound of entrance smaller than the


caliber:
a. Fragmentation of the bullet before penetrating the skin — If in
the flight of the bullet it hits a hard target which causes its
fragmentation and only the fragments pierce the skin, the
wound produced will be smaller than the caliber of the firearm
which causes the fire.
b. Contraction of the elastic tissues of the skin — The form of the
bullet may be preserved but the entrance wound may be smaller
than the caliber on account of the contraction of the elastic
tissues of the skin.
In shotgun fire, the size of the wound of entrance is dependent
upon the distance of the fire. Near fire causes concentration
of entry of the pellets, and as distance increases the pellets dis-
perse with individual pellets causing individual wounds of entry.
Only in this instance may the wound of entrance of the same
size as the gauge of the shotgun pellets.

Other Evidences or Findings Used to Determine Entrance of Gunshot:


When the course of the bullet is through and through and there is
difficulty in the determination as to which is the entrance because
it does not show characteristic findings, or it has been modified by
healing, infection or surgical intervention, the medical examiner must
resort to the following:

1. Examination of the clothings, if involved in the course of the


bullet:
a. The fabric of the clothings may show punch in destruction at
the site of the wound of entrance.
b. Examination for particles of gunpowder on the clothings at the
site near the wound in question. If the clothings give a positive
test for gunpowder, then it must be the wound of entrance.
This is only true if the fire is near.

2. Examination of the internal injuries caused by the bullet:


a. In case where the missile hits a bone, the bone fragments are
driven away from the wound of entrance.
b. Destruction of the bone at the surface facing the wound of
entrance is oval and with sharp edges, while the surface facing
the wound of exit is bigger, irregular and bevelled.
c. Direction of the cartilage and other soft tissues will be driven
away from the gunshot wound of entrance.
360 LEGAL MEDICINE

3. Testimony of witnesses:
The testimony of the witness as to the position of the victim
and the assailant when the firearm was fired may determine which
of the wounds is the entrance wound.

Determination of the Trajectory of the Bullet Inside the Body of


the Victim:
The following must be taken into consideration to determine the
course of the bullet inside the body of the victim:
1. External Examination:
a. Shape of the Wound of Entrance — When the bullet is fired at
right angle with the skin the wound of entrance is circular
except in cases of near fire. If fired at another angle, the wound of
entrance is usually oval in shape. When the bullet is deformed,
no such characteristic findings will be observed.
b. Shape and Distribution of the Contusion or Abrasion Collar —
As a general rule, the contusion (abrasion) collar is widest at
the side of the acute angle of approach of the bullet. If the
bullet hits the skin perpendicularly, then the collar will have a
uniform width around the gunshot wound, except when the
bullet is deformed or in near fire.
c. Difference in Level Between the Entrance and Exit Wounds —
The difference in height between the gunshot wound of entrance
and exit may be determined by measuring those wounds from the
fixed references in the body, e.g. sole of the foot, or by drawing
a horizontal line across the body and using it as a reference
point.
d. By Probing the Wound of Entrance — The probe must be
applied without too much force so as not to create a new
course in the soft tissues. Care must be observed in cases of
deflection of the course due to some hard objects that might
have been involved.

2. Internal Examination:
a. Actual Dissection and Tracing the Course of the Wound at
Autopsy:
The tissues involved are hemorrhagic and bone spicules and
lead particles may be seen or felt.
b. Fracture of Bones and Course in Visceral Organs:
Occasionally, the nature of the bone fracture may show the
direction, especially when the bullet is not deformed before
causing the fracture. Injuries in solid visceral organs may clearly
manifest the course because of the absence of contractility.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 361

c. Location of Bone Fragments and Lead Particles:


The bone spicules and lead fragments go with the flight of
the bullet and may be utilized in the determination of the
trajectory.
d. X-ray Examination:
Bone spicules and lead fragments may be observed and their
exact location determined in relation with the wound of en-
trance.
3. Other Evidences to Show Trajectory:
a. Relative difference in the vertical location of the entrance from
the exit in the clothings.
b. Relative position and distance of the assailant from the victim
in the reconstruction or reenactment of the crime.
xi. Testimony of witnesses.

Exit (Outshoot) Wound: ^


An exit wound does not show characteristic shape unlike the
wound of entrance. It may be slit-like, stellate, irregular or even
similar to the wound of entrance. This is due to the absence of
external support beyond the skin so the bullet tends to tear or
shatter the skin while sufficient amount of kinetic energy is still
in the bullet during the process of piercing the skin.
^ • T h e edges of the wound are everted and occasionally portions of the
inner tissues are protruding. Aside from the bone, the skin is one of
the most resistant to penetrate in the course of the bullet so that
most often the bullet is lodged just underneath the skin. It may
only be noticed by the presence of contusion over the area wherein
it is lodged or its presence may be noticed by palpitation. The bullet
may have lost its^monierj^um after piercing_the_skin and just fall
without perforation of the clothing.
Bones may be involved in the trajectory and its spicules may
create additional injury to the wound of exit.

Variation on the shape of the wound of exit may be attributable to


the deformity of the bullet in its passage in the body and to the wab-
bling and stumbling movement of the bullet during its course and
fragmentation of the missiles.
Shored Gunshot Wound of Exit — If the place where the gunshot
wound of exit is pressed on a hard pbject as when the victim is lying
on his back on a hard object or in small caliber shots (like 0.22) the
wound of exit tends to be circular or nearly circular with abrasion at
its border. It is also observed that tight-fitting clothings, waist band,
belt collar, brassiere may also support the skin to enhance formation
362 LEGAL MEDICINE

of a circular wound of exit. This is known as a shored gunshot


wound of exit.
Shored gunshot wound of exit is produced when the outstretched
skin is impaled, sandwiched and crushed between the outgoing bullet
and the unyielding object is over the exit site, thus making the
wound to be circular with abrasion collar at its margin. Proper coap-
tation of the wound margin is impossible because of the loss of
skin just like those observed in entrance wound. In contrast with
the entrance wound, the supported exit wound shows a scalloped or
punched-out abrasion collar and sharply contoured skin in between
the radiating skin lacerations marginating the abrasion (Journal of
Forensic Medicine and Pathology, Vol. 4, Sept. 1983, p. 99).

G u n s h o t w o u n d o f exit o f the skull w i t h p u n c h out edges

stinction Between Gunshot Wound of Entrance and Wound of


Exit:
Entrance Wound Exit Wound
1. Appears to be smaller than the 1. Always bigger than the missile.
missile owing to the elasticity
of the tissue.
2. Edges are inverted. 2. Edges are everted.
3. Usually oval or round depend- 3. It does not manifest any de-
ing upon the angle of approach finite shape.
of the bullet.
4. "Contusion collar" or "Con- 4. "Contusion collar" is absent.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 363

tact ring" is present, due to


invagination of the skin and
apiInning of the missile.
4. Tattooing
Tat or smudging may be .5v Always absent.
present when firing is near.
6. Underlying tissues are not 6. Underlying tissues may be seen
protruding. protruding from the wound.
7. Always present after fire. 7. May be absent, if missile is
lodged in the body.
8. Paxaffin test may be positive. 8. Paraffin test always negative.

The "Odd and Even Rule" in Gunshot Wounds: ^


If the number of gunshot wounds of entrance and exit found in
the body of the victim is even, the presumption is that no bullet is
lodged in the body, but if the number of the gunshot wounds of
entrance and exit is odd, the presumption is that one or more bullets
might have been lodged in the body.
The rule is merely presumptive and actual inspection and autopsy
will verify the truth of the presumption. It may be possible that all
of those wounds or a majority of them are entrance wounds with
some bullets lodged, yet the number may still be even.

Sometimes it is difficult to locate the lodged bullet but with the


help of a portable X-ray, its location and extraction can be facilitated.

How to Determine the Number of Fires Made by the Offenderrr


1. Determination of the Number of Spent Shells:
Search must be made at the scene of the crime or at the place
where the offender made the fire, for spent shells, if the weapon
used is an automatic pistol or rifle. In case of revolver fire, the
empty shells may be found still inside the cylindrical magazine.
In machine gun fire, the spent shells may still be attached to the
cartridge belt.
2. Determination of Entrance Wounds in the Body of the Victim:
Although most often erroneous, the investigator may be given
an idea as to the minimum number of shots made. The number of
wounds of entrance may not show the exact number of fire
because:
a. Not all the fire made may hit the body of the victim.
b. The bullet may in the course of its flight hit a hard object
thereby splitting it and each fragment may produce separate
wounds of entrance.
c. The bullet may have perforated a part of the body and then
364 LEGAL MEDICINE

made another wound of entrance in some other parts of the


body; thus a single shot may produce two wounds of entrance.
3. Number of Shots Heard by Witnesses:
The witnesses might be able to count the number of shots
heard especially if the shots were made at sufficient intervals of
succession. However in cases of machine gun fire, there is difficulty
in ascertaining the number heard and the testimony of witness
as to the number of shots heard must be admitted with caution.

Mutilating gunshot wound of exit

^Distances when the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Entrance is Less


than the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Exit in the Body of the
Victim:
1. A bullet might have entered the body but split into several frag-
ments, each of which made a separate exit.
2. One of the bullets might have entered a natural orifice of the
body, e.g. mouth, nostrils, thereby making it not visible and then
producing a wound of exit.
3. There might be two or more bullets which entered the body
through a common entrance and later making individual exit
wounds.
4. In near shot with a shotgun, the pellets might have entered in a
common wound and later dispersed while inside the body and
making separate wounds of exit.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 365

yInstances when the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Entrance is More


than the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Exit in the Body of the
Victim:
1. When one or more bullets are not through and through and the
bullet is lodged in the body.
2. When all of the bullets produce through and through wounds but
one or more made an exit in the natural orifices of the body, e.g.
eyes, mouth, nostrils.
3. When different shots produced different wounds of entrance but
two or more shots produced a common exit wound.

/'Instances when there is No Gunshot Wound of Exit but the Bullet


is N o t Found in the Body of the Victim:
1. When the bullet is lodged in the gastro-intestinal tract and expelled
through the bowel", or lodged in the pharynx and expelled through
the mouth by coughing.
2. Near fire with a blank cartridge produced a wound of entrance
but no slug may be recovered.
3. The bullet may enter the wound of entrance and upon hitting
the bone the course is deflected to have the wound of entrance as
the wound of exit (cited by Modi, A Textbook of Medical Juris-
prudence & Toxicology, 10th ed.).

Trajectory of a gunshot w o u n d In the head.


366 LEGAL MEDICINE

Determining Whether the Wound is Ante-mortem or Post-mortem:


If the wound indicates that there has been profuse hemorrhage, or
there are signs of vital reactions in the tissue, then the gunshot
wound is ante-mortem. The presence and degree of vital reactions
depends upon the period of survival of the victim. It may be mani-
fested in the form of swelling, effusion of lymph or other evidences
of repair. Microscopically, there is congestion and leucocytic in-
filtration.
Wounds inflicted after death show no evidence of profuse hemor-
rhage, no retraction of the edges, and there are no vital reactions.

Problems Confronting Forensic Physician in the Identification of


Gunshot Wounds:
1. Alteration of the Lesion Due to Natural Process:
The drying of the margins of the wound opening may modify
measurements. The size and shape is considerably altered by
decomposition. Healing process and infection may modify its
appearance and it may be mistaken for some other types of injuries.

2. Medical and Surgical Intervention:


The wound may be scrubbed, medication applied, or surgically
debridded, extended, excised or sutured. This problem is properly
solved by having access to the clinical record of the patient.

3. Embalming:
Embalming trocar may be introduced on the gunshot wound it-
self or the trocar mark itself may be mistaken for a gunshot wound.
The gunshot wound may be extended to reach the principal artery
for the embalming fluid to enter. The passage of the embalming
fluid may wash out the product of the gunpowder combustion,
The trajectory of the bullet may be modified by the trocar thrust.
The suturing of the gunshot wound and the application of "make-
u p " may modify the actual appearance of the wound.

4. Problem Inherent to the Injury Itself:


The gunshot wound may be covered with clotted blood or with
scab to make it not visible. Grazing injury caused by glancing of
the bullet on the skin may appear like abrasions or lacerations.
Wound brought about by screw drivers, icepicks or other sharp
pointed instruments might be considered to be gunshot wounds.
Bullet might have entered or made its exit in the natural openings,
like mouth, nostril, ear, etc. making its identification difficult.
The wound may be located in thick haired scalp, skin fold and
make visibility difficult.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 367

5. X-ray Examination:
The use of an X-ray is almost indispensable in the examination
of gunshot injuries. The use of the apparatus will facilitate re-
covery of the lodged bullet together with the location of its
fragments.
The body might have been X-rayed with unspent and spent
ammunition clinging on the clothings and may be mistaken to
be inside the body; teeth fillings or crown may resemble bullet on
X-ray examination of the skull. "Migratory" bullets may be found
in some parts of the body away from the bullet tract. Victim
may have "bullet souvenir" on account of a previous gunshot
injury and may confuse the examiner as to be an effect of recent
shot.

Clothings:
The effects of the garments on the movement of the bullet depend
upon:
1. The number of layers of fabric between the muzzle and subjacent
skin;
2. Nature of the fabric which may be closely woven or loose mesh,
light or heavy, cotton or synthetic fibers.
3. Muzzle-clothings distance.

Examination of the External Wearing Apparel of the Victim of


Gunshot maybe Significant in Investigation because:
1. It may establish the possible range of the fire:
a. Contact Fire:
(1) There is a tear of the clothings covering the skin at the site
of the gunshot wound with fusion of its fibers in case of
artificial fabric. Fibers are turned outward away from the
body.
(2) Soot deposit and gunpowder tattooing around the torn
fabric. Burning of the fibers are visible.
(3) Muzzle imprint (profile of the muzzle) especially in arti-
ficial fabric may be present.
(4) Dirt and greasy deposit is carried by the bullet and may be
wiped out and be visible on the torn clothing.
b. Not Contact but Near Shot:
The same findings as in contact shot except when it is be-
yond the flame range and absence of muzzle imprint.
c. Far Fire:
There is a hole tear with inward direction of the thread.
368 LEGAL MEDICINE

2. It may be useful in the determination as to which is the point of


entry and of exit of the bullet:

The direction of the fibers will be inward or inverted at the


point of entry, while it is outward or everted at the point of
exit. Care must be exercised in making the inference inasmuch
as improper handling may change the direction of the fibers.

3. It may be useful in locating the bullet:


The clothings, like skin and bone are not easily perforated. It
is frequently observed that the bullet is recovered just underneath
the clothings of a dead victim at the crime scene.

Special Consideration on Bullets:


1. Souvenir Bullet:
Bullet has been lodged and has remained in the body. Its long
presence causes the development of a dense fibrous tissue capsule
around the bullet causing no untoward effect. It may be located
just underneath the skin to be easily palpated and may cause
inconvenience and irritation. Deep seated location may not cause
any problem to warrant its immediate removal.

2. Bullet Migration:
Bullet that is not lodged in a place where it was previously
located. A bullet which strikes the neck may enter the air passage,
and it may be coughed out or swallowed and recovered in the
stomach or intestine.
Bullets Embolism — a special form of bullet migration when
the bullet loses its momentum while inside the chamber of the
heart or inside the big blood vessels and carried by the circulating
blood to some parts of the body where it may be lodged. It may
cause sudden loss of function of the area supplied or death if vital
organs are involved.

3. Tandem Bullet:
T w o or more bullets leaving the barrel one after another. In
cases of misfire or a defect in the cartridge, the bullet may be
lodged in the barrel and a succeeding shot may cause the initial and
the succeeding bullet to travel in tandem. There is a strong
possibility for them to enter the target in a common hole. This
might create doubt to the statement made by the firer that he
made only a single shot, but ballistic examination can show as
to whether the bullet travelled in tandem.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 369

)<GUNSHOT WOUNDS MAY BE SUICIDAL, .


HOMICIDAL OR ACCIDENTAL

Evidences that tend to show that the Gunshot(s) Wound is Suicidal.


1. The shot was fired in a closed or locked room, usually in the
office or bedroom. If in the bedroom, the shot was fired while
the victim was lying in bed and the weapon covered with pillow
or bedding to muffle the sound. It may be committed in an
open isolated or uninhabited place.
2. The death weapon is almost always found near the place where
the victim was found. When a light, low caliber hand firearm was
used and the shot was made in parts of the body where death
may develop almost instantaneously, the victim may be seen with
the grip of the firearm firmly held in the palm of the wounding
hand (cadaveric spasm).
3. The shot was fired with the muzzle of the gun in contact with
the part of the body involved or at close range. The wound of
entrance may show signs of muzzle impression, burning, smud-
ging and tattooing.
4. The location of the gunshot wound of entrance is in an accessible
part of the body to the wounding hand. It may be at the temple,
roof of the mouth, precordial or epigastric region. A person
committing suicide will do the act in his most convenient way,
unless he has the intention of deceiving the investigator.
5. The shot is usually solitary. If the shot is made on the head
involving the brain, the shocking effect of the injury will not
make him capable of firing another shot. However, shots in some
parts of the body which may not produce immediate death or
sudden loss of consciousness, the possibility of additional shots is
not remote. The victim may be determined to die and had fired
additional shots to insure realization of his intention.
6. The direction of the fire is compatible with the usual trajectory
of the bullet considering the hand used and the part of the body
involved. A shot on the temple is usually directed towards the
opposite temple and upwards, while a shot in the precordium
and epigastrium is usually backwards and downwards.
7. Personal history may reveal social, economic, business or marital
problem which the victim cannot solve. He may have history
of mental disease, depression, severe frustration or previous
attempt of self-destruction.
8. Examination of the hand of the victim may show presence of
gunpowder.
9. Entrance wound do not usually involve clothings.
370 LEGAL MEDICINE

10. Fingerprints of victim on the butt.


11. Search of the place where the shot took place may reveal a
suicide note which usually mentions among other things the
reason why the victim committed suicide.
12. No disturbance in the place of death.
''Russian Roulette:
A group of persons may agree to load a revolver with a single
live cartridge and each member of the group will cock and pull the
trigger with the muzzle pressed or directed to the temple or towards
other vital parts of the body. The person who will pull the trigger
with the live cartridge in the firing chamber will suffer the fatal
consequence. Although it may be considered suicidal because any
person who participates to such an agreement may have the desire
to commit it, the unfortunate victim has no predetermined desire
of self-destruction.

idences to show that the Gunshot Wound is Homicidal:


1. The site or sites of wound of entrance has no point of election.
2. The fire is made when the victim is usually at some distance from
assailant.
3. Signs of struggle (defense wounds) may be present in the victim.
4. There may be a disturbance of the surroundings on account of
previous struggle.
5. Wounding firearm usually is not found at the scene of the crime.
6. Testimony of witnesses.

-Evidences to show that the Gunshot Wound is Accidental:


1. Usually there is but one shot.
2. There is no special area of the body involved.
3. Consideration of the testimony of the assailant and determination
as to whether it is possible to be accidental by knowing the rela-
tive position of the victim and the assailant.
4. Testimony of witnesses.

Points to be Considered and Included in the Report by the Physician:


1. Complete description of the wound of entrance and exit.
2. Location of the wound:
a. Part of the body involved.
b. Distance of the wound from the mid-line.
c. Distance of the wound from the heel or buttock.
3. Direction and length of the bullet tract.
4. Organs or tissues involved in its course.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 371

5. Location of the missile, if lodged in the body. (

6. Diagram, photograph, sketch, or drawing showing the location


and number of wounds.

Questions that a Physician is Expected to Answer in Court:


1. Could the wound or wounds be inflicted by the weapon presented
to him?
2. At what range was it fired?
3. What was the direction of the fire?
4. May it be possible that those gunshot wounds are self-inflicted?
5. Are there signs of struggle in the victim?
6. May it be possible for the victim to fire or resist the attack after
the injury was sustained by him?
7. Did the victim die instantaneously?
8. Where was the relative position of the assailant and the victim
when the shot was fired?

Can the Caliber of the Wounding Firearm be Determined from the


Size of the Gunshot Wound of Entrance?
Although the size of the gunshot wound of entrance is influenced
by several factors, the caliber may be inferred from the diameter of
the gunshot wound. In most cases, especially when the wound is
circular, the caliber is almost the same as the diameter of the wound
of entrance.

Determination of the Length of Survival of the Victim:


The length of survival of the victim may be inferred from the
following:
1. Nature of the gunshot wound.
2. Organs involved.
3. Presence or absence of infection or other complications.
4. Amount of blood loss.
5. Physical condition of the victim.

Capacity of the Victim to Perform Volitional Acts:


The power of the victim to perform voluntary acts depends upon
the area of the body involved, involvement of vital organs, and the
resistance of the victim. Injuries which will cause incapacity to do
voluntary acts as those involving the brain and the spinal cord
definitely inhibits volitional acts.
372 LEGAL MEDICINE

Determination as to the Length of Time a Firearm had been Fired s


Physical and chemical examinations of the residue inside the
barrel does not give a conclusive evidence as to how long the
firearm has been discharged. Most often the examiner does not
know whether the barrel was cleaned immediately after the dis-
charge. Smokeless powder which is now commonly used does not
leave much residue for such determination. However, inferences
may be drawn from the following:
1. Odor of the Gas Inside the Barrel:
Explosion of the gunpowder produces considerable evolution of
gases consisting of nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and methane. This mixture of gases has a
peculiar characteristic odor which may be noticed several hours
after the discharge. Later, it will disappear as gases usually evapo-
rate or chemically transformed to other odorless compounds.
2. Chemical Changes Inside the Barrel:
Black powder is a mixture of charcoal, sulfur and nitrates of
sodium or potassium. One of the products of combustion is
hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is rapidly converted to thio-
sulfate, thiocyanate and finally to sulfates of potassium or sodium.
The absence of the peculiar characteristic odor and the presence
of thiosulfate and thiocyanate which is increasing in amount
shows that the discharge occurred in a matter of few days. Later
the thiosulfate and thiocyanate of sodium or potassium will be
chemically transformed to sulfates and its presence shows that
firing occurred for sometime.
The iron salts in the ferrous state are found during the early
stage and may be transformed to ferric salt after a lapse of a
certain period.
The residue produced by smokeless powder explosion as nit-
rates are not liable to undergo changes even after a lapse of time,
hence approximation of the time of the discharge is much more
difficult.
The main difficulty in the determination is that the length of
such physical and chemical transformation of the residue of
combustion from one compound to another, cannot be definitely
ascertained. It is dependent upon several factors.

3. Evidences that may be Deduced from the Wound:


Approximation of the age of the wound also infers the time of
discharge. The degree of healing in the absence of subsequent
infection must be considered. If an infection is present, then the
degree of infection may be utilized in the approximation.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 373

Determining Whether the Wounding Weapon is an Automatic Pistol


or a Revolver:
The following must be taken into consideration to determine
whether the wounding weapon is an automatic pistol or a revolver:
1. Location of the Empty Shells:
In a revolver, the empty shells are found in the cylindrical
magazine chamber after the fire, but in cases of automatic pistol
the empty shells are driven out of the weapon after the shot, to
give way to live cartridge to be in the firing chamber. Thus, in
cases of automatic pistol, the empty shells are found a few yards
away from the place of the firing.
2. Nature of the Spent Bullet:
As a general rule, in automatic firearm, the bullet is copper
jacketed or cupro-nickel jacketed, while in cases of revolver, no
such coating is observed. This is not true in all cases.
3. Nature of the Base of the Cartridge or Spent Shell:
The base of a revolver has a wider diameter than that of the
cylindrical body to keep the cartridge stay in the magazine cham-
ber. There is no such difference in the diameter in case of shells
of automatic pistol.

Can the Direction of the Shot be Determined from the Direction


from which the Sound Came From?
Not possible, unless the flash or the person firing the shot is «een
at the time the shot was fired. The ear is usually at a loss as to
where the shot was fired.

Can the Firearm be Identified by the Sound of the Discharge?


It is impossible to distinguish and memorize the report from two
firearms of the same caliber. It may be possible for a person who is
accustomed to the sounds of firearms of different calibers to identify
the firearm by the sound produced.
Example: The sound of a shotgun may be distinguished from
the sound of a caliber 0.22 pistol.

Gunshot Wound may Not be a Near Fire or may Not Appear to be a


Near Fire:
1. When a device is set up to hold the firearm and to enable it to be
discharged at a long range by the victim.
2. When the gunshot wound of entrance does not show characteristics
of a near shot because the clothings are interposed between the
victim and the firearm.
374 LEGAL MEDICINE

3. When the examining physician failed to distinguish between a near


or far shot wound.
4. When the product of a near shot has been washed out of the
wound.

X-ray:
The use of the x-ray must not be overlooked in a gunshot wound
investigation. Several exposures at different angles must be made to
determine the precise location of the bullet, trajectory, position of
the slug, and other injuries.
X-ray Examinations may:
a. Facilitate location and extraction of the bullet lodged.
b. It will reveal fragmentation and their location.
c. It will show bone involvement like fracture.
d. It will reveal trajectory of the bullet.
e. It will show the effects of the bullet wound, like hemorrhage,
escape of air, laceration and other injuries.

SHOTGUN WOUNDS

A shotgun is a shoulder-fired firearm having a barrel that is smooth-


bored and is intended for the firing of a charged compound of one or
more round balls or pellets-

Classes of Shot in a Shotgun Shell:


1. Birdshot — The shot are small ranging in sizes from 0.05 inch to
0.15 diameter and loaded from 200 to 400 shots in the shell.
Birdshots are small and are commonly used for hunting fowls
and other small animals.
2. Buckshot — The shot ranges from 0.24 to 0.33 inch in diameter
and obviously fewer in number in a shot. A standard 12-gauge
shotgun contains only nine shots.
3. Single Projectile (Rifled Slug) — There is only a single shot or slug
in a shell.

Systems Employed in the Determination of the Diameter of the


Barrel of a Shotgun:
1. Gauge System — Determination of the number of lead balls, each
fitting of the bore totals to one pound in weight. The smaller
the gauge designation, the larger is the bore. If twelve balls can
be made from one pound of lead, each fitting the inside of the
barrel of a shotgun, the gun is called 12-gauge or 12-bore shot-
gun. 12-gauge shotgun is the most commonly used.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 375

2. Expression of the Bore Diameter in Inches — The 0.410 bore


shotgun is the only shotgun at present to be so designated.
3. Metric System — The bore is expressed in millimeters.

Length of the Barrel:


There is no standard length of the barrel but modem barrels
measure 26, 28, and 30 inches in length.

Grade of Choke:
A shotgun is choked when the muzzle end of the barrel is a dia-
meter smaller than the rest of the barrel. The main purpose of the
constriction is to minimize the dispersal of the pellet or buckshots
after the shot. It is based on the presence or absence of choke and
the degree of choking, that shotguns are classified as:
1. Unchoke — The diameter of the barrel from the rear end up to
the muzzle is the same.
2. Choke — The diameter of the barrel at the muzzle end is smaller
than the rest of the barrel.
a. "Improved Cylinder" — The narrowing of the barrel by 3 to 5
thousands of an inch.
b. Half Choke — narrowing by 15 to 20 thousands of an inch.
c. Full Choke — narrowing from"35 to 40 thousands of an inch.
The lethal range is normally in an area of 30 inches in diameter
at 30 to 40 yards according to the degree of choking.

Types of Shotgun:
1. As to the Number of Barrel:
a. Single Barrel Shotgun:
There is only one barrel and basically the original type.
b. Double Barrel Shotgun:
(1) Side-to-side barrel.
(2) Over-and-under barrel.
2. As to the Manner of Firing and Reloading:
a. Bolt Action:
The action of the bolt ejects the fired shell and loads the
next one.
b. Lever Action:
When the lever is swing down it ejects the fired shell and
loads the next shot.
c. Pump Action:
There is a cylindrical magazine which can accommodate
up to six shells, end to end, beneath the barrel.
376 LEGAL MEDICINE

d. Autoloading:
A pull of the trigger not only fires and ejects the shell but
also reloads the next shot and locks it for firing.

Shotgun Cartridge:
A shotgun cartridge is usually 2-3/4 or 3 inches long and the
diameter depends on the gauge of the firearm. The base and the
lower portion of the cylindrical portion is made of brass with the
primer cap at the center of the base. Attached to the free end of
its cylindrical portion is the cylindrical laminated paper tube to
complete the shell casmg.
When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin activates the primer
which in turn ignites the powder charge. Explosion of the gun-
powder will cause propulsion of the wad and pellets (shot) in front.
The muzzle velocity of the pellet is relatively smaller as compared
from those discharged from rifled firearms.
Except for the presence and nature of the slug, the component
of the shotgun blast is almost the same as that of a rifled firearm.
It also consists of gunpowder, flame, smoke, pellets and wad.

Shotgun Wound of Entrance:


1. Contact or Near Contact Shot (not more than 6 inches):
On account of the greater quantity of gunpowder in the shot-
gun cartridge, there is relatively more damage due to muzzle
olast, flame and gunpowder at the site of the wound of entrance
as compared with rifled fire.
a. If the shot is made perpendicular to the skin surface, the wound
of entrance is round but if the shot is made with an acute angle
with the skin the wound is oval. In both instances, the wound
border may be smooth or slightly rugged.
b. The entrance wound is burned, the width of which increases
as the muzzle-skin distance increases but does not exceed 6
inches.
c. There is blackening due to smoke.
d. Gunpowder tattooing is densely located in a limited area. The
area of spread is directly proportional to the muzzle skin
distance.
e. There is contusion of the tissue that has been blackened by
gunpowder.
f. There is singeing of the hair (less than 6 inches).
g. Subcutaneous and deeper tissues are severely disrupted.
h. Blood and other tissues along the bullet tract shows presence
of carbon monoxide.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 377

i..Wad or its fragments together with shot (pellets) may be re-


covered from the bullet tract.

2. Long Range Shot (more than 6 inches skin-muzzle distance):


a. At 2 to 3 feet muzzle-skin distance, there is still a single wound
of entry although there may be isolated shots causing independ-
ent entry.

b. At 3 to 4 feet distance the wound of entry is usually serrated


or scalloped circumference and often referred to as a "rat
hole".

c. At about 5 to 6 feet distance, the wad tends to produce an


independent injury usually an abrasion at the vicinity of entry
of the shots. The wounding capacity of the wad is very much
less as compared with the shot on account of its lightness and
size.

d. At 6 feet, the shots begins to separate from the conglomerate


shot and at 10 feet each shot already produces independent
wounds of entry.

As the shot begin to separate from one another, there is


the tendency for one shot to strike another causing changes
of the shot course. This phenomena is called "billiard ball
ricochette effect".

e. Smudging due to smoke may be observed up to 15 inches.

f. Gunpowder tattooing may be detected up to 24 inches.

g. In an unchoked shotgun, to estimate the muzzle-target distance,


the following rule must be applied.

Measure the distance between the two farthest shot (pellets) in


inches and subtract one, the number thus obtained will give the
muzzle-target distance in yards.

The character of the wound and the degree of dispersal is in-


fluenced by the muzzle-target distance, gauge of the shotgun, degree
of choke and the type of ammunition. However, it is highly recom-
mended to have an experimental shot with the firearm using similar
cartridge and under the same environmental conditions.

A close shot produces more serious injuries because the shots


are concentrated on a specific target and because of greater kinetic
energy of the pellets.
378 LEGAL MEDICINE

I / D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F T H E PRESENCE O F
G U N P O W D E R A N D PRIMER C O M P O N E N T S

The Importance of Determining the Gunpowder on the Skin of the


Victim:
1. Determination of the distance of the gun muzzle from the victim's
body when fired:
As discussed previously, the explosion of the powder in the
cartridge expels particles which may be embedded in the skin or
just clinging on the surface at a distance of not more than 24
inches. The distribution of the gunpowder is more at the upper
portion of the wound of entrance, due to the upward position
of the muzzle of the gun when fired. The presence of gunpowder
at or near the wound of entrance shows that the gun muzzle
when fired is not more than 24 inches but its absence will not
preclude near fire because other factors might have intervened.
Less powder particles at the wound of entrance is observed in
smokeless powder as compared with black powder.
2. Determining whether a person has fired a firearm:
The dorsum of the hands are the ones examined to deter-
mine the presence of gunpowder. When a person fires a gun, the
powder particles which escape may cling on the dorsum of the
hand. The presence of gunpowder at the dorsum of the hand
may infer that a person has fired a gun.
Basis of the Tests:
When a gun is discharged two types of residues are liberated
namely, the metallic residues from the primer which is not only
blown forward towards the target from the muzzle but also
backward in the direction of the shooter, and also the particles
of burned, burning and unburn ed gunpowder (propellant) moving
also in the same directioni as the metallic residue of the primer.
All of these residues are deposited on the back of the firing hand
of the shooter.
Detection of metallic residue of the primer on the palm of the
hand may also indicate that the individual was making a defensive
movement, such as trying to ward off or grab the weapon at the
time of the discharge. In suicide, residue may be deposited on
the palm of the hand used to steady the barrel at the time of the
discharge.

Procedures in Determining the Presence of Gunpowder:


1. Gross Examination or Examination with the Use of Hand Lens:
Fine black powder particles of varying sizes may be seen at the
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 379

region of the gunshot wound of entrance, on the dorsum of


the hands or at the outer surface of the wearing apparel of the
victim. This examination is not conclusive because other foreign
particles may be mistaken for gunpowder or primer components.
2. Microscopic Examination:
Fine particles may be magnified but there are no characteristic
shape, color or consistency of gunpowder.

3. Chemical Tests:
a. Laboratory Test to Determine Firearm Residues:
There is inference of contact or near distance of the gun
muzzle to the skin when there is burning, tattooing and smudging
visible through the naked eye. The burning and then the
tattooing will gradually disappears as the muzzle distance in-
creases. The powder tattooing will gradually spread out to a
greater area until it is no longer detectible. Minute particles of
burning and unburned residues and the primer constituents can
be detected in the laboratory.
The same tests may also be applied on the dorsum of the
hand of the persons suspected to have fired the gun. Although
the test is not conclusive, it may be a corroborative evidence
in the determination as to whether a person has fired a gun.
The tests may involve the determination of the presence of
gunpowder residues of primer components.

Tests for the Presence of Powder Residues:


l.On the Skin (Dorsum of the Hand or Site of the Wound of
Entrance):
Dermal nitrate test (Paraffin test, Diphenylamine test, Lung's
test or Gonzales* tests) — The back of the fingers and of the hand
up to the region of the wrist is coated with melted paraffin, heated
at a temperature of 150 degrees fahrenheit. To avoid heat injury
to the skin, a low melting point paraffin is used. The melted
paraffin penetrates the minute crevices of the skin and when
hardened and cooled off, some of the powder particles will be
extracted and embedded in the paraffin cast. After the cast is
built with layers of cotton and paraffin to a thickness of about
1/8 inch and solidified, it is then removed from the hand or from
the site of the wound of entrance and the inner aspect of the
cast is treated by means of a dropper with Lung's reagent.
The presence of small particles containing either nitrate or
nitrite will be indicated by a blue reaction of the particles upon
contact with Lung's reagent.
380 LEGAL MEDICINE

The test is not conclusive as to the presence of gunpowder


because fertilizers, cosmetics, cigarettes, urine and other nitro-
genous compounds with nitrites and .nitrates will give a positive
reaction. A negative result is not also conclusive that the person
did not fire a gun for a well constructed hand gun will not dis-
charge any residue on the hand or the hand might have been
subjected to extensive washing.
The test usually gives a positive result even, after a large lapse
of three days or even though the hand has been subjected to
ordinary washing.
Subjection of a suspect to the test is not self-incriminatory as
the act is purely mechanical and does not require the use of
mental faculties.

2. On Clothings (Especially Colored Ones):


Walker's test (C-acid test, H-acid test) — A glossy photographic
paper is fixed thoroughly in hyposolution for 20 minutes to
remove all the silver salts and then washed for 45 minutes and
dried.
The dried photographic paper may be treated with any of the
following:
a. Warm 5% solution of " C " acid (2 naphthalamine 4-8 disulfonic
acid) for 10 minutes and dry.
b. Warm 5% solution of " H " acid (l-amino-8-naphthol-3,6 disul-
fonic acid) for 10 minutes and dry.

c. Warm 0.5% solution of sulfanilic acid for TO minutes,,dry and


then swab with a 0.5% solution of alpha naphthalamine in
methyl alcohol and dry.
The sheet of the prepared paper of sufficient size is placed face
up on a towel or pad of cotton and the material to be tested is
placed on top, face down on the paper.

The preparation is then covered with a thin dry cloth or towel


slightly moistened with 20% solution Of acetic acid, and another
layer of dry cloth.
The entire pack is pressed with a hot iron for two minutes.

The paper is removed, washed with hot water and methyl


alcohol to remove excess reagent and dried.
If unburned powder grains are present, it will result to the
production of dark red or orange-brown spots on the prepared
paper.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 381

Tests for the Presence of Primer Components:


When an individual fires a weapon, the metallic primer residue
(barium, antimony and lead) may be deposited on the back of the
hand with the residue most likely deposited on the skin web, the
hand between the thumb and index finger. The test for the presence
of the metallic constituent of the primer may be done through any
of the following:

1. Harrison and Gilroy Test:


A cotton swab moistened with 0.1 molar hydrochloric acid is
used to gather antimony, barium and lead.

The cloth is then treated with various reagents to detect the


presence of a primer component. The reagent sodium rhodi-
sonate yields a red color in the presence of lead and barium.
Addition of 1.5 hydrochloric acid to the red area that yields
a blue-violet color in the presence of lead while a bright pink
color is developed in the presence of barium.

The test is simply applied but does not enjoy substantial uti-
lization in forensic laboratory because:
a. It lacks specificity of the color reaction for the trace of the
element.
b. It is inadequately sensitive.
c. There is interference of the color reaction among the three
elements themselves.
d. There is instability of the color that developed.

2. Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA):


A sample is obtained from the hands by the use of paraffin or
by washing the hand with dilute acid. It is then exposed to
radiation from a nuclear reactor emitting neutrons. Secondary
radioactivity is induced in the materials removed from the hand.
By making an appropriate counts at different energy levels, the
elemental composition of the residues can be determined with
precision and accuracy.
The technique is extremely sensitive and a very small quantity
can be detected, but only few laboratories can afford to under-
take the procedure because it is very expensive and the test is
unable to detect the presence of lead. The test requires access
to a nuclear reactor.
Principle: Barium and antimony are converted into isotopes by
means of neutron bombardment, afterwards their
quantity is measured.
382 LEGAL MEDICINE

3. Flameless Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FAAS):


The sample of handwashing is subjected to a high temperature
to vaporize the metallic elements of the primer residue. This in
turn is detected and quantitated by absorption spectrophoto-
metry.
This method is quick, sensitive and employs equipment within
the economic means of a modern-size crime laboratory. It can
detect the presence of barium, antimony and lead.
4. Use of Scanning Electron Microscope with a Linked X-ray
Analyzer:
Adhesive material is used to remove any residue particles from
the hand. The material is then examined under the scanning
electron microscope with a linked X-ray analyzer. Particles of
the primer residue have the characteristic size and shape which
can easily be distinguished from other materials. Analysis of the
particles with X-ray analyzer will confirm their identification.
While this method appears to be more specific than the-pre-
viously mentioned methods, it is seldom used because the initial
equipment is expensive and it requires a longer period of time to
analyze a case.

FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
The following factors must be utilized in the identification of the
firearm used in the commission of crime:
1. Caliber of the Weapon:
A firearm may be identified by its caliber and it may be deter-
mined from the firearm itself, from the shell, bullet, cartridge
or from the character of the wound of entrance.
2. Fingerprints:
Fingerprint marks may be found in the butt of the firearm or
at the trigger and its guard. Care must be observed by the inves-
tigator in handling the firearm at the scene of the crime. The
fingerprints found at the butt may distinguish homicidal or
suicidal nature of death.
3. Fouling of the Barrel:
The firearm which is recently fired may have a characteristic
odor of the smoke inside the barrel. Chemical analysis of the
washing from the interior of the barrel will show whether the
weapon was recently fired.
4. Serial Number:
All firearms bear serial numbers for purposes of identification.
The offender may erase the number or may try to change it.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 383

Procedure of Restoring Serial Number if Tampered:


The procedure of restoring the obliterated numbers involve
three steps, namely:
a. Cleaning — The site of the number should be carefully cleaned;
all oil, dirt, grease, and paint should be removed with gasoline,
xylol and acetone.
b. Polishing — This operation is by far the most important. The
whole surface should be smoothly polished, using a fine file
followed by a medium to fine grade carborondum cloth. When
the area is large or the scratches are deep, a mechanical polisher
may be used to save time. The time of polishing depends on
the hardness and granularity of the metal. However, the area
should always have the mirror-like surface.
c. Etching — For all iron or steel materials, the following etching
solution may be used:
Hydrochloric acid 80 cc.
Distilled water 60 cc.
Ethyl alcohol 50 cc.
Copper chloride 10 grams
The solution is swabbed on continuously until the numbers
appear. This may take several hours (Modern Criminal In-
vestigation by Harry Soderman, p. 229).

5. Ballistics Examination:
Ballistics is the study of physical forces reacting on projectiles
or missiles.
Forensic ballistics is conventionally known as firearm identi-
fication. It deals with the examination of fired bullets and cart-
ridge cases in a particular gun to the exclusion of all others.

Ballistics May Be Subdivided into Three Separate and Distinct Area


of Study, Namely:
1. Interior Ballistics (Internal Ballistics) — It is a branch of the
science of Ballistics which deals with what happened to the
cartridge and its bullet from the time the trigger of the gun is
pulled until the bullet exits from the barrel. It deals with the
study of what happened in the chamber and gun barrel after the
pull of the trigger.
2. Exterior Ballistics (External Ballistics) — It deals with what
happened to the bullet or projectile from the moment it leaves
the gun barrel to the moment of impact on the target or object.
It is concerned with the flight of the bullet and the influence of
all factors in its flight.
384 LEGAL MEDICINE

Ballistic c o m p a r i s o n m i c r o s c o p e

3. Terminal Ballistics — This concerns with the effect of the bullet


on the target or until it comes to rest.

Medical Ballistics — A form of terminal ballistics wherein the


target is a person. It is concerned with the penetration, severity
and appearance of the wound due to bullet or missile.

Basic Principles Involved in Firearm Identification:


1. T h e quality of metal in the manufacture of the firearm is very
much harder and resistant to deformity as compared with the
quality of metal used in the manufacture of the cartridge, so
that in the process of contact between the part of the gun in-
volved and the cartridge, the surface condition of the part of the
gun can easily be impressed on the shell or bullet.
2. For reasons known only to the manufacturer, firearms have
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 385

certain physical characteristics of certain type of caliber which


differentiate it from others. This includes the number of lands
and grooves, the direction of the twist, width of the individual
land or groove, style of the cannelure, etc., which become the basis
of class characteristics in firearm identification.
3. No two firearms can be manufactured with identical surface
characteristics. Each firearm on close examination will show the
differences. Marks on the different bullets or shells fired from one
firearm have similar characteristics when viewed in the com-
parison microscope. Marks on different bullets or shells fired from
different firearms will show variation in the findings. This is
referred to as individual characteristics.

Instruments Use in Firearm Identification:


1. Comparison Microscope — This is an instrument which consists of
two compound microscopes which allows comparison of two
objects by looking through a single eyepiece. On each of the
stages, the compound microscope is placed on the object to be
compared and by manipulation of the mechanical rack and pinion
gear the class characteristics of the object may be observed. When
two objects are being compared, the individual or accidental
characteristics may be compared. There is an attachment for
photographic camera to facilitate the taking of pictures of the
findings.

2. Bullet Recovery Box — It is an instrument or device for the


purpose of recovering the test bullet and shell. In the N.B.I., it
is a long cylindrical container filled with cotton and an open
shooting end. The suspected firearm is fired at the open end and
the bullet may be recovered in the layers of cotton and the shell
may be found in the area where it is fired, in cases of automatic
firearm or in the cylindrical magazine inside the cases of the
revolver. The test shell and bullet may be used for comparison
with the evidence bullet or shell.

There are other ways of recovering test bullet which are used
in other countries, it may be:
a. Shot may be fired on a box with oil and sawdust.
b. Vertical or horizontal shot on a water tank.
c. Shot-fired on a block of ice.
3. Hand lens.
4. Sharp pointed instrument for scraping I.D. marks.
5. Caliper.
6. Analytical Balance.
386 LEGAL MEDICINE
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 387

Types of Marking on the Examination through the Comparison


Microscope:
1. Impression Type Mark (Stamp Mark) — This is the forcible appli-
cation of a hard surface against a softer one leaving an impression
on the harder surface.
Example:
a. The striking of the firing pin on the percussion cap.
b. The impact of the base of the cartridge on the breach block of
the gun.
2. Striation or Serration Mark — These are produced by a harder
surface scraping, dragging, sliding or slipping across a softer one
leaving a series of abrasions, serrations and scrapes.
Example:
a. The bullet surface may show rifling marks on its surface as it
passes the spiral landings and groovings of the inner surface of
the barrel.
b. The extractor produces striations as it slips over the cartridge
groove.
c. The ejector may cause striation markings on the cartridge case
in the process of ejection of the spent shell.
When a cartridge is fired from a firearm, the following marks
may be found in the shell and from the bullet,
a. Marks Found in the Shell:
(1) Marks of the Firing Pin:
The firing pin leaves impressions in the percussion cap.
The depth, location and the size may be the individual
characteristic of a firearm, although the hardness of the
metal in the cap may cause certain degree of variation of
the impression.
(2) Marks from the Extractor:
The extractor mark is found in front of the rim of the
shell. The scratch impressed by the extractor is a charac-
teristic in a particular firearm.
( 3 ) Marks of the Ejector:
This mark is found at the head of the shell. Generally
the ejector mark has a position opposite the extractor
mark, although it is not always the case.
(4) Marks from the Breechblock:
The impact of the shell to the breechblock in the recoil
impresses the ridges of the breechblock and often gives
identification marks characteristic of a firearm.
388 LEGAL MEDICINE

(5) Marks on the Cylindrical Surface of the Shell:


The marks are brought about by the surface of the firing
chamber or by the magazine,
b. Marks Found in the Bullet:
(1) Number of Lands and Grooves:
The number of grooves, depth, and width depend upon
the manufacturer of the firearm.
( 2 ) Direction of the Twist of the Rifling Marks:
The direction of the spiral lands and grooves may be a
twist to the right or to the left.
Manufacturers of firearms made certain marks which may dis-
tinguish firearms manufactured by them from that of the other
manufacturers. Each manufacturer makes specific number of spiral
grooves and direction of the twist in the barrel of the firearm. A
bullet recovered at the scene of the crime or from the body of the
victim may show those marks in the examination, the examiner may
have a presumption to where the firearm came from. Thus, if in
the examination of the recovered bullet, it was found out that there
are 6 grooves and the rifling marks are twisted to the left, then it is
possible that it came from a Colt firearm.

In the firearm identification, the examiner must take into con-


sideration the following:
1. Gross examination or examination with the use of magnifying
lens:
a. Caliber of the bullet — this may be determined by:
(1) Simple inspection by an experienced examiner.
( 2 ) Weighing of the bullet.
( 3 ) Determining the diameter of the bullet by the use of a
caliper.
b. Presence or absence of deformity or loss of part.
c. Presence of foreign elements, like blood, flesh, connective
tissues, soil, etc.
d. Identifying marks placed by previous possessor.
2. Examination with the use of comparison microscope:
This is a comparison between evidence shell or bullet with the
test shell or bullet.
a. Determination of the class characteristics — Physical charac-
teristics of a certain caliber of firearm used by the manufacturer:
( 1 ) Number of riflings.
(2) Direction and rate of the rifling marks.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 389

(3) Dimension of the lands and grooves.


(4) Depth of the grooves.
( 5 ) Style of the cannelure.

b. Determination of individual or accidental characteristics:


(1) The rifling of the barrel is reflected in the bullet as it passes
through it. Repetition of the fire will cause the same
marking, except those where the rifling of the barrel has
been changed.

( 2 ) Firing Pin mark — When the base of the cartridge is hit by


the firing pin, the pin produces distinct markings which can
be reproduced by succeeding shots.

(3) Breechblock Mark — As the bullet is propelled forward by


the force of the expanded gas, the casing is forcibly moved
backward against the breech face or recoil plate. The back-
ward force transfers the marking on the breechblock to
the base of the cartridge.
(4) Extractor Mark — The mark made by the extractor on the
cartridge rim when pulled away from the firing chamber.
( 5 ) Ejector Mark — Mark produced by the ejector in the process
of throwing away the spent shell.

GUNSHOT WOUNDS IN DIFFERENT


PARTS OF THE B O D Y

Head and Neck:


1. Cranium:
Close or near contact fire in the head may produce marked
laceration of the skin, burning and tattooing of the surrounding
skin. The skull is fractured without any definite shape with
linear extensions to almost all of the bones comprising the cranial
box.

Fire from a distance with the bullet having a right angle of


approach to the skull, the fracture is oval at the outer table.
There will be radiating linear fractures from the point of entrance.
The wound of exit will be clean-cut oval or round opening at the
inner table with a bevelled fracture at the outer table.
Grazing approach of the bullet may produce an elongated
gutter-like depressed fracture of the cranium. The tangential
impact of the bullet may cause it to split and it is not uncommon
to see a fragment lodging in the brain substance while the other
ricochette outside hitting other objects nearby:
390 LEGAL MEDICINE

2. Brain Substance:
Bullet wound in the brain substance is usually a rugged tunnel
with a diameter larger than that of the caliber of the bullet, with
marked ecchymosis of the surrounding area and filled with fresh
and clotted blood. Fragments of bones may be felt in the tun-
nelled bullet tract. In most cases, injury of the brain causes
sudden loss of consciousness and incapable of voluntary move-
ment.

L a c e r a t i o n of the brain en route of a gunshot

Injury of the cerebral hemispheres is as a rule not immediately


fatal and the victim may survive the injury, however, a bullet
course which includes the medulla, pons and other vital centers
causes immediate death. Some victims may live for sometime
but may develop epileptiform convulsions as a sequela.

3. Face:
Firearm wound on the face may not cause serious trouble
except that it becomes a potential avenue of infection and may
cause marked deformity.
In suicidal shot, the muzzle of the firearm may be placed inside
the mouth or nostrils that no visible wound of entrance is ap-
preciable. The course of the bullet is usually upwards and in
most cases the brain is involved.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 391

4. Neck:
The bullet may pierce the front portion of the neck and may
involve the cervical portion of the spinal cord; thus causing instan-
taneous death if the upper portion is involved. The course of the
bullet may involve the carotid or jugular vessels and death may be
due to profused hemorrhage. The anterior wall of the esophagus
may be perforated and the bullet may enter into the gastro-
intestinal tract and expelled through the bowel. Injury to the
trachea and upper bronchi may cause asphyxia or aspiration
pneumonia.
Chest:
1. Chest Wall:
The bullet wound on the chest wall usually has an upward course
and may involve both sides. The bullet may strike the rib, ster-
num or the body of the vertebra and may cause deformity or
deflection of its course. When the intercostal or mammary vessels
are injured, there will be profused hemorrhage. Hemothorax of
more than a liter is observed in fatal cases.
2. Lungs:
The passage of a bullet in the lungs produces a cylindrical tunnel
much larger than the diameter of the projectile with bloody
contents and ecchymotic borders. When the pulmonary vessels
are involved, profused hemorrhage is observed which produces
death before medical or surgical intervention can be instituted.
If only one lung is involved, the profuse hemorrhage may cause
collapse of the lung, displacement of the heart, and mediastinum
towards the uninjured side. Emphysema is present when there is
marked injury to the air sacs. Involvement of the bigger bronchi
may cause asphyxia with the lung partially atelectatic and emphy-
sematous. The victim may not die immediately but later may
develop aspiration pneumonia or cerebral embolism.
3. Heart:
Bullet wound of the heart may be circular or stellate witn
subepicardial hemorrhage in the surrounding tissue. The course
may be of any direction but the right ventricle is often involved
because of the large surface area of exposure in front.
Gunshot wound of the heart as a general rule does not prevent
the victim from running, walking, climbing stairs, or do other
forms of volitional acts for death-is not usually instantaneous.
Wound of the auricle is more rapidly fatal as compared with the
wound of the ventricle on account of the thickness of the muscu-
lature of the latter which produces temporary closure of the
wound. Bullet may lodge in the musculature of the ventricle and
392 LEGALMEDICINE

becomes encapsulated by fibrous tissue. Death in firearm wound


of the heart may be due to the loss of blood or tamponade.

Abdomen:
Abdominal gunshot wounds are quite frequent but not as serious
as those of the chest and head because of its amenability to surgical
operation. In most cases injuries are not only limited to one organ
but to several organs. Injuries to the visceral organs may not be
found along the course of the bullet on account of their mobility
and their capacity to change their forms. Involvement of the ver-
tebral column may cause injury to the spinal cord. The mesenteric
vessels, aorta, vena cava, and other big abdominal blood vessels
may be lacerated and cause severe hemorrhage.

Bullet wound of the liver and other parenchymatous abdominal


organs may cause stellate perforations which are usually larger than
the caliber of the bullets that cause them. The tunnel which is also wide
may contain fragmented tissue, fresh and clotted blood. On account
of the richness of the blood supply of the parenchymatous organs,
profuse hemorrhage is the natural sequela. Loss of function, es-
pecially of the kidneys, pancreas, etc. may lead to fatal results.
Bullet wounds of the stomach and other hollow organs are usually
small on account of the contractility of the walls. The wound of
entrance is smaller than the wound of exit. Grazing injury may
simulate a lacerated wound. Injury of the viscus is usually multiple
and with less hemorrhage except when it involves the mesenteric
vessels. Timely surgical intervention may prevent untoward com-
plications. However, death due to peritonitis is not rare on account
of the spilling of its contents into the abdominal cavity.

Spine and Spinal Cord:


Injury of the spine may not involve the spinal cord, but injury
of the spinal cord may be due to:

1. The bullet may directly affect the canal and the spinal cord
causing either partial or complete severance.

2. The bullet may not hit directly the spinal cord but may cause
injury in the body or other parts of the vertebra and contusion,
concussion or compression on account of the impact. Injury
of the upper cervical spinal cord may cause immediate death
because the vital nerve tracts may be involved. Lower spinal
cord injury may cause motor or sensory paralysis and may later
succumb to hypostatic pneumonia, suppuration or other com-
plications.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 393

Extremities:
Bullet wounds in the extremities may show the characteristic lesion
of gunshot wounds. Usually the wound is not so serious except
when it involves the principal blood vessels and nerves. The bony
tissue may be involved producing comminuted fracture of the bone
and deflection of the course of the bullet. Septic infection, throm-
bosis, hemorrhage, deformity are not unusual after-effects.
Chapter XIV

THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS


^ffiermal injuries are those caused by an appreciable deviation
from normal temperature, capable of producing cellular or tissue
changes in the body. Thermal death is one primarily caused by
thermal injuries.
Exposure to severe cold may cause frost-bite, while exposure to
high temperature may cause burning or scalding.

I. DEATH OR INJURY FROM COLD


Death or injury due to a cold is not common in tropical countries.
The primary cause of death is attributed to the decreased dissocia-
tion of oxygen from hemoglobin in the red blood cells and diminished
power of the tissue to utilize oxygen. Cold produces a vascular
spasm which results to anemia of the skin surface followed by
vascular dilatation with paralysis and increased capillary perme-
ability. Prolonged exposure may cause necrosis and gangrene.
The degree of damage depends upon the severity of the cold, the
duration of exposure, area of the body involved, sex and humidity.
Cold damp air is more fatal than cold dry air. A short exposure to
cold temperature may not be deleterious to the body as long ex-
posure to low but not to freezing temperature. Children and aged
individuals are more susceptible to cold weather on account of their
limited thermotaxic reserved. Individuals whose vitality have been
diminished by fatigue, lack of food, alcoholism, and previous ill-
health are less able to withstand the effects of cold. Women are
more resistant to cold than men on account of their greater deposits
of subcutaneous fat.
The action of cold in the body is partly local and partly reflex in
the circulatory system. Exposure to cold will diminish the disso-
ciation power of oxygen from hemoglobin, thus starving the brain
and other nervous center with oxygen.
The effect of low temperature consists of a local damage to the
exposed tissue and systemic change involving the whole body
Effects of Cold:
y . Local Effect (Frostbite; Immersion foot; Trench foot):
First — There is blanching and paleness of the skin due to
vascular spasm.
394
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 395

Second — The vascular spasm is followed by erythema, edema and


swelling due to vascular dilatation, paralysis and in-
creased capillary permeability.
Third — In advanced stage of vascular paralysis, there will be
blister formation.
Fourth — Continued exposure to severe cold will later lead to
necrosis, vascular occlusion, thrombosis and gangrene.
On account of the expansion of the tissue and individual cells
in the process of solidification, the cell membrane may rupture,
tissue and organ may rupture, and the skull may be fractured.
Microscopically:
There is vacuolization and degeneration of the epidermal cells,
necrosis of the collagen of the subcutaneous tissue, perivascular
exudates of red and white cells, occlusion of vessels lumen by
clump of red blood cells, and prolification of the endothelium.

2. Systematic Effects:
The systemic effects are reflex in nature brought about by the
stimulation and paralysis of the nerves. Respiration, heart action,
metabolic processes are slowed down on account of cerebral
anoxia. There is a cold stiffening of the body with blister for-
mation and gangrene of the exposed part of the body.

Signs and Symptoms:


1. Gradual lowering of the body temperature is accompanied by
increasing stiffness (cold stiffening), weariness and drowsiness.
2. The person may be lethargic, passing the stage of coma to death.
3. Person may suffer from delusion, convulsion and delirium.
4. Palpation of the cutaneous surface shows hardening and coldness.

Post-mortem Findings:
1. Externally: Nothing characteristic.
a. Cold stiffening.
b. Surface of the body is pale.
c. Reddish patches especially in exposed portions of the body
(frost-erythema).
d. Onset of rigor mortis delayed.
2. Internally: Nothing characteristic.
a. Blood is generally fluid in the heart and blood vessels with a
bright red color.
b. Parenchymatous organs are congested with occasional petechial
hemorrhage.
396 LEGAL MEDICINE

c. Audible cracking sound on flexing the knee and other big joints
apparently due to the breaking down of the frozen synovial
fluid.
d. Petechial hemorrhage in the lungs, brain and kidneys.
e. If death occurs after sometime, pathological findings related to
complications, like bronchopneumonia, toxemia due to gan-
grene, etc. may be found.
The body tissue fluid evaporates slowly if the body is frozen,
hence, mummification develops later. However, the individual
cell, tissues and organs are well-preserved.

II. DEATH OR INJURY FROM HEAT

The effects of heat in the body may be local at the application, or


general when the whole body is affected.

Classifications of Heat Injury:


1. General or Systemic Effects:
a. Heat cramps.
b. Heat exhaustion.
c. Heat stroke.
2. Local Effects:
a. Scald.
b. Burns.
( 1 ) Thermal.
( 2 ) Chemical — acids and alkalies.
( 3 ) Electrical and lightning.
( 4 ) Radiation — X-ray, ultraviolet, etc.

G E N E R A L OR SYSTEMIC EFFECT:
1. Heat Cramps (Miner's Cramp, Fireman's Cramp, Stoker's Cramp):
This is the involuntary spasmodic painful contraction of muscles
essentially due to dehydration and excessive loss of chlorides by
sweating. This is seen among laborers working in rooms with high
temperature and with profused perspiration.

Symptoms:
a. The -onset is usually sudden as muscles cramp with agonizing
pain.
b. The cramp is accompanied by headache, dizziness and vomiting.
c. The face is flushed, pupils are dilated with tinnitus and ab-
dominal pain.
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 397

d. The amount of chloride excretion through the urine is markedly


diminished.
Usually, the condition does not end fatally. A liberal adminis-
tration of fluid with chlorides relieves the patient. However, intra-
venous administration of saline solution rapidly restores the patient
to normal.

2. Heat Exhaustion (Heat Collapse, Syncopal Fever, Heat Syncope,


Heat Prostration):
This is due to a heart failure primarily caused by heat and
precipitated by muscular exertion and warm clothing.

Symptoms:
a. Sudden attack of syncope, general body weakness, giddiness
and staggering movement.
b. The face is pale, the skin is cold, and the temperature is sub-
normal.
c. The pupils are dilated, pulse weak and thready, and respiration
is sighing.
d. There may be diarrhea, dimness of vision and dilated pupils.
e. Exhaustion comes gradually with throbbing in the temple.
f. The patient usually recovers, if made to rest, but occasionally
the condition may become worse and the patient dies of heart
failure.
The treatment is purely symptomatic and removal from heated
area.
Post-mortem finding is nothing typical, except probably cloudy
swelling of the heart musculature.

3. Heat Stroke (Sunstroke, Heat Hyperpyrexia, Comatous Form,


Thermic Fever):
This usually occurs among those working in ill-ventilated
places with dry and high temperatures or due to a direct exposure
to the sun.

Symptoms:
a. Sudden onset that may be followed by premonitory symptoms
of headache, malaise, giddiness and weakness of the legs.
b. Temperature rises suddenly and the skin becomes dry, with
burning sensation and flushed skin and complete cessation of
sweating.
c. Face is congested.
d. Pulse is full and pounding .
398 LEGAL MEDICINE

e. Respiration later becomes irregular.


f. The pupils are usually contracted.
g. Death occurs in 1/2 to 1 hour after the onset of symptoms.

Post-mortem Findings:
a. Cadaveric rigidity comes soon and passes off soon.
b. Putrefaction occurs early.
c. Lividity is marked.
d. Petechial hemorrhages may be found in the brain and in the
heart.
e. Congestion of the internal organs.
f. The temperature may rise after death.

Medico-Legal Importance of Heat Cramps, Heat Exhaustion and


Heat Stroke:
If ever death occurs, it is most often accidental. Laborers
who are working under the sunshine, in a heated room, or in a
poorly ventilated place may suffer from any of the conditions.
Alcoholism, ill-health, disease and fatigue may be some of the
predisposing factors. Although mostly accidental, physician must
perform the necessary post-mortem examination in the bodies
to eliminate the possibility of foul play. However, it may be
homicidal or suicidal in rare instances. Children may be victims
of infanticidal acts when subjected to conditions promoting
their development.

L O C A L EFFECTS OF HEAT:
Scald (caused by hot liquid):
Scalds are injuries produced by the application to the body,
liquids at or near boiling point, or in its gaseous state. The term
applies to tissue destruction by moist heat. The injury by scalding
is not as severe as burns because ( a ) the scalding liquid or vapor runs
on the body surface, thereby distributing its heat, ( b ) the scalding
material easily cools off, and (c) the temperature of the scalding
substance is not as high as those producing burns, except oils and
molten metals. The effect on scalding is the same as burns.

icteristics of Scalds:
a. Scalds often have a distribution called a "geographical lesion."
It follows the portion involved in the splashing of the scalding
fluid together with the rule of gravity.
b. The skin lesion may be located in covered portions of the body
without affecting the clothings.
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 399

Extensive scalding

c. There is neither burning of the hair nor deposit of carbonaceous


material on the skin surface.
d. The lesion is usually first, second or third degree, except in
cases of heated oil or molten metals.
e. Inhalation of the heated vapor may lead to inflammatory
reaction in the air passage which may lead to respiratory ob-
struction due to edema of glottis.
f. Usually, there is redness of the skin immediately after the
application, later a blister is formed. Pricking of the blister and
removal of the epidermis will show a pink raw surface from
which the fluid will ooze. The base will later become red in
about six hours. There will be leucocytic infiltration and
granulation tissue will develop.
g. Sepsis with development of pus may appear in one or two days.
Healing may be accompanied by the formation of scars, which
may result in contracture or keloid formation.
Scalds are usually painful specially the second and third degree
types.
It is less fatal as compared with burns except when it involves
a great area of the body surface.
Death is usually due to septic complications which occur
after a day.
400 LEGAL MEDICINE

Scalding is usually accidental in kitchens. Homicidal scalding


caused by throwing boiling water on the face and body is quite rare.

2. Thermal Burns (dry heat):


Burns are lesions which are caused by the application of heat or
chemical substances to the external or internal surfaces of the
body, the effect of which is destruction of the tissue of the body.
It includes all lesions produced by fire, radiant heat, solid sub-
stances, fire, friction and electricity.
Most burns caused by localized source of heat are accidental.
It may occur in the kitchen, by contact with heated solids or
live flame.
Most of the victims of burns are recovered in conflagration of
buildings which are either accidental or intentional.

Purposes of Intentional Fire:


a. Destruction of the victim of a criminal act to conceal identity
and true cause and manner of death.
b. The building was set on fire to kill or with homicidal intent
(torch murder).
c. To perpetuate insurance fraud both property and life.
d. A person might have committed suicide by other means and
tried to hide the cause and manner of death by setting fire on
the surroundings.
e. Victim might have been trapped in the building set afire ac-
cidentally or intentionally.
f. A person in pursuance of a cause may soak himself with an
inflammable substance (accelerant) and burn himself to death.

Classification of Bums:
a. Thermal
b. Chemical
c. Electrical
d. Radiation
e. Friction

Characteristics of Bums:
a. The lesion varies from simple erythema to complete carbon-
ization of the body.
b. Usually, there is singeing of the hair and carbon deposits on the
area affected.
c. The area involved is general and usually without any demar-
cation line of the affected and unaffected parts.
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 401

Burns w i t h c a r b o n i z a t i o n o f the b o d y

d. Lesions in covered portions of the body, also involved burning


of the clothings over it.
e. In death by burning in a conflagration, it is necessary to identify
the victim and determine whether burns are ante-mortem or
post-mortem.
Classification of Bums by Degree (Dupuytren's Classification):
a. First Degree:
There is erythema or simple redness of the skin associated
with superficial inflammation and slight swelling which may
subside after a few hours or may last for several days. It may
be produced by momentary application of flame, or hot solid
or liquid much below boiling point. It is also produced by
mild irritant.
b. Second Degree:
There is vesicle formation with acute inflammation. If the
burns are caused by flame or heated solid substance, the skin
is blackened and the hair singed at the seat of lesion. The
vesicle can be produced by strong irritants or vesicants. Scars
are not present after healing. The superficial layers of the epi-
thelium are destroyed,
c Third Degree:
There is destruction of the cuticle and part of the true skin.
The burned area is very painful owing to exposure of the nerve
402 LEGAL MEDICINE

endings. Healing may leave a scar which contains all the ele-
ments of the true skin, consequently without contracture.
d. Fourth Degree:
The whole skin is destroyed with formation of slough which is
yellowish-brown or parchment-like. The surface is ulcerated and
on healing a dense fibrous scar tissue develops. The scar may
subsequently contract and cause deformity of the part. On
account of the complete destruction of the nerve endings, this
kind of burn is not very painful.
e. Fifth Degree:
There is involvement of the deep fascia and muscles. This
may result to severe scarring effect and deformity.
f. Sixth Degree:
There is charring of the limb involving subjacent tissues,
organs and bone. If death does not ensue immediately in-
flammatory changes may develop in the surrounding tissues.

Distinctions Between Burns and Scald:


Burns Scalds
a. Caused by dry heat (flame, a. Caused by application of moist
heated solid or radiant heat). heat (liquid, steam at or near
boiling point).
b. Occurs at or above the site b. Occurs at or below the site of
of contact of the flame. the application or contact
with liquid.
c. Singeing of hair is present. c. Singeing of hair is absent.
d. Boundary of the affected d.-Boundary distinct, usually like
and unaffected area is not a geographical relief map of
so clear. the affected area.
e. Injury may be severe. e. Usually, limited on account of
the dissipation of heat in the
tissue.
f. Clothings are involved. f. Clothings are not usually
burned.
Factors Influencing the Effect of Bums in the Body:
a. Degree of Heat Applied:
The effect in body tissue by heat varies with the temperature
of the heated object causing it. The effect will be more severe,
if the heat applied is great.
b. Duration of Exposure or Contact:
The longer is the time of exposure or contact, the greater
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 403

will be the destruction. The underlying tissue will be liable to


be subjected to the high temperature.
c. Extent of the Surface Involved:
Involvement of more than one-third of the body surface to
a second and third degree burns usually ends fatally. This is
due to pain, hemoconcentration and shock.
d. Portion of the Body Involved:
Burns of the extremity is not as serious as that of the head,
neck and trunk. Burns of the genital organs and that of the
lower portion of the abdomen are usually serious. Burns in
serous cavities are graver than in the skin.
e. Age of the Victim:
Adults can withstand burns longer than the children and
the aged individuals. Children can withstand suppuration.
f. Sex of the Victim:
Men can resist burns better than women.
g. Septic Infection:
This may bring about complication in other parts of the
body and may lead to death.
h. Depth of Burns:
In 6th degree burns, whereby the muscles and bones are
involved, it is more likely that a person is terminated due to
shock.

Healing of extensive burns with leucoderma, epidermal desquamation and


formation.
404 LEGAL MEDICINE

Causes of Death in Bums and Scalds:


a. Immediate Fatal Result:
(1) Death from shock.
(2) Death from concomittant physical injuries with burns.
(3) Suffocation.
b. Delayed Fatal Result:
(1) Exhaustion.
(2) Dehydration with hemoconcentration.
(3) Secondary shock.
( 4 ) Hypothermia.
(5) Complications:
(a) Septicemia.
( b ) Pneumonia.
(c) Nephritis.
( d ) Inflammation of serous cavities and internal organs.
( 6 ) Changes in the blood due to heat:
In conflagration, the early death is due to a primary or
neurogenic shock, following a painful irritation of the
multiple nerve endings in the skin.
The suffocation is brought about by the formation of
carbon monoxide, hemoglobin or by the action of other
noxious gases of the fume.
Death may occur from an accident occurring in an
attempt to escape from the burning house or from in-
juries inflicted by the wall and timbers falling on the body.
The loss of body fluid, blood plasma, chlorides and
other substances of the blood is due to evaporation from
the raw skin surface.
Absorption of toxic materials from the site of the injury
may lead to necrosis of the liver, renal tubular degeneration,
and cloudy swelling of other organs.
Inhalation of the fumes may cause inflammatory reaction
of the respiratory passages.
Secondary infection of the wound may lead to septicemia
and inflammation of other organs and serous cavities.
Time Required to Completely B u m a Human Body:
The time required to transform the human body to ashes is
dependent upon several factors, namely:
a. Degree or intensity of heat applied.
b. Duration of the application of heat.
c. Physical condition of the body.
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 405

d. Presence of clothings and other protective materials.

About 72% of the human body weight is. water and this is
responsible for the delay in its combustion, however, there is
about 5% fat which may enhance combustion on account of
its combustibility.
In a gas furnace incinerator, it requires about four hours of
continuous application of heat to transform the body into ashes.

Age of the Burns:


A very recent burn will show no pus, or much healing, or
edema.
When the pus is already present and the red inflammatory zone
has disappeared, it is about 36 hours or a few days old.
There is a superficial sloughing in a third degree burn in about
a week.
The deeper sloughs are thrown off in two weeks and are at-
tended with suppuration.
When the red granulation tissue is present, it is about two
weeks old.
The age of older burns is estimated by the amount of granu-
lation tissue present, by its depth, and by the extent of the growth
of epidermis from circumference.

Proofs that the Victim was Alive Before Bumed to Death:


a. Presence of smoke in the air passage — There is grayish-black
or black amorphous material adherent to the mucosa of larynx,
trachea, and bronchi. The quantity of the soot in the air
passage depends on the type of fuel, amount of smoke pro-
duced and duration of survival in the smoke contaminated
atmosphere.
b. Increase carboxy-hemoglobin blood level — Carbon monoxide
enters the body through the respiratory tract. The presence
of carboxy-hemoglobin is responsible for the cherry-red color
of the fire victim.
c. Dermal erythema, edema and vesicle formation — Erythema
and edema show that circulation was present when heat was
applied.
d. Subendocardial left ventricular hemorrhage.

Is Burning the Cause of Death?


The physician must determine whether the lesions due to
burning are by themselves sufficient to cause death. He must
406 LEGAL MEDICINE

also determine whether there are evidences of other lesions which


may account for the death.

The following findings may prove that death is due to burning:


a. Presence of vital reaction at the heated areas.
b. Presence of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood.
c. Presence of carbon particles in the tracheo-bronchial lumina.
Scars of Bums:
Scars of superficial burns are thin and pliant. In severe burns,
these are irregularly thick with patches and bonds of fibrous
tissue causing contractions. Keloid formation is common in scars
from burns.
Distinction Between Ante-mortem from Post-mortem Bums:
The principal basis of the distinction is the presence or absence
of vital reaction, like inflammation, vesicle formation, congestion
and granulation tissue. The principal points of distinctions are:
a. The blister formed in ante-mortem burns contains abundant
albumen and chlorides, while in post-mortem burns, the blister
contains scanty albumen and chlorides.
b. There is an area of inflammation around an ante-mortem bum
which is not present in the case of post-mortem bums.
c. The base of the vesicle is red in ante-mortem bums while there
is not much change in color in the case of post-mortem burns.
d. In burns due to conflagration, the tracheo-bronchial lumina
may contain particles of soot or carbon, while in the case of
post-mortem burns there is no finding.
e. Blood will show presence and abundance of carboxyhemoglobin
in cases of ante-mortem burns, but not in cases of post-mortem
burns.
The absence of signs of vital reactions at the site of the bums
does not necessarily indicate that the lesion is post-mortem.
Death may have occurred too quickly for those changes to develop,
or the injuries might be ante-mortem but the body resistance is
so diminished to produce the vital reactions.
Distinctions Between Ante-mortem from Post-mortem Blisters:
a. Ante-mortem blisters contain fluid rich with albumen and
chlorides, while post-mortem blisters may contain air or scanty
amount of albumen and chlorides.
b. Heating the fluid contents of an ante-mortem blister will cause
solidification, while heating of a post-mortem blister will show
slight cloudening but not solidification.
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 407

c. The base of an ante-mortem blister is reddish with signs of


inflammatory changes in the periphery, but there is no such
finding in case of post-mortem blister.
d. Fluid content of an ante-mortem blister is abundant, while in
the case of post-mortem blister is scanty.

Differential Diagnosis of Blister Due to Heat:


a. Blister Due to Putrefaction:
The fluid content is blood-stained watery fluid and accom-
panied by putrefactive changes in other parts of the body.
b. Blister Due to Disease:
This can be differentiated from blister due to heat by the
size, distribution and absence of other signs of the effect of
heat application.
c. Blister Due to Friction:
History and absence of signs of the application of heat in the
neighborhood will differentiate it from blister due to burns.

Heat Rupture:
This is the splitting of the soft tissues of the body, like the skin,
due to exposure before or after death of the body to considerable
heat.

Differential Diagnosis:
a. Incised Wound — A heat rupture may be mistaken for an
incised wound. It may be distinguished by the absence of
blood inasmuch as heat coagulates blood inside the blood
vessels. In heat rupture, the blood vessels and nerves are kept
intact at the point of the rupture. On close inspection, the
margins are irregular unlike those in the case of incised wounds.
b. Lacerated Wound — In lacerated wound, there is contusion and
other vital reactions at the margin, which is not present in
cases of heat rupture. The roasted condition of the skin is
prominent in cases of heat rupture.

Heat Stiffening:
This condition is found in dead bodies which have been sub-
jected to heat. The heat coagulates the albuminous materials
inside the muscle making it stiff and contracted. The limbs are
flexed and the fingers partially clenched simulating a "pugilistic"
position of a boxer. There is flexion of the limbs and fingers on
account of the fact that the flexor muscles are stronger than the'
extensors. The heat stiffening remains for sometime until the
body softens due to the onset of decomposition.
408 LEGAL MEDICINE

Investigation of Death in a Conflagration:


Examination of the burnt body should be directed to obtain
the following informations:
a. Identity, which may be established from:
Clothing. Careful handling must be stressed, as charred
materials can yield considerable information in expert hands,
but can also be easily destroyed. The size of footwear may be
of importance.
Property in the pockets such as key, money, papers and the
like.
Height — Sex — Age — Color of eyes — Color of hair.
Natural disease or stigmata such as scars, old deformities or
injuries and dentition.
b. Whether the person was alive in the fire, which can be decided
from the presence of carbon particles in the air passages, and
the estimation quantitatively of carbon monoxide in the blood.
c. Cause of death.
d. Information indicating a possible cause of the fire, as shown
by examination of the deceased. Evidences of the following
should be noted.
Alcoholic intoxication (Blood and urine estimation for
alcohol).
Natural disease which might have caused collapse, such as
epilepsy, hypertension, myocardial fibrosis.
Site of origin of the fire, as shown by maximal effects in
relation to position of the body.
Demonstration of injuries which could have been sustained
before the fire commenced.
(From: Practical Forensic Medicine by Camp & Purchase, p.
236).

Post-mortem Findings (Burns and Scald):


a. External Findings:
( 1 ) Presence of external lesion depending upon the degree of
burning and scalding of the body.
(2) "-Pugilistic position" or "fencing posture" of the body.
(3) Blackening of the body surface in case of burns.
( 4 ) Rupture of skin, muscles, or destruction of limbs or skull.
(5) Exposure of internal organs.
( 6 ) Singeing of the scalp and other hairs of the body.
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 409

b. Internal Findings:
( 1 ) Blood is cherry-red in color owing to the presence of
carboxyhemoglobin.
( 2 ) Increase in the lymphoid tissue, especially of the intestine
and lymph glands.
( 3 ) Marked dehydration.
( 4 ) Hemoconcentration with increased capillary permeability.
( 5 ) Congestion of visceral organs.
( 6 ) Cloudy swelling of liver and kidneys.
(7) Enlargement of the adrenal glands with hemorrhagic
infarcts.
( 8 ) Lungs are shrunken, mucous membrane of the bronchi
are congested and sub-serous hemorrhages present.
( 9 ) Intestinal mucous membrane are congested especially
the Brunner's glands of the duodenum.
(10) Spleen enlarged and soft.
(11) Brain and spinal cord shrunken and hyperemic.
(12) Presence of carbon particles in the respiratory tract.
(13) Fatty degeneration in the liver.

Medico-Legal Aspect of Burns and Scalds:


During the ancient and medieval times, branding is a means to
secure identity. Red-hot metals shaped in letters or figures are
pressed in the arm and thigh. With the improvement of the
present method of identification, branding is now only made on
domestic animals.

Extraction of confession by burning the fingers, application of


heated metals on the skin, or pouring boiling water on the body is
now punishable.
Killing of a person and setting afire the building for the purpose
of concealing the crime or for the purpose of destroying the body
of the victim is quite common. It is in this connection that the
physician must exert all efforts to determine the true nature of
the case.
Burning and scalding is usually accidental, but occasionally
homicidal or suicidal.
Accidental cases are common among women and children on
account of their loose garments which easily catch fire. Child-
ren, mentally deficient persons and intoxicated individuals may
expose their bodies to boiling water or live flame.
410 LEGAL MEDICINE

A number of persons may die from burns when fire breaks out
in an inhabited house, or when an explosion occurs in a factory.
The Revised Penal Code considers the killing of a person by
means of fire as murder. The setting of a building on fire must be
an intentional means to kill the person inside the building to make
it a murder (Art. 248). There should be the actual design to kill
and that the use of fire should be purposely adopted as a means
to that end (People v. Burns 41 Phil. 418).

ontaneous Combustibility:
It is claimed by some authorities that the human body can
ignite itself spontaneously and b u m itself to death. This is hardly
possible on account of the high percentage of water in the human
body. Spontaneous combustibility may be utilized as a defense
in cases of homicidal burns if it is really probable.

-eternatural Combustibility:
It is claimed that the human body is inflammable on account of
the presence of gases which easily ignite. The gases are said to be
the products of the action of microorganisms in the body. This
explains the presence of phosphorescent light in the graveyard
during night time. If ever the theory is true, then there can only
be a partial combustion of the human body.

Chemical Burns (Corrosive Burns):


Chemical burns are the action of strong acids and alkalies and
other irritant chemicals which cause extensive destruction of the
tissue. Healing is quite slow and may require plastic surgery. The
most common of the chemicals are concentrated sulfuric acid,
nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, caustic soda and potash, lysol, etc.
Chemical burns may be followed by keloid scars.

Characteristics of Lesions:
a. Absence of vesication.
b. Staining of the skin or clothing by the chemical.
c. Presence of the chemical substance.
d. Ulcerative patches of the skin.
e. Inflammatory redness of the skin surface.
f. Healing is quite delayed on account of the action of the che-
micals to the underlying tissue.

Distinctions Between Thermal and Chemical Burns:


a. There is an absence of blister in case of chemical bums while
blister may be present in thermal burns.
Extensive b u r n s by strong acid

b. The skin and clothings may be stained with chemical in case


of chemical burns, but there is no such staining in thermal
burns.
c. Analysis of the substances around the lesion will show the
chemical causing the corrosion. Nothing of this nature is found
in thermal burns.
d. In thermal burns, the lesion is diffused while in chemical burns
the borders are distinct and simulating a geographic appearance.
Characteristic Lesions by Different Chemicals:
a. Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol), which has the most intense
action, causes a considerable amount of destruction of the
tissues with the formation of a blackish-brown sloughs. The
face or other part will show splash marks where the acid has
fallen, and usually there will be lines of ulceration where the
acid run down the surface of the body.
The clothing will be destroyed in the places where the acid
has spilled.
b. Nitric Acid causes a yellow or yellowish-brown slough, and the
spot of yellow color will be seen .on the skin. The clothing is
destroyed and the color becomes brown.
c Hydrochloric Acid, though not so destructive as either sul-
phuric or nitric acid, causes as intense irritation and localized
ulceration of a red or reddish-gray color.
412 LEGAL MEDICINE

d. Caustic Soda and Potash have a corrosive action on the tissues,


giving a bleached appearance and greasy feeling to the skin.
The skin subsequently becomes brown and parchment-like.
(From: Taylor's Principles & Practice of Medical Jurisprudence
by S. Smith, 10th ed., p. 327).

Severe burning and staining of the skin of the face in suicidal poisoning
b y muriatic acid.

Treatment:
a. Neutralization of the corrosive substances.
b. Protection of the eye from involvement.
c. Prevention of infection of the lesion.
d. Other supportive or symptomic treatments.
Burns from corrosive fluids are quite rare and are usually due to
accidents in chemical laboratories. Vitriol throwing is common in
England. Intentional spilling or throwing of corrosive fluid causes
physical injury and on account of the deforming scar it produces,
it becomes a serious physical injury. Corrosive burns are com-
monly observed in suicidal ingestion with spilling of the chemical
around the mouth and neck.

4. Electrical Bums:
There are three kinds of electrical burns, namely: — contact
burns, spark burns, and flash burns. The characteristic feature of
all of them is that their depth is greater than the surface appear-
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 413

ance this would suggest that severe sloughing of the tissues may
occur later.
a. Contact Burn — due to a close contact with an electrically live
object, and the degree will vary from small and superficial
lesion to charring of skin if contact is maintained.
b. Spark Burn — due to a poor contact and the resistance of dry skin
and shows a pricked appearance with a central white zone
(parchment) and surrounding of hyperemia. This burn, which
may be essential to the proof of electrical contact, can be very
difficult to identify, and sections should be cut in an attempt
to establish their nature.
c. Flash Burn — the appearance varies from the arborescent
pattern of lightning burns to the "crocodile skin" appearance
of high voltage flash (From: Practical Forensic Medicine by
Camp and Purchase, p. 238-239)

5. Radiation Burns:
a. Burns from X-ray:
The burns from X-ray depends upon the degree of intensity
and period of exposure. Slight-exposure will produce redden-
ing and inflammation of the skin which will pass away within
a short period of time leaving a bronze color on the skin.
Higher degree of over-exposure may produce blister, atrophy
of the superficial tissue and obliteration of the superficial blood
vessels. In very severe cases, there may be ulceration of the
tissue which may later lead to malignancy.
b. Ultraviolet Light Burns:
Overdose of ultraviolet light may lead to severe and per-
sistent dermatitis. There is uncomfortable irritation of the skin
and may later develop into a blister.
Chapter XV

PHYSICAL INJURIES OR DEATH BY LIGHTNING


AND ELECTRICITY

DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURY BY LIGHTNING:

slAghtning is an electrical charge in the atmosphere. Its place of


occurrence and intensity are unpredictable. The flash of lightning is
due to the passage from a thunder cloud to the earth of a direct
electric current of enormous potential, amounting to something
like 1,000 million volts and about 2,000 amperes. Along the path
of the current, a great portion of its energy is liberated, most of
which is converted into heat. The size of the tract is variable and
may produce branching flash along its course. Because of the enor-
mous power of destruction, it is capable of producing injury to
the human body.

Elements of Lightning that Produce Injury:


1. Direct effect from the electrical charge:
The electrical charge of lightning may pass to the body pro-
ducing electrocution. The human body especially its nerves, is a
good conductor of electric current.

2. Surface "flash" burns from the discharge:


Some of the electrical energy in a lightning is transformed to
heat energy. The superheated air may cause burning of the skin
of the victim. The flash burn may produce arborescent marking
but are by no means typical.

3. Mechanical effect:
The expansion of the air on account of the superheated atmos-
phere may bring about mechanical injury. It may result to lacera-
tion of the body surface, severe tearing of the clothings and
displacement of parts of the body.

4. Compression effect:
The compressed air pushed before the current with super-
heated atmosphere may produce a backward wave. This causes
the "sledge hammerblow" on the body of the victim, thereby
producing concussion, shock, or unconsciousness to the victim.

414
DEATH BY LIGHTNING AND ELECTRICITY 415

Points to be Considered in Making a Diagnosis of Death from Light-


ning:
1. History of a thunderstorm that took place in the locality.
2. Evidences of the effects of lightning are found in the vicinity,
like damages to houses, trees, and other objects; death of other
person and animals nearby.
3. Metallic articles are fused and magnetized.
4. Fusion of glass materials on account of severe heat.
5. Absence of wound and other injuries indicating suicidal or homi-
cidal death.
6. Skin often shows arborescent markings due to superficial ery-
thema which disappear in a day or two if the person lives.
7. Burns may be present, but may be limited to the part under the
pieces of metals such as watch, knife or bunch of keys. The burns
are superficial or may be very deep.

Classes of Burns Due to Lightning:


1. Surface burns — These are superficial burns usually seen under
metallic objects worn or carried by the victim.
2. Linear burns — These are found where areas of the skin offer
less resistance, notably in the moist creases and folds of the skin
and may vary in length from one to twelve inches.
3. Arborescent or filigree burns — These are radiating burns from a
point, similar to electrocution.

Effects of Lightning in the Human Body:


Death is usually the immediate effect due to the involvement of
the central nervous system. The shock is produced by the instan-
taneous anemia of the brain brought about by the spasmodic con-
traction of the cerebral vessels. The lightning may cause immediate
loss of consciousness and because of the intense disturbance of the
air, the clothings may be removed from the body or severely torn.
Occasionally, a person may recover from the effect of the light-
ning stroke but in most cases suffer from certain degree of neuro-
logical disturbances.
1. Symptoms of Mild Attack:
a. External lesion of almost any description.
b. Unconsciousness.
c. Slow, deep and interrupted respiration.
d. Pulse is slow and weak.
e. Pupils are dilated and sensitive to light.
f. Relaxation of the entire muscular system.
416 LEGAL MEDICINE

A victim of lightning

g. Headache, dizziness and noise in the ears.


h. In severe cases, it may lead to blindness, deafness and loss of
speech.

2. Delayed Effects:
a. Insomnia and defective memory.
b. Irritability and inability to concentrate.
c. Paralysis or an increasing weakness of the limbs with pro-
gressive wasting of the muscles.
d. Hemiplegia, aphasia, deafness, epilepsy.
e. Progressive cerebellar syndrome.

Treatment:
1. Artificial respiration.
2. Air passage must be kept free.
3. Lumbar puncture to release the tension in the cerebrospinal
fluid.
4. Rectal hypnotic to combat delirium.
5. Treatment to combat shock.
6. Treatment to build resistance of the victim.
DEATH BY LIGHTNING AND ELECTRICITY 417

Post-mortem Findings:
1. External:
— Marked tearing of the wearing apparel.
— Burns of different degrees on the skin surface.
— Wounds of almost any description.
— Magnetization of metals in the wearing apparel.
— Fusion of metals and glasses.
— Singeing of the hair of the scalp and other parts of the body.
2. Internal:
— Fracture of bones.
— Hemorrhage due to the laceration or the rupture of organs.
— Petechial hemorrhages of the lungs, pericardium, brain.
— Rupture of the blood vessels and the internal organs.
Medico-Legal Aspect:
Investigation of death due to lightning is not by itself of any
medico-legal interest for it is an accidental death. No one can be
held responsible to the effect of a fortuitous event. However, its
investigation may be useful to eliminate the possibility that death is
due to the felonious act of another person.

DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURIES F R O M ELECTRICITY:


The main cause of death in electricity is shock. Ordinary domestic
line is from 100 to 250 volts and it is sufficient to produce death.
The effect of 300 volts and above may be similar to lightning stroke.
Voltage is not only the factor causing the injury. As a matter of fact,
amperage or intensity of the electrical current is the principal factor.
The damage to the body by an electrical discharge depends upon
several factors which may increase or decrease the electrical con-
ductivity of the body. The presence of moist skin, wet floor, bare-
foot and proximity of metals, increase the conductivity of the body
to electricity. Dryness of the skin, presence of rubber boots or
shoes, dryness of the floor and better insulation of the metallic
conductor increase the resistance. An increase in the conductivity
of the body will promote more injury.

Factors which Influence the Effect of Electrical Shock:


1. Personal idiosyncracy — Individual personality, physical con-
dition, and the existence of mental or bodily distress at the time,
influence the effect of a shock.
2. Disease — A person suffering from cardiac disease is predisposed
to death from electrical shock.
418 LEGAL MEDICINE

3. Anticipation of a shock — When a person is aware of the possibility


of a shock, the victim can withstand one which might otherwise
be dangerous.
4. Sleep — Sleep increases the resistance to an electrical current.
5. Electrical voltage or tension — Most fatalities are followed by a
shock from a current at a tension of 220 — 250 volts, although
50 volts which are used for therapeutic purpose also show
fatality.
6. Amperage or intensity of electric current — This is the principal
factor. This is determined by dividing the voltage with the resist-
ance of the conductor. Amperage of 70-80 in alternating current
or 250 in direct current is dangerous to man.
7. Density of the current.
8. Resistance of the body — Factors that will reduce the resistance
of the body to electrical flow will promote more injury.
9. Nature of the current — It is claimed that the alternating current
is more dangerous than direct current.
10. Earthing— The development of shock is enhanced, if the victim
is grounded or earthed. Earthing will promote continuous flow
of electric current.
11. Duration of contact — L o w tension may kill when contact is
maintained for several minutes. A shorter duration of contact
is enough for high tension to produce death.
12. Kind of electrodes — Some electrodes conduct a free flow of
electric current while others do not.
13. Point of entry — Contact of the left side of the body is claimed
to be more dangerous than that of the right side.

Mechanism of Death in Electrical Shock:


1. Ventricular fibrillation which may lead to the rupture of some of the
muscle fibers and focal hemorrhages in low voltage.
2. Respiratory failure due to bulbar paralysis in high voltage.
3. Mechanical asphyxia due to violent and prolonged convulsion.

Nature of Electrical Burns:


The electrical burns is sometimes called "electrical necrosis/'
Some calls it electric marks or "current markings," and may be seen
at the point of entrance and exit to the current. The skin is puckered
with gray color and traversed by deep impressions arranged at right
angle.
The electric marks are painless and show no vital reaction. When
unaccompanied by burns, the hair in the region of the mark is intact.
DEATH BY LIGHTNING AND ELECTRICITY 419

Repair is by a process of aseptic necrosis, followed by luxuriant


granulation and healing leaves a smooth, thin, pink scar.
The absence of mark does not exclude electrocution but the
presence raises a strong presumption of death from electrocution.
Microscopically:
There is compression of the stratum corneum. There is also
superficial carbonization. It is deeper in the epidermis and there is
a focal cavitation due to the sudden production of steam by the
current. The papillae of the corium are flattened with vascular
contraction, especially at the center of the mark.

Symptoms:
If death does not occur after contact, the person may show the
following symptoms:
— Surface of the body is cold and moistened.
— Breath is stertorous.
— Pulse is rapid, filiform and may be irregular.
— Pupils are dilated and insensitive.
— Pale face.

Metallization:
This is claimed to be a specific feature of electrical injury. The
metal of the conductor is volatilized and particles of the metal are
driven into the epidermis. Extensive areas of the body may be
darkened by metallization. The color may vary from brown to
black. If the conductor is iron, it is usually yellow-brown while if
it is copper, copper salts may be produced to yield a blue mark.

Delayed Effects of Electrical Injuries:


Necrosis of the area involved, may later develop into gangrene.
Because of the arterial damage, the gangrenous area may be far
more extensive than the electrical injury.
The damaged arteries may become brittle and friable that it is
liable to a rupture at a slight provocation causing a severe hemor-
rhage.
The late nervous injuries may be manifested in the form of retro-
grade amnesia, changes in personality, hemiplegia, aphasia, and post-
concussional syndrome.
The current might have entered the head and produce cataract
of the lens in the form of flaky opacities.

Post-mortem Findinge:
There is nothing specific, or may show no lesion at all.
420 LEGAL MEDICINE

— Electrical arborization.
— Bums with metallization.
— Intense vascular congestion of the dura mater.
— Eyes congested and pupils dilated.
— Trachea may be congested.
— Lungs deeply engorged and edematous.
— Congestion of visceral organs.

Treatment:
1. Remove the victim from live wire installations. Close the switch
and remove the victim and in which case, care must be exercised
by the rescuer.
2. Artificial respiraton which must continue for about an hour until
positive proof of death is present.
3. Treatment of shock or coma. As soon as spontaneous respiration
is established, raise the temperature of the patient by the appli-
cation of hot water in bottles and blankets. Cerebral edema may
be treated by lumbar puncture. Stimulant may be given to im-
prove the health.

Medico-Legal Aspect:
Death by electrocution is mostly accidental. They are very
rarely, suicidal or homicidal. Accidental electrocutions usually
occur in grounded laundry line, electric stoves and outlets.
Chapter XVI

DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURIES DUE TO CHANGE


OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (BAROTRAUMA)

The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is 760 millimeters


of mercury. A person is subjected to an increase of atmospheric
pressure as he goes deeper in a body of water and a decrease as he
ascends higher in the atmosphere.

I N C R E A S E O F A T M O S P H E R I C P R E S S U R E (Hyperbarism):

This condition is observed underwater by scuba divers, pearl


divers, salvage divers, treasure hunters, pleasure swimmers, etc..
Henry's law provides that "at constant temperature, the amount
of gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure."
As the diver goes deeper into the body of water, the atmospheric
pressure he is subjected to increases. The atmospheric pressure is
doubled at 10 meters and this increases further as he goes deeper.
As a consequence of this, there is an increase in the amount of gas
dissolved in the blood and other body fluids.
Before a diver enters a body of water he breaths deeply to fill
up his lungs with an estimated volume of six liters. This air is grad-
ually absorbed by the body fluid so that at a depth of six meters the
diver needs twice the volume of air normally required when on the
surface with an increase fourfolds at a depth of 33 meters.
The longer the diver remains under pressure and the deeper is
the descent, the greater is the degree of gas saturation of the tissue
and the greater the length of time required for subsequent decom-
pression.
In the process, nitrogen, an inert gas which constitute approxi-
mately 80% of the air in the lungs is also dissolved in the body fluid
and this causes the so-called "nitrogen narcosis" (rupture or drunken-
ness of the deep). This condition is preceded by a feeling of euphoria.
The absorption of gas in the lungs will cause decrease pressure on
the pulmonary tissue as compared with that of the pulmonary
circulation and this difference in pressure will cause transfer of
fluid from the pulmonary capillaries into the alveolar space causing
pulmonary edema. A rapid descent may cause rupture of the blood
vessels and hemorrhage.

421
422 LEGAL MEDICINE

The ear drum may bulge inward resulting to stretching, pain,


hemorrhage and ultimate perforation of the tympanic membrane.
Aside from the effects of the increase atmospheric pressure, the
diver may suffer from:
1. Cerebral anoxia due to a prolonged stay under water;
2. Muscular cramp;
3. Physical injuries in the process of diving and hitting hard objects;
4. Injuries caused by aquatic animals, like shark or stings of veno-
mous fish and coelenterates;
5. Effects of the changes of atmospheric pressure in a pre-existing
disease like hypertension or a coronary affection.

During Ascent from a High Atmospheric Pressure of the Deep Sea


to the Surface Atmosphere:
If ascent is made gradually, the chances of untoward effects may
not be observed. However, if ascent is made rapidly, the diver may
suffer from the effects of the sudden release of the gases from the
body fluid. Released air bubbles may be present in the circulation
and become potent emboli in different parts of the body.
In the chest, it may cause interstitial emphysema at its wall and
also at the neck and face. Pneumothorax and pulmonary air em-
bolism may also be present.
Air emboli during decompression may lodge in the capillaries of
the big joints causing it to adopt a semi-flex position, hence called
"bends." The affected areas by the air embolism cause ischemia,
pruritus and pain. Air embolism may be fatal if it lodges in the vital
organs of the body.

Post-Mortem Findings:
1. If Death has been Immediate:
Subcutaneous emphysema, generalized visceral congestion and
the presence of gas bubbles.
Extra-vascular bubbles and hemorrhages in adipose tissues, like
the mesentery and omentum.
2. If Death Occurred After a Lapse of Several Days.
Degeneration and softening of the white matter of the spinal
cord.
Fat necrosis of the liver.
Osteonecrosis.

D E C R E A S E O F A T M O S P H E R I C P R E S S U R E (Decompression):
1. Hypobarism — At a higher altitude the atmospheric pressure
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (BAROTRAUMA) 423

becomes lower and more gas will be liberated by the body fluid.
The release of gases from the body fluid will cause:
a. "Bends" — Joint and muscular pain due to the presence of air
bubbles.
b. "Chokes" — Substernal distress, a non-productive coughing and
respiratory distress. This is the result of bubble formation in
the pulmonary capillaries or from the effects of extravascular
mediastinal bubbles exerting pressure on the mediastinal con-
tents and adjacent pulmonary tissue.
c. Substernal emphysema — Accumulation of bubbles underneath
the skin and is observed as a crepitation on palpation of the
skin.
d. Trapped gas — may result in the doubling of the size of hollow
viscus, like the stomach and intestine at 18,000 feet level. The
size quadruples at 33,000 feet. Expansion of the size of the
stomach may cause diaphragmatic herniation.
Modern aircraft flying at high altitude have been pressurized to
remove the ill-effects of low atmospheric pressure.
2. Anoxia — At higher altitude the oxygen content of the atmos-
phere becomes lesser and lesser. Hypoxia will be felt between
8,000 to 15,000 feet level. Aircraft flying beyond 34,000 feet
above sea level must be provided with oxygen to maintain the
human demand.

A I R C R A F T INJURIES A N D F A T A L I T I E S :
Causes of Injuries and Fatalities in Aircraft are:
1. During the Flight:
a. Altitude:
Hypobarism (Decompression).

b. Speed — Passengers and crew may suffer from spatial dis-


orientation and windblast.

The sudden change of direction at a speed of 500 miles


tends to drain blood from the brain to the lower parts of the
body resulting to a momentary black-out or unconsciousness.
c. Toxins — Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other irres-
pirable gases may saturate the cabin compartment and cause
asphyxia.
d. Temperature — At high altitude, the temperature falls and at
the height of 25,000 feet, it is 40° below zero.
Death may be due to frostbite or freezing of the body.
424 LEGAL MEDICINE

e. Pre-existing disease — Coronary disease or hypertension may


cause fatality due to the sudden change of environment.
2. During the Crash:
Most of the aircraft fatalities occur during the take-off and
landing. During the crash, the whole plane bursts into flame due
to its high octane fuel content. If a passenger or crew survives
the crash, he will suffer from severe thermal injuries.
Modern high speed turbojet or jet aircraft have a velocity of
not less than 500 miles per hour as much as that of the terminal
velocity at the time of the impact which causes widespread de-
struction of the aircraft and also of the ground. Potential survivor
may be those who were trapped within the cabin but are rescued
before a fire develops or those who are fortuitously thrown from
the aircraft.
a. Fracture of the tibia and fibula is due to the presence of the
horizontal bar at the rear of the front seat;
b. Fracture of the femur is due to the high vertical force and the
front bar of the seat;
c. In the chest, the common site is the upper half and is fre-
quently associated with sternal injuries indicating that it is of a
flexion type;
d. Cranio-facial injuries is due to the impact of the head to the
seat in front when subjected to a vertical hit. There may be a
fracture of the classical ring type surrounding the foramen
magnum due to the vertical force.
e. Rupture of the heart or aorta is quite common as this is due to
compression of the heart between the sternum and spine
during the flexion or the mobile heart is torn from the static
aorta during deceleration of the body in the vertical fall of the
body.

HELICOPTER:
A helicopter is a rotary-wing airplane. The rotor is the source of
power and its aerodynamics causes its lift. The bulk of its weight is
on the rotor, gear box and gear train and* engine. All of these parts
are located above the center of gravity of the helicopter so that when
the helicopter drops down, the aircraft will be in an inverted position.
Most of the helicopter accidents are due to structural failure,
engine and control failure. Other causes are the unseen obstacles
such as wire, weather and error of judgment.
Because of the low speed, accidents do not take place during take
off or landing, but during flight.
Chapter XVII

DEATH BY ASPHYXIA
'•Asphyxia is the general term applied to all forms of violent death
which results primarily from the interference with the process of
respiration or the condition in which the supply of oxygen to the
olood or to the tissues or both has been reduced below normal level.

Types of Asphyxial Death:


1. Anoxic Death:
This is associated with the failure of the arterial blood to
become normally saturated with oxygen. It may be due to:
a. Breathing in an atmosphere without or with insufficient oxygen,
as in high altitude.
b. Obstruction of the air passage due to pressure from outside, as
in traumatic crush asphyxia.
c. Paralysis of the respiratory center due to poisoning, injury or
anesthesia, etc.
d. Mechanical interference with the passage of air into or down
the respiratory tract due to:
( 1 ) Closure of the external respiratory orifice, like in smother-
ing and overlaying.
( 2 ) Obstruction of the air passage, as in drowning, choking with
foreign body impact, etc.
( 3 ) Respiratory abnormalities, like pneumonia, asthma, emphy-
sema and pulmonary edema.
e. Shutting of blood from the right side of the heart to the left
without passage through the lungs as in congenital anomalies
like potent foramen ovale.
2. Anemic Anoxic Death:
This is due to a decreased capacity of the blood to carry
oxygen. This condition may be due to:
a. Severe hemorrhage.
b. Poisoning, like carbon monoxide.
c. L o w hemoglobin level in the blood.
3. Stagnant Anoxic Death:
This is brought about by the failure of circulation. The failure
of circulation may be due to:

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