WHOLE
WHOLE
WHOLE
322
DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURIES CAUSED BY EXPLOSION 323
Griess Reagent:
Solution 1 — Dissolve 1 mg. sulfanilic acid in 100 ml. of 30% acetic
acid.
Solution 2 — Dissolve 1 g. alpha-naphthylamine in 230 ml. of boiling
distilled water, cool.
Decant the colorless supernatant liquid and mix with 110 ml. of
glacial acetic acid. A d d solutions 1 and 2 and a few milligrams of
zinc dust to the suspect extract.
Diphenylamine Reagent:
Solution 1 — Dissolve 1 g. diphenylamine in 100 ml. concentrated
sulfuric acid.
Alcoholic KOH Reagent:
Solution 1 — Dissolve 10 g. of potassium hydroxide in 100 ml. of
absolute alcohol.
(Criminalistics by Richard Saferstein, p. 242).
Other Tests on Extract:
1. Infra-red spectrophotometry.
2. X-ray diffraction.
3. Gas chromatographic analysis.
ATOMIC B O M B E X P L O S I O N :
Atomic nuclei can be regarded as storage of highly condensed
energy and that the uncontrolled release of this energy constitute an
atomic explosion. The explosion is caused by the fission of about
100 pounds of uranium and liberates energy equal to that of a
328 LEGAL MEDICINE
/ G U N S H O T WOUNDS
D E A T H O R P H Y S I C A L INJURIES B R O U G H T A B O U T B Y
POWDERED PROPELLED SUBSTANCES
I. FIREARM W O U N D
Definition of Firearm:
1. Technical Definition:
A firearm is an instrument used for thejpropulsion of a projectile_7
by the^expansive force of gases^coming from the burning of gun-
powder.
2. Legal Definition:
Section 877, Revised Administrative Code — "Firearm" defined:
"Firearm" or "arm", as herein used, includes.jrifles,^muskets,
shotguns, revolvers,^pistols, and jill other deadly weapons from
w
332
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 333
than one thousand pesos nor more than five thousand pesos, in the
discretion of the court. If the article illegally possessed is a rifle,
carbine, grease gun, bazooka, machine gun, submachine gun, hand
grenade, bomb, artillery of any kind or ammunition exclusively
intended for such weapons, such period of imprisonment shall be not
less than five years nor more than ten years. A conviction under this
section shall carry with it the forfeiture of the prohibited article or
articles by the Philippine Government.
CARTRIDGES OR AMMUNITION
The Principal Parts of a Cartridge or Ammunition are:
1. The cartridge case or shell.
2. Primer.
3. Powder or propellant.
4. Bullet or projectile.
2. Primer:
The primer compound is located and sealed at the cartridge
base covered by a small disc of soft metal, which is usually a lead-tin
alloy known as percussion cap or primer cap. The main function
of the primer is the transformation of mechanical energy by the
hit of the firing pin on the percussion cap to chemical energy by
its rapid combustion. As the firing pin hits the primer cap (per-
cussion cap), the primer compound hits the anvil which causes the
generation of a flash which in turn ignites the powder. The time
of the primer activation is approximately 0.00001 second.
Although, there are variations in the chemical constituents of
the primer in the past, it is composed of a mixture of mercury
fulminate, stibnite (antimony sulfide), potassium chlorate and
powdered glass. Later, mercury fulminate is partially or com-
pletely replaced by lead azide and lead stypnate together with
potassium chlorate which are replaced by barium nitrate to
reduce the development of rust. Lead stypnate is utilized as base,
tetracene is sometimes added to control sensitivity and barium
nitrate acts as moderator and oxidizer. The most common consti-
tuents of primer are lead, antimony and barium.
3. Gunpowder or Propellant: ^
The propellant is the primary propulsive force in a cartridge
which when exploded will cause the bullet to be driven forward
towards the gun muzzle.
There are Different Types of Powder Propellant Used:-
a. Black Powder — A mixture of potassium nitrate (75%), sulfur
(15%) and charcoal (10%).
338 LEGAL MEDICINE
FIREARM
1. Trigger:
This is a part of the firearm which causes firing mechanism.
Except in a single action firearm, pressure on the trigger is the
commencement of the whole firearm mechanism. To avoid acci-
dental firing, the trigger is surrounded by a trigger guard.
Classification of Firearm Based on Trigger Mechanism:
a. Relation of Cocking and Trigger Pressure:
(1) Single Action Firearm — The firearm is first manually
cocked then followed by pressure on the trigger to release
the hammer.
Example: Home-made "Paltik".
( 2 ) Double Action Firearm — A pressure applied on the trigger
will both cock and fire the firearm by release of the hammer.
Example: Standard Revolver.
b. Number of Shots on Pressure on the Trigger:
344 LEGAL MEDICINE
2. Barrel:
a. Riflings:
The inner surface of a shotgun and that of a home-made
gun is smooth while single shot standard firearms are with
riflings.
The inner surface of the barrel has a series of parallel spiral
grooves on the whole length called riflings. The space between
the two grooves is the land. The riflings are made to have a
strong barrel grip on the bullet, to stabilize its movement and
to impart a rotational movement on the bullet. Incidentally,
the rifling reflected on the bullet becomes an important factor
in the identification of firearms.
Gun manufacturers vary the way the riflings are imprinted
in the inner surface of the barrel on the following aspects:
(1) Number — The number of lands and grooves varies from 2
to 12.
Most high velocity firearms have 4 to 6 grooves. Some
firearms have multiple shallow grooves and this is known
as microgroove6 rifling.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 345
portion of the barrel. The hit by the firing pin on the percussion
cap will cause generation of a sufficient heat capable of igniting the
primer. The primer will in turn ignite the gunpowder or propellant
which will cause evolution of gases under pressure and temperature.
The marked expansion of the gases will force the projectile forward
with certain velocity. Owing to the presence of the rifling at the
inner wall of the bore, the barrel offers some degree of resistance
to the projectile. Inasmuch as the rifling marks are arranged in a
spiral manner, the projectile will produce a spinning movement as
it comes out of the muzzle.
Together with the bullet passing out of the barrel are the high-
pressured heated gases, unbumt powder grains with flame and
smoke.
During explosion, there is a backward kick of the firearm which
in an automatic firearm causes the cocking and the empty shell thrown
out by the ejector. The backward movement is called recoil of the
firearm.
Bullet Efficiency:
The cartridge powder charge can be burned in approximately
0.00001 second. The conversion rate by combustion of the gun-
powder to bullet energy is about 30 to 32 percent. The loss of
some energies from the gunpowder explosion may be due to:
a. Loss of energy to force the bullet out of the cartridge case,
rifling and friction in the barrel.
b. Heating of the barrel and chamber.
c. Escape of some of the compressed gasses at the breech and
barrel.
d. N o t all gunpowder are ignited.
Obturation:
This is the sealing or prevention of gunpowder gas after ex-
plosion from escaping so as to maintain high pressure in the
firing chamber thereby increasing the propulsive power on the
bullet. This is maintained:
a. By insuring that the bullet tightly fits the bore throughout its
entire length;
b. By sealing the cartridge case to the chamber wall; and
c. By preventing leakage between the primer cap and its retaining
wall in the cartridge.
Ballistics Coefficient:
This describes the ability of a bullet to maintain its velocity
against air resistance. It may be expressed in the following formula:
C — ballistic coefficient
m — mass
i — form factor
d — diameter
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 349
Flame:
Ignition of the propellant will cause the production of flame. It
is conical in shape with the vertex located at the gun muzzle. The
flame does not usually go beyond a distance of 6 inches and in pis-
tols or revolvers the flame is often less than 3 inches.
The flame causes scorching or burning of the skin and searing of
the hair at the target in a very near shot. In contact fire, the edges of
the wound of entry may be burned.
The sudden release of the expanded gas from the muzzle follow-
ing the bullet is known as a muzzle blast.
Powder Grains:
This consists of the unburned, burning and partially bumed
powder, together with graphite which come out of the muzzle.
Inasmuch as it is relatively heavier than smoke, it leaves the barrel
with appreciable velocity and in near shot, it is responsible to the
production of tattooing (stippling, peppering) around the gunshot
wound of entrance.
In close range, the powder grains penetrate the dermal and epider-
mal layers of the skin and may cause hemorrhage in deeper tissue
which cannot be removed by ordinary wiping. Microcontusion may
be observed around the punctured area and the shape of the puncture
may denote the shape of the penetrating grain. As the distance of
the gun muzzle to the target increases, the area of destruction in-
creases, but the density of tattooing decreases.
In case of black powder, the residue is composed of nitrates,
thiocyanates, thiosulphates, potassium carbonates, potassium sulphate
and potassium sulphide, while in smokeless powder, the residue is
composed of granules with nitrites and cellulose nitrates with graphite.
The presence of tattooing or stippling may be seen around the
wound of entrance up to a distance of 24 inches, although there may
be considerable variation from gun to gun.
Powder Burns:
Powder burns is a term commonly used by physicians whenever
there is blackening of the margin of the gunshot wound of entrance.
The blackening is due to smoke smudging, gunpowder tattooing and
to a certain extent burning of the wound margin. It is the combined
effects of these elements that are considered to be powder bums.
Actually, such blackening is primarily due to smoke smudging and
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 351
4. Shock Wave:
This is the dissipation of kinetic energy in a radial direction
perpendicular to the path of the bullet when the bullet velocity is
more than the speed of sound (the speed of sound is 1,087 feet
per second). The severe intensity of the wave causes severe
shocking effect on the adjacent tissues and may cause actual
destruction or lessening of function.
5. Fragmentation or Disintegration of the Bullet:
When the bullet hits a hard object (bone), it fragments to
several pieces. When the bullet velocity is more than 2,000
ft/sec. it disintegrates and each fragment has sufficient kinetic
energy to cause injuries similar to the mother bullet. It may cause
laceration, fracture and shocking effect, thus increasing the
destructive effect of gunshot. This causes more "shocking power"
or "knockdown power" of the bullet.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 353
/
Gunshot Wound of Entrance (Entrance Defect, Inshoot):
The appearance of the gunshot wound of entrance depends upon
the following:
1. Caliber of the Wounding Weapon:
Excluding other factors which may influence the size of the
wound of entrance^ the higher the caliber of the wounding bullet
the greater will be the size of the wound of entrance'/ It must not
be overlooked that the manner of approach of the bullet to the
skin, the distance of the muzzle of the firearm to the skin surface,
the deformity or splitting of the bullet and the portion of the skin
surface involves modification of the size and shape of the entrance.
2. Characteristics Inherent to the Wound of Entrance:.
The wound of entrance, as a general rule, is»'oval or circular
with inverted edges,' except in near shot or in grazing or slap
wounaT'^ATUieTDuiret approaches the skin, there is an indentation
of the skin surface but later, on account of the extreme pressure;
the skin tissues give way. The rough surface of the bullet comes
in contact with the skin thereby producing a contusion or abrasion
354 LEGAL MEDICINE
Contact F i r e : ^
The nature and extent of the injury is caused not only by the
force of the bullet but also by the gas of the muzzle blast and part of
the body involved. T h e following factors must be taken into con-
sideration:
1. The Effectiveness of the Sealing Between the Gun Muzzle and the
Skin:
If all the gaseous product of combustion is prevented from
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 355
Gunshot wound of entrance with contusion collar, powder burns and tattooing.
3. Testimony of witnesses:
The testimony of the witness as to the position of the victim
and the assailant when the firearm was fired may determine which
of the wounds is the entrance wound.
2. Internal Examination:
a. Actual Dissection and Tracing the Course of the Wound at
Autopsy:
The tissues involved are hemorrhagic and bone spicules and
lead particles may be seen or felt.
b. Fracture of Bones and Course in Visceral Organs:
Occasionally, the nature of the bone fracture may show the
direction, especially when the bullet is not deformed before
causing the fracture. Injuries in solid visceral organs may clearly
manifest the course because of the absence of contractility.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 361
3. Embalming:
Embalming trocar may be introduced on the gunshot wound it-
self or the trocar mark itself may be mistaken for a gunshot wound.
The gunshot wound may be extended to reach the principal artery
for the embalming fluid to enter. The passage of the embalming
fluid may wash out the product of the gunpowder combustion,
The trajectory of the bullet may be modified by the trocar thrust.
The suturing of the gunshot wound and the application of "make-
u p " may modify the actual appearance of the wound.
5. X-ray Examination:
The use of an X-ray is almost indispensable in the examination
of gunshot injuries. The use of the apparatus will facilitate re-
covery of the lodged bullet together with the location of its
fragments.
The body might have been X-rayed with unspent and spent
ammunition clinging on the clothings and may be mistaken to
be inside the body; teeth fillings or crown may resemble bullet on
X-ray examination of the skull. "Migratory" bullets may be found
in some parts of the body away from the bullet tract. Victim
may have "bullet souvenir" on account of a previous gunshot
injury and may confuse the examiner as to be an effect of recent
shot.
Clothings:
The effects of the garments on the movement of the bullet depend
upon:
1. The number of layers of fabric between the muzzle and subjacent
skin;
2. Nature of the fabric which may be closely woven or loose mesh,
light or heavy, cotton or synthetic fibers.
3. Muzzle-clothings distance.
2. Bullet Migration:
Bullet that is not lodged in a place where it was previously
located. A bullet which strikes the neck may enter the air passage,
and it may be coughed out or swallowed and recovered in the
stomach or intestine.
Bullets Embolism — a special form of bullet migration when
the bullet loses its momentum while inside the chamber of the
heart or inside the big blood vessels and carried by the circulating
blood to some parts of the body where it may be lodged. It may
cause sudden loss of function of the area supplied or death if vital
organs are involved.
3. Tandem Bullet:
T w o or more bullets leaving the barrel one after another. In
cases of misfire or a defect in the cartridge, the bullet may be
lodged in the barrel and a succeeding shot may cause the initial and
the succeeding bullet to travel in tandem. There is a strong
possibility for them to enter the target in a common hole. This
might create doubt to the statement made by the firer that he
made only a single shot, but ballistic examination can show as
to whether the bullet travelled in tandem.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 369
X-ray:
The use of the x-ray must not be overlooked in a gunshot wound
investigation. Several exposures at different angles must be made to
determine the precise location of the bullet, trajectory, position of
the slug, and other injuries.
X-ray Examinations may:
a. Facilitate location and extraction of the bullet lodged.
b. It will reveal fragmentation and their location.
c. It will show bone involvement like fracture.
d. It will reveal trajectory of the bullet.
e. It will show the effects of the bullet wound, like hemorrhage,
escape of air, laceration and other injuries.
SHOTGUN WOUNDS
Grade of Choke:
A shotgun is choked when the muzzle end of the barrel is a dia-
meter smaller than the rest of the barrel. The main purpose of the
constriction is to minimize the dispersal of the pellet or buckshots
after the shot. It is based on the presence or absence of choke and
the degree of choking, that shotguns are classified as:
1. Unchoke — The diameter of the barrel from the rear end up to
the muzzle is the same.
2. Choke — The diameter of the barrel at the muzzle end is smaller
than the rest of the barrel.
a. "Improved Cylinder" — The narrowing of the barrel by 3 to 5
thousands of an inch.
b. Half Choke — narrowing by 15 to 20 thousands of an inch.
c. Full Choke — narrowing from"35 to 40 thousands of an inch.
The lethal range is normally in an area of 30 inches in diameter
at 30 to 40 yards according to the degree of choking.
Types of Shotgun:
1. As to the Number of Barrel:
a. Single Barrel Shotgun:
There is only one barrel and basically the original type.
b. Double Barrel Shotgun:
(1) Side-to-side barrel.
(2) Over-and-under barrel.
2. As to the Manner of Firing and Reloading:
a. Bolt Action:
The action of the bolt ejects the fired shell and loads the
next one.
b. Lever Action:
When the lever is swing down it ejects the fired shell and
loads the next shot.
c. Pump Action:
There is a cylindrical magazine which can accommodate
up to six shells, end to end, beneath the barrel.
376 LEGAL MEDICINE
d. Autoloading:
A pull of the trigger not only fires and ejects the shell but
also reloads the next shot and locks it for firing.
Shotgun Cartridge:
A shotgun cartridge is usually 2-3/4 or 3 inches long and the
diameter depends on the gauge of the firearm. The base and the
lower portion of the cylindrical portion is made of brass with the
primer cap at the center of the base. Attached to the free end of
its cylindrical portion is the cylindrical laminated paper tube to
complete the shell casmg.
When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin activates the primer
which in turn ignites the powder charge. Explosion of the gun-
powder will cause propulsion of the wad and pellets (shot) in front.
The muzzle velocity of the pellet is relatively smaller as compared
from those discharged from rifled firearms.
Except for the presence and nature of the slug, the component
of the shotgun blast is almost the same as that of a rifled firearm.
It also consists of gunpowder, flame, smoke, pellets and wad.
I / D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F T H E PRESENCE O F
G U N P O W D E R A N D PRIMER C O M P O N E N T S
3. Chemical Tests:
a. Laboratory Test to Determine Firearm Residues:
There is inference of contact or near distance of the gun
muzzle to the skin when there is burning, tattooing and smudging
visible through the naked eye. The burning and then the
tattooing will gradually disappears as the muzzle distance in-
creases. The powder tattooing will gradually spread out to a
greater area until it is no longer detectible. Minute particles of
burning and unburned residues and the primer constituents can
be detected in the laboratory.
The same tests may also be applied on the dorsum of the
hand of the persons suspected to have fired the gun. Although
the test is not conclusive, it may be a corroborative evidence
in the determination as to whether a person has fired a gun.
The tests may involve the determination of the presence of
gunpowder residues of primer components.
The test is simply applied but does not enjoy substantial uti-
lization in forensic laboratory because:
a. It lacks specificity of the color reaction for the trace of the
element.
b. It is inadequately sensitive.
c. There is interference of the color reaction among the three
elements themselves.
d. There is instability of the color that developed.
FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
The following factors must be utilized in the identification of the
firearm used in the commission of crime:
1. Caliber of the Weapon:
A firearm may be identified by its caliber and it may be deter-
mined from the firearm itself, from the shell, bullet, cartridge
or from the character of the wound of entrance.
2. Fingerprints:
Fingerprint marks may be found in the butt of the firearm or
at the trigger and its guard. Care must be observed by the inves-
tigator in handling the firearm at the scene of the crime. The
fingerprints found at the butt may distinguish homicidal or
suicidal nature of death.
3. Fouling of the Barrel:
The firearm which is recently fired may have a characteristic
odor of the smoke inside the barrel. Chemical analysis of the
washing from the interior of the barrel will show whether the
weapon was recently fired.
4. Serial Number:
All firearms bear serial numbers for purposes of identification.
The offender may erase the number or may try to change it.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 383
5. Ballistics Examination:
Ballistics is the study of physical forces reacting on projectiles
or missiles.
Forensic ballistics is conventionally known as firearm identi-
fication. It deals with the examination of fired bullets and cart-
ridge cases in a particular gun to the exclusion of all others.
Ballistic c o m p a r i s o n m i c r o s c o p e
There are other ways of recovering test bullet which are used
in other countries, it may be:
a. Shot may be fired on a box with oil and sawdust.
b. Vertical or horizontal shot on a water tank.
c. Shot-fired on a block of ice.
3. Hand lens.
4. Sharp pointed instrument for scraping I.D. marks.
5. Caliper.
6. Analytical Balance.
386 LEGAL MEDICINE
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 387
2. Brain Substance:
Bullet wound in the brain substance is usually a rugged tunnel
with a diameter larger than that of the caliber of the bullet, with
marked ecchymosis of the surrounding area and filled with fresh
and clotted blood. Fragments of bones may be felt in the tun-
nelled bullet tract. In most cases, injury of the brain causes
sudden loss of consciousness and incapable of voluntary move-
ment.
3. Face:
Firearm wound on the face may not cause serious trouble
except that it becomes a potential avenue of infection and may
cause marked deformity.
In suicidal shot, the muzzle of the firearm may be placed inside
the mouth or nostrils that no visible wound of entrance is ap-
preciable. The course of the bullet is usually upwards and in
most cases the brain is involved.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 391
4. Neck:
The bullet may pierce the front portion of the neck and may
involve the cervical portion of the spinal cord; thus causing instan-
taneous death if the upper portion is involved. The course of the
bullet may involve the carotid or jugular vessels and death may be
due to profused hemorrhage. The anterior wall of the esophagus
may be perforated and the bullet may enter into the gastro-
intestinal tract and expelled through the bowel. Injury to the
trachea and upper bronchi may cause asphyxia or aspiration
pneumonia.
Chest:
1. Chest Wall:
The bullet wound on the chest wall usually has an upward course
and may involve both sides. The bullet may strike the rib, ster-
num or the body of the vertebra and may cause deformity or
deflection of its course. When the intercostal or mammary vessels
are injured, there will be profused hemorrhage. Hemothorax of
more than a liter is observed in fatal cases.
2. Lungs:
The passage of a bullet in the lungs produces a cylindrical tunnel
much larger than the diameter of the projectile with bloody
contents and ecchymotic borders. When the pulmonary vessels
are involved, profused hemorrhage is observed which produces
death before medical or surgical intervention can be instituted.
If only one lung is involved, the profuse hemorrhage may cause
collapse of the lung, displacement of the heart, and mediastinum
towards the uninjured side. Emphysema is present when there is
marked injury to the air sacs. Involvement of the bigger bronchi
may cause asphyxia with the lung partially atelectatic and emphy-
sematous. The victim may not die immediately but later may
develop aspiration pneumonia or cerebral embolism.
3. Heart:
Bullet wound of the heart may be circular or stellate witn
subepicardial hemorrhage in the surrounding tissue. The course
may be of any direction but the right ventricle is often involved
because of the large surface area of exposure in front.
Gunshot wound of the heart as a general rule does not prevent
the victim from running, walking, climbing stairs, or do other
forms of volitional acts for death-is not usually instantaneous.
Wound of the auricle is more rapidly fatal as compared with the
wound of the ventricle on account of the thickness of the muscu-
lature of the latter which produces temporary closure of the
wound. Bullet may lodge in the musculature of the ventricle and
392 LEGALMEDICINE
Abdomen:
Abdominal gunshot wounds are quite frequent but not as serious
as those of the chest and head because of its amenability to surgical
operation. In most cases injuries are not only limited to one organ
but to several organs. Injuries to the visceral organs may not be
found along the course of the bullet on account of their mobility
and their capacity to change their forms. Involvement of the ver-
tebral column may cause injury to the spinal cord. The mesenteric
vessels, aorta, vena cava, and other big abdominal blood vessels
may be lacerated and cause severe hemorrhage.
1. The bullet may directly affect the canal and the spinal cord
causing either partial or complete severance.
2. The bullet may not hit directly the spinal cord but may cause
injury in the body or other parts of the vertebra and contusion,
concussion or compression on account of the impact. Injury
of the upper cervical spinal cord may cause immediate death
because the vital nerve tracts may be involved. Lower spinal
cord injury may cause motor or sensory paralysis and may later
succumb to hypostatic pneumonia, suppuration or other com-
plications.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 393
Extremities:
Bullet wounds in the extremities may show the characteristic lesion
of gunshot wounds. Usually the wound is not so serious except
when it involves the principal blood vessels and nerves. The bony
tissue may be involved producing comminuted fracture of the bone
and deflection of the course of the bullet. Septic infection, throm-
bosis, hemorrhage, deformity are not unusual after-effects.
Chapter XIV
2. Systematic Effects:
The systemic effects are reflex in nature brought about by the
stimulation and paralysis of the nerves. Respiration, heart action,
metabolic processes are slowed down on account of cerebral
anoxia. There is a cold stiffening of the body with blister for-
mation and gangrene of the exposed part of the body.
Post-mortem Findings:
1. Externally: Nothing characteristic.
a. Cold stiffening.
b. Surface of the body is pale.
c. Reddish patches especially in exposed portions of the body
(frost-erythema).
d. Onset of rigor mortis delayed.
2. Internally: Nothing characteristic.
a. Blood is generally fluid in the heart and blood vessels with a
bright red color.
b. Parenchymatous organs are congested with occasional petechial
hemorrhage.
396 LEGAL MEDICINE
c. Audible cracking sound on flexing the knee and other big joints
apparently due to the breaking down of the frozen synovial
fluid.
d. Petechial hemorrhage in the lungs, brain and kidneys.
e. If death occurs after sometime, pathological findings related to
complications, like bronchopneumonia, toxemia due to gan-
grene, etc. may be found.
The body tissue fluid evaporates slowly if the body is frozen,
hence, mummification develops later. However, the individual
cell, tissues and organs are well-preserved.
G E N E R A L OR SYSTEMIC EFFECT:
1. Heat Cramps (Miner's Cramp, Fireman's Cramp, Stoker's Cramp):
This is the involuntary spasmodic painful contraction of muscles
essentially due to dehydration and excessive loss of chlorides by
sweating. This is seen among laborers working in rooms with high
temperature and with profused perspiration.
Symptoms:
a. The -onset is usually sudden as muscles cramp with agonizing
pain.
b. The cramp is accompanied by headache, dizziness and vomiting.
c. The face is flushed, pupils are dilated with tinnitus and ab-
dominal pain.
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 397
Symptoms:
a. Sudden attack of syncope, general body weakness, giddiness
and staggering movement.
b. The face is pale, the skin is cold, and the temperature is sub-
normal.
c. The pupils are dilated, pulse weak and thready, and respiration
is sighing.
d. There may be diarrhea, dimness of vision and dilated pupils.
e. Exhaustion comes gradually with throbbing in the temple.
f. The patient usually recovers, if made to rest, but occasionally
the condition may become worse and the patient dies of heart
failure.
The treatment is purely symptomatic and removal from heated
area.
Post-mortem finding is nothing typical, except probably cloudy
swelling of the heart musculature.
Symptoms:
a. Sudden onset that may be followed by premonitory symptoms
of headache, malaise, giddiness and weakness of the legs.
b. Temperature rises suddenly and the skin becomes dry, with
burning sensation and flushed skin and complete cessation of
sweating.
c. Face is congested.
d. Pulse is full and pounding .
398 LEGAL MEDICINE
Post-mortem Findings:
a. Cadaveric rigidity comes soon and passes off soon.
b. Putrefaction occurs early.
c. Lividity is marked.
d. Petechial hemorrhages may be found in the brain and in the
heart.
e. Congestion of the internal organs.
f. The temperature may rise after death.
L O C A L EFFECTS OF HEAT:
Scald (caused by hot liquid):
Scalds are injuries produced by the application to the body,
liquids at or near boiling point, or in its gaseous state. The term
applies to tissue destruction by moist heat. The injury by scalding
is not as severe as burns because ( a ) the scalding liquid or vapor runs
on the body surface, thereby distributing its heat, ( b ) the scalding
material easily cools off, and (c) the temperature of the scalding
substance is not as high as those producing burns, except oils and
molten metals. The effect on scalding is the same as burns.
icteristics of Scalds:
a. Scalds often have a distribution called a "geographical lesion."
It follows the portion involved in the splashing of the scalding
fluid together with the rule of gravity.
b. The skin lesion may be located in covered portions of the body
without affecting the clothings.
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 399
Extensive scalding
Classification of Bums:
a. Thermal
b. Chemical
c. Electrical
d. Radiation
e. Friction
Characteristics of Bums:
a. The lesion varies from simple erythema to complete carbon-
ization of the body.
b. Usually, there is singeing of the hair and carbon deposits on the
area affected.
c. The area involved is general and usually without any demar-
cation line of the affected and unaffected parts.
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 401
Burns w i t h c a r b o n i z a t i o n o f the b o d y
endings. Healing may leave a scar which contains all the ele-
ments of the true skin, consequently without contracture.
d. Fourth Degree:
The whole skin is destroyed with formation of slough which is
yellowish-brown or parchment-like. The surface is ulcerated and
on healing a dense fibrous scar tissue develops. The scar may
subsequently contract and cause deformity of the part. On
account of the complete destruction of the nerve endings, this
kind of burn is not very painful.
e. Fifth Degree:
There is involvement of the deep fascia and muscles. This
may result to severe scarring effect and deformity.
f. Sixth Degree:
There is charring of the limb involving subjacent tissues,
organs and bone. If death does not ensue immediately in-
flammatory changes may develop in the surrounding tissues.
About 72% of the human body weight is. water and this is
responsible for the delay in its combustion, however, there is
about 5% fat which may enhance combustion on account of
its combustibility.
In a gas furnace incinerator, it requires about four hours of
continuous application of heat to transform the body into ashes.
Heat Rupture:
This is the splitting of the soft tissues of the body, like the skin,
due to exposure before or after death of the body to considerable
heat.
Differential Diagnosis:
a. Incised Wound — A heat rupture may be mistaken for an
incised wound. It may be distinguished by the absence of
blood inasmuch as heat coagulates blood inside the blood
vessels. In heat rupture, the blood vessels and nerves are kept
intact at the point of the rupture. On close inspection, the
margins are irregular unlike those in the case of incised wounds.
b. Lacerated Wound — In lacerated wound, there is contusion and
other vital reactions at the margin, which is not present in
cases of heat rupture. The roasted condition of the skin is
prominent in cases of heat rupture.
Heat Stiffening:
This condition is found in dead bodies which have been sub-
jected to heat. The heat coagulates the albuminous materials
inside the muscle making it stiff and contracted. The limbs are
flexed and the fingers partially clenched simulating a "pugilistic"
position of a boxer. There is flexion of the limbs and fingers on
account of the fact that the flexor muscles are stronger than the'
extensors. The heat stiffening remains for sometime until the
body softens due to the onset of decomposition.
408 LEGAL MEDICINE
b. Internal Findings:
( 1 ) Blood is cherry-red in color owing to the presence of
carboxyhemoglobin.
( 2 ) Increase in the lymphoid tissue, especially of the intestine
and lymph glands.
( 3 ) Marked dehydration.
( 4 ) Hemoconcentration with increased capillary permeability.
( 5 ) Congestion of visceral organs.
( 6 ) Cloudy swelling of liver and kidneys.
(7) Enlargement of the adrenal glands with hemorrhagic
infarcts.
( 8 ) Lungs are shrunken, mucous membrane of the bronchi
are congested and sub-serous hemorrhages present.
( 9 ) Intestinal mucous membrane are congested especially
the Brunner's glands of the duodenum.
(10) Spleen enlarged and soft.
(11) Brain and spinal cord shrunken and hyperemic.
(12) Presence of carbon particles in the respiratory tract.
(13) Fatty degeneration in the liver.
A number of persons may die from burns when fire breaks out
in an inhabited house, or when an explosion occurs in a factory.
The Revised Penal Code considers the killing of a person by
means of fire as murder. The setting of a building on fire must be
an intentional means to kill the person inside the building to make
it a murder (Art. 248). There should be the actual design to kill
and that the use of fire should be purposely adopted as a means
to that end (People v. Burns 41 Phil. 418).
ontaneous Combustibility:
It is claimed by some authorities that the human body can
ignite itself spontaneously and b u m itself to death. This is hardly
possible on account of the high percentage of water in the human
body. Spontaneous combustibility may be utilized as a defense
in cases of homicidal burns if it is really probable.
-eternatural Combustibility:
It is claimed that the human body is inflammable on account of
the presence of gases which easily ignite. The gases are said to be
the products of the action of microorganisms in the body. This
explains the presence of phosphorescent light in the graveyard
during night time. If ever the theory is true, then there can only
be a partial combustion of the human body.
Characteristics of Lesions:
a. Absence of vesication.
b. Staining of the skin or clothing by the chemical.
c. Presence of the chemical substance.
d. Ulcerative patches of the skin.
e. Inflammatory redness of the skin surface.
f. Healing is quite delayed on account of the action of the che-
micals to the underlying tissue.
Severe burning and staining of the skin of the face in suicidal poisoning
b y muriatic acid.
Treatment:
a. Neutralization of the corrosive substances.
b. Protection of the eye from involvement.
c. Prevention of infection of the lesion.
d. Other supportive or symptomic treatments.
Burns from corrosive fluids are quite rare and are usually due to
accidents in chemical laboratories. Vitriol throwing is common in
England. Intentional spilling or throwing of corrosive fluid causes
physical injury and on account of the deforming scar it produces,
it becomes a serious physical injury. Corrosive burns are com-
monly observed in suicidal ingestion with spilling of the chemical
around the mouth and neck.
4. Electrical Bums:
There are three kinds of electrical burns, namely: — contact
burns, spark burns, and flash burns. The characteristic feature of
all of them is that their depth is greater than the surface appear-
THERMAL INJURIES OR DEATHS 413
ance this would suggest that severe sloughing of the tissues may
occur later.
a. Contact Burn — due to a close contact with an electrically live
object, and the degree will vary from small and superficial
lesion to charring of skin if contact is maintained.
b. Spark Burn — due to a poor contact and the resistance of dry skin
and shows a pricked appearance with a central white zone
(parchment) and surrounding of hyperemia. This burn, which
may be essential to the proof of electrical contact, can be very
difficult to identify, and sections should be cut in an attempt
to establish their nature.
c. Flash Burn — the appearance varies from the arborescent
pattern of lightning burns to the "crocodile skin" appearance
of high voltage flash (From: Practical Forensic Medicine by
Camp and Purchase, p. 238-239)
5. Radiation Burns:
a. Burns from X-ray:
The burns from X-ray depends upon the degree of intensity
and period of exposure. Slight-exposure will produce redden-
ing and inflammation of the skin which will pass away within
a short period of time leaving a bronze color on the skin.
Higher degree of over-exposure may produce blister, atrophy
of the superficial tissue and obliteration of the superficial blood
vessels. In very severe cases, there may be ulceration of the
tissue which may later lead to malignancy.
b. Ultraviolet Light Burns:
Overdose of ultraviolet light may lead to severe and per-
sistent dermatitis. There is uncomfortable irritation of the skin
and may later develop into a blister.
Chapter XV
3. Mechanical effect:
The expansion of the air on account of the superheated atmos-
phere may bring about mechanical injury. It may result to lacera-
tion of the body surface, severe tearing of the clothings and
displacement of parts of the body.
4. Compression effect:
The compressed air pushed before the current with super-
heated atmosphere may produce a backward wave. This causes
the "sledge hammerblow" on the body of the victim, thereby
producing concussion, shock, or unconsciousness to the victim.
414
DEATH BY LIGHTNING AND ELECTRICITY 415
A victim of lightning
2. Delayed Effects:
a. Insomnia and defective memory.
b. Irritability and inability to concentrate.
c. Paralysis or an increasing weakness of the limbs with pro-
gressive wasting of the muscles.
d. Hemiplegia, aphasia, deafness, epilepsy.
e. Progressive cerebellar syndrome.
Treatment:
1. Artificial respiration.
2. Air passage must be kept free.
3. Lumbar puncture to release the tension in the cerebrospinal
fluid.
4. Rectal hypnotic to combat delirium.
5. Treatment to combat shock.
6. Treatment to build resistance of the victim.
DEATH BY LIGHTNING AND ELECTRICITY 417
Post-mortem Findings:
1. External:
— Marked tearing of the wearing apparel.
— Burns of different degrees on the skin surface.
— Wounds of almost any description.
— Magnetization of metals in the wearing apparel.
— Fusion of metals and glasses.
— Singeing of the hair of the scalp and other parts of the body.
2. Internal:
— Fracture of bones.
— Hemorrhage due to the laceration or the rupture of organs.
— Petechial hemorrhages of the lungs, pericardium, brain.
— Rupture of the blood vessels and the internal organs.
Medico-Legal Aspect:
Investigation of death due to lightning is not by itself of any
medico-legal interest for it is an accidental death. No one can be
held responsible to the effect of a fortuitous event. However, its
investigation may be useful to eliminate the possibility that death is
due to the felonious act of another person.
Symptoms:
If death does not occur after contact, the person may show the
following symptoms:
— Surface of the body is cold and moistened.
— Breath is stertorous.
— Pulse is rapid, filiform and may be irregular.
— Pupils are dilated and insensitive.
— Pale face.
Metallization:
This is claimed to be a specific feature of electrical injury. The
metal of the conductor is volatilized and particles of the metal are
driven into the epidermis. Extensive areas of the body may be
darkened by metallization. The color may vary from brown to
black. If the conductor is iron, it is usually yellow-brown while if
it is copper, copper salts may be produced to yield a blue mark.
Post-mortem Findinge:
There is nothing specific, or may show no lesion at all.
420 LEGAL MEDICINE
— Electrical arborization.
— Bums with metallization.
— Intense vascular congestion of the dura mater.
— Eyes congested and pupils dilated.
— Trachea may be congested.
— Lungs deeply engorged and edematous.
— Congestion of visceral organs.
Treatment:
1. Remove the victim from live wire installations. Close the switch
and remove the victim and in which case, care must be exercised
by the rescuer.
2. Artificial respiraton which must continue for about an hour until
positive proof of death is present.
3. Treatment of shock or coma. As soon as spontaneous respiration
is established, raise the temperature of the patient by the appli-
cation of hot water in bottles and blankets. Cerebral edema may
be treated by lumbar puncture. Stimulant may be given to im-
prove the health.
Medico-Legal Aspect:
Death by electrocution is mostly accidental. They are very
rarely, suicidal or homicidal. Accidental electrocutions usually
occur in grounded laundry line, electric stoves and outlets.
Chapter XVI
I N C R E A S E O F A T M O S P H E R I C P R E S S U R E (Hyperbarism):
421
422 LEGAL MEDICINE
Post-Mortem Findings:
1. If Death has been Immediate:
Subcutaneous emphysema, generalized visceral congestion and
the presence of gas bubbles.
Extra-vascular bubbles and hemorrhages in adipose tissues, like
the mesentery and omentum.
2. If Death Occurred After a Lapse of Several Days.
Degeneration and softening of the white matter of the spinal
cord.
Fat necrosis of the liver.
Osteonecrosis.
D E C R E A S E O F A T M O S P H E R I C P R E S S U R E (Decompression):
1. Hypobarism — At a higher altitude the atmospheric pressure
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (BAROTRAUMA) 423
becomes lower and more gas will be liberated by the body fluid.
The release of gases from the body fluid will cause:
a. "Bends" — Joint and muscular pain due to the presence of air
bubbles.
b. "Chokes" — Substernal distress, a non-productive coughing and
respiratory distress. This is the result of bubble formation in
the pulmonary capillaries or from the effects of extravascular
mediastinal bubbles exerting pressure on the mediastinal con-
tents and adjacent pulmonary tissue.
c. Substernal emphysema — Accumulation of bubbles underneath
the skin and is observed as a crepitation on palpation of the
skin.
d. Trapped gas — may result in the doubling of the size of hollow
viscus, like the stomach and intestine at 18,000 feet level. The
size quadruples at 33,000 feet. Expansion of the size of the
stomach may cause diaphragmatic herniation.
Modern aircraft flying at high altitude have been pressurized to
remove the ill-effects of low atmospheric pressure.
2. Anoxia — At higher altitude the oxygen content of the atmos-
phere becomes lesser and lesser. Hypoxia will be felt between
8,000 to 15,000 feet level. Aircraft flying beyond 34,000 feet
above sea level must be provided with oxygen to maintain the
human demand.
A I R C R A F T INJURIES A N D F A T A L I T I E S :
Causes of Injuries and Fatalities in Aircraft are:
1. During the Flight:
a. Altitude:
Hypobarism (Decompression).
HELICOPTER:
A helicopter is a rotary-wing airplane. The rotor is the source of
power and its aerodynamics causes its lift. The bulk of its weight is
on the rotor, gear box and gear train and* engine. All of these parts
are located above the center of gravity of the helicopter so that when
the helicopter drops down, the aircraft will be in an inverted position.
Most of the helicopter accidents are due to structural failure,
engine and control failure. Other causes are the unseen obstacles
such as wire, weather and error of judgment.
Because of the low speed, accidents do not take place during take
off or landing, but during flight.
Chapter XVII
DEATH BY ASPHYXIA
'•Asphyxia is the general term applied to all forms of violent death
which results primarily from the interference with the process of
respiration or the condition in which the supply of oxygen to the
olood or to the tissues or both has been reduced below normal level.
426