PSOC-Unit-III Q-V Control

UNIT-III
REACTIVE POWER -
VOLTAGE CONTROL
17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 1

• Generation and absorption of reactive power
• Basics of reactive power control
• Excitation systems – Modeling
• Static and dynamic analysis
• Stability compensation
• Methods of voltage control: tap-changing transformer, SVC (TCR +

TSC) and STATCOM
• Principle of operation, V-I characteristics and Secondary voltage

control
• Voltage control with distributed generation

Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power
Synchronous machines:
• It is known that the power transmitted from a generator bus to
an infinite bus bar is given by,
• Similar relation for the reactive power for a round rotor machine
is given by,
• In the above formula, if Ecos  >V then Q > 0 and the

generator produces reactive power (acts as a capacitor)

• This inequality is generally satisfied when the generator is over

excited.
• Since cos  = cos (-) the inequality is true for both when
machine is working as a generator or as a motor
• Therefore, it can be said that an over-excited synchronous
machine produces reactive power and acts as a shunt capacitor.
• Similarly when Ecos  < V, Q < 0 (negative) and the
machine consumes reactive power from the system.
• Consequently an under-excited machine acts as a shunt coil.

• This characteristic of the machine i.e. it draws leading or lagging
current depending upon the excitation is shown as a V curve in Fig.
• When the machine is used as over-excited it is known as

synchronous capacitor and the special feature of the machine is that
it runs under no load condition
• In case the inequality is satisfied both ways during the operation of
the machine, it is then known as synchronous phase modifier.
Transmission Lines:
• Let the transmission line be loaded such that the load current is
I amperes and load voltage V volts
• Assuming the T.L. is lossless, the Q absorbed by the line will
be I2L
• Due to shunt capacitance of the line, the Q supplied by the line
will be V2C
• In case the reactive vars supplied by the line are equal to the
reactive vars absorbed
I2L = V2C or

• Zn is called natural impedance of the line and the loading

condition in which the vars absorbed are equal to the vars
generated by the line is called Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
• Under SIL, the voltage throughout the length of the line is same
• In case I2L > V2C the voltage will sag and if I2L < V2C
(light load condition) the voltage will rise
• Normally the loading is greater than SIL and the net effect of
the line will be to absorb (sink) the reactive vars
• Under light load conditions, the effect of shunt capacitors is
predominating and the line will work as vars generator (source)


Transformers:
• Transformers always absorb reactive power.
• At no load – shunt magnetizing reactance effect is
predominant
• At full load – series leakage inductance effect is
predominant
• If Xt is the transformer reactance per phase and |I| is the
current flowing through it then the total reactive power
absorbed is
QT = 3|I|2 XT VAR
Where
• XT is in ohms, |I| is in amperes.

Cables:
• Cables have very small inductance and relatively very
large capacitance because of nearness and large size of the
conductors and the dielectric material used has a relative
permittivity > 1
• They are therefore, generate more reactive power than
transmission lines
• A 275 kV, 240 MVA cable produces 6 to 7.5 MVAR per
km; a 132 kV cable produces roughly 1.856 MVAR per km
and a 33 kV cable produces 0.12 MVAR per km.

Shunt Capacitors:
• Apart from synchronous machines, static shunt capacitors
offer the cheapest means of reactive power supply but these
are not as flexible as synchronous condenser.
• These are used across an inductive loads to supply part of Q
• These are connected either directly to a bus bar or through a
tertiary winding of the main transformer
Shunt reactors:
• Shunt reactors offer the cheapest means of reactive power
absorption and these are connected in the transmission line
during light load conditions.
• These are used across an capacitive loads to absorb part of Q

Series Capacitors
– If a static capacitor is connected in series with the line, it
reduces the inductive reactance between the load and the
supply point
– One drawback of series capacitors is the high overvoltage
produced across the capacitor terminals under short circuit
conditions
Loads:
• Loads absorb reactive power
• Both active and reactive power of the composite loads vary
as a function of voltage magnitudes
• Loads operating at lagging p.f. give voltage drop in the line
and is uneconomical
• Industrial consumers improve the p.f. using shunt capacitors

Basics of Reactive Power Control
• The reactive power does not contribute anything as far as
work done or energy transferred from source to the device.
• But it contributes to the loading (I) of the equipment, Q =
VI sin 
• When power is supplied to a load through a transmission
line keeping the sending voltage constant, the receiving
end or load voltage undergoes variations depending upon
the magnitude and power factor of the load.
• The voltage variation at a node is an indication of the
unbalance between the reactive power generated and
consumed.
• If the reactive power generated is greater than consumed,
the voltage goes up and vice versa.
• To make transmission networks operate within
desired voltage limits, methods of making up or
taking away reactive power — called reactive-power
control are necessary
• Electromagnetic devices draw lagging currents,
resulting in positive values of Q (Absorbers)
• Electrostatic devices draw leading currents, resulting
in negative values of Q (Suppliers).
Excitation System
• When the load on the power system changes, the terminal voltage of the
generator changes
• Therefore, to maintain the terminal voltage within permissible
standards, excitation of the generator must be decreased or increased.
It can be achieved by employing Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR).
• The basic function of an excitation system is to provide direct current
to the synchronous machine.
• In addition, the excitation system performs control and protective
functions
• Control functions include, the control of voltage and reactive power
flow and enhancement of the system stability
• Protective function ensures that the capability limits of the synchronous
machine, excitation system and other equipment are not exceeded

Excitation System
• The Excitation system consists of an Exciter and Automatic
Voltage Regulator (AVR)
– Exciter:
➢The field winding of the synchronous machines are always
supplied with d.c from d.c generator called exciter.
➢It delivers the d.c power to the generator field winding.
➢It must have adequate power capacity and sufficient speed
of response.
✓In older power plants - exciter consists of a d.c
generator driven by the main generator field (Power
transfer via- slip rings and brushes)
✓In modern trends, Static or Brushless excitation system
is used

Excitation System

Excitation System
• In addition to voltage regulators, static shunt capacitors,
synchronous compensators, static VAR systems, tap changing
transformers are also used for voltage control
• Exciter Ceiling Voltage
– It is the maximum voltage that may be attained by an exciter under
specific conditions
• Excitation system requirements
– Meet specified response criteria
– Prevent damage to itself, generator and its associated equipments
– Should have good operating flexibility
– Meet the desired reliability and availability
Types of Excitation System
• Based on excitation power source used
1. D.C Excitation system

2. A.C Excitation system
3. Static Excitation system

Excitation System
• D.C Excitation system
• This excitation system utilizes D.C generators as sources of
excitation power and provide current to the rotor of the
synchronous machine through slip rings.
• It may be either self excited or separately excited.
• A.C Excitation system
• This excitation system utilizes Alternators (A.C generators)
as sources of main generator excitation power.
• Usually, the exciter is on the same shaft as the turbine
generator.
• The A.C output is rectified by either controlled or un
controlled rectifiers to provide the direct current for the
generator field.

D.C Excitation System

A.C Excitation System

Static Excitation System
Static Excitation System
• All components in these are static or stationary.
• Static rectifiers either controlled or uncontrolled, supply
the excitation current directly to the field of the main
generator through slip rings.
• The main source of power to the rectifiers is from the
main generator through a transformer to step down the
voltage to an appropriate level or in some cases from
auxiliary windings in the generator.
• At the time of starting, the field is supplied through
battery power

Modeling of Typical Excitation System
or
Modeling of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
• The modern excitation system, Brushless or static design

consists of an “inverted” 3 alternator with ‘rotating armature
type and stationary field’
• The A.C armature voltage from the exciter is rectified by
“diode bridge” mounted on rotating shaft, and then fed directly
into the main generator field.
• This design eliminates the need for slip rings and brushes

Modeling of Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR)
• AVR:
• For an isolated generator feeding a load, the AVR function
is to maintain the bus bar voltage constant.
• However, on dynamic interconnected system the AVR has
the following objectives.
• To keep the system voltage constant so that the
connected equipment operate satisfactory.
• To obtain a suitable distribution of relative load
between machines working in parallel
• To improve stability

(AVR)
• Schematic diagram of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

consists of
• Potential transformer and rectifier
• Voltage Comparator
• Error amplifier
• Main exciter
• Synchronous generator

(AVR)
Potential transformer and rectifier

– Using this, the terminal voltage of the generator is
stepped down to the value required for control
signal and then rectified to get D.C. voltage
proportional to the r.m.s value of terminal voltage
(AVR)
Voltage Comparator:
• This device compares the terminal voltage |V| of the
generator with a reference D.C voltage (Vref)
• The difference between these two signals produce an error
voltage “Ve” called “error signal”
 (1)
• Taking Laplace Transform,

Vref (s) - V(s) = e(s)

(AVR)
• The model of the voltage comparator is shown below.
 |V|

(AVR)
Amplifier:
• It is amplifies the input error signal depending on the
amplification factor.
• Various types of amplifiers used in the excitation system are
tuned generator, amplidyne and electronic amplifier.
VR  e or VR = kAe  (2)

KA = Amplifier gain
VR = Output voltage of an amplifier
• Taking Laplace transform of eqn. (2)
VR(s) = kAe(s)

(AVR)
• Amplifier transfer function,
GA = VR(s) /e(s) = kA
GA = kA
• In reality, the amplifier will have a time delay that can be
represented by a time constant, TA and the amplifier transfer
function becomes
 (3)
• Model of amplifier is
VR
(AVR)
Exciter:
• The purpose of the exciter is to supply field current to the rotor field of the
synchronous generator
• Let Re and Le represents the resistance and inductance of the exciter field.
• From the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.

• Input voltage,  (4)
17-Apr-21 34
(AVR)
• The output voltage of an exciter or field voltage of a generator,
Vf  ie or Vf = k1ie  (5)
• Taking Laplace transform of eqns. (4) and (5),
VR(s) = [Re + Les]ie(s)
Vf(s) = k1ie(s)
• Transfer function of the exciter
17-Apr-21 35
(AVR)
Where
VR
(AVR)
Synchronous generator:
• This generator field is excited by the main exciter voltage
• The terminal voltage of the generator is maintained constant
during its varying load conditions, with the help of excitation
system
• The transfer function of the generator model is the relation
between rotor field voltage Vf and terminal voltage |V|
• The terminal voltage (V) of the generator equals to
difference between induced emf (E) and drop across the
armature (Vdrop)
V = E – Vdrop
• The relationship between Vf and E depends on the generator
loading
(AVR)
• At no load, the drop can be neglected, hence, V = E

• Taking Laplace transform, V(s) = E(s)
From equivalent circuit,
• Apply KVL to the field winding
 (6)
(AVR)
• Taking Laplace transform,

(AVR)
• Transfer function of the generator,
• Where,
Tdo’ = Open circuit direct axis time constant = Lf/Rf

Lfa = Mutual inductance coefficient
(AVR)
• The synchronous generator model is
• Combining all the individual blocks

(AVR)
• Applying block reduction technique, the above model is
reduced as,
• Open loop transfer function,
• Where, open loop gain, k = KAkeKf

Static analysis of excitation system
• The AVR loop must satisfy the following requirement:
• Regulate the terminal voltage |V| within required static
accuracy limit
• It must have sufficient speed of response
• It must be stable
• The block diagram of AVR is

• Initial error, e0 = Vref0 - V0  (1)
• From Fig., Open loop T.F.

• At initial condition,  (2)
• e0 must be less than some specified percentage ‘P’ of

reference voltage Vref0
• The static accuracy specification is:  (3)
• Substituting eqn. (2) in (1), we get,

• For a constant input, the transfer function is obtained by

setting s = 0,
• Position error constant,

 (4)
• If K increases, e0 decreases, So static error decreases with

an increased loop gain
To find the value of K:
• From eqns. (3) and (4)
• If we specify that the static error (e0) should be less than

1% the open loop gain (K) must exceed 99%.
Steady state response for a closed
loop transfer function
Steady state response for a closed
loop transfer function
• Applying final value theorem,
Dynamic analysis of excitation system
• From Fig., Open loop Transfer function,

• Taking Inverse Laplace transform
• The response depends upon the Eigen values or closed loop

poles, which are obtained from the characteristic equation
• Let the roots of characteristics equation (Eigen values) are S1,

S2, S3.
Case 1: Roots are real and distinct

• The open loop transfer function G(s) is of third order. There
are three Eigen values S1, S2, S3.
Case 2: Two Roots are complex conjugate (α ± jω)

• The transient response is Aeσt sin(ωt+β)
• For AVR loop to be stable, the transient components must
vanish with time
• All Eigen values are located in Left Half of s-plane. Then the
loop possesses good tracking ability. i.e., the system is stable.
• For high speed response, the loop possesses Eigen values
located far away to the left from origin in s-plane.
• The closer the Eigen value is located to the jω axis, the more
dominant it becomes.
Stability Compensation
• Stability compensation improves the dynamic response
characteristics without affecting the static loop gain
• The block diagram of AVR is shown in Fig.
• High loop gain is needed for static accuracy, but this causes
undesirable dynamic response (possibly instability)
• This conflict situation can be avoided by adding series and/or
feedback stability compensation to the AVR loop
• Consider the addition of a series phase lead compensator as
shown in Fig.
• Transfer function of series compensator is:

Gs = 1 + sTc
where, Tc is the compensator time constant
• Open loop transfer function is:
• Series compensator network will not affect the static loop

gain (K = KAKeKf) and thus maintains the static accuracy
• But the dynamic characteristics will be better changed
• If we tune, Te = Tc
• Open T.F. becomes
Root loci:
Number of zero, z = 0
Number of poles, p = 2
Number of Root locus branches, N = p (p > z)

=2
• The root loci for zero compensated system is shown in Fig.
• Low loop gain (a) still results in negative eigen values (located
close to the open loop poles), the dominant pole s2 yields the
sluggish response
• Increasing the loop gain (b) results in oscillatory response
• The damping of the oscillatory term will however, not
decrease with increasing gain as was the case in
uncompensated system
• So the system is stable.
Stability Feedback Compensation
• Consider the addition of feedback stability compensation

(stabilizer)
Stability Feedback Compensation
• Even for a small amplifier gain of KA, AVR step response is not
satisfactory
• Thus, we must increase the relative stability by introducing a
controller, which would add a zero to the AVR open loop
transfer function.
• The block diagram of AVR with feedback stability
compensation is shown in Fig.
• By proper adjustment of Ks and Ts, a satisfactory response can
be obtained.
VOLTAGE CONTROL
Objectives:
• Practically all the equipments used in power systems are
operating at rated voltage within a permissible limit of
voltage variations
• Voltage at various buses must, therefore, be controlled
within the specified regulation
• The task of voltage control is closely associated with
fluctuating load conditions and corresponding requirements
of reactive power compensation

Methods of Voltage Control
• Voltage control is accomplished by controlling the generation and
absorption of reactive power flow at all the levels
• Reactive VAR injection methods of voltage control
1. Excitation control
2. Static shunt capacitors
3. Static series capacitors
4. Static shunt reactors
5. Synchronous condensers
• Other methods of voltage control
1. Tap-changing transformer
2. Booster transformer
3. Regulating transformer
4. Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
5. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)

Tap Changing Transformer
• All power transformers on transmission lines are provided with

taps for control of secondary voltage
• The tap changing transformers do not control voltage by
regulating the flow of reactive VARs but by changing
transformation ratio
• There are two types of tap changing transformer.
1.Off Load Tap Changing Transformer
2.On Load Tap Changing Transformer (OLTC)

OFF LOAD TAP CHANGING
TRANSFORMER
• Off load tap changers, which requires the disconnection of the
transformer when the tap setting is to be changed
• Off load tap changers are used when it is to be operated in-
frequently due to load growth or some seasonal change

ON LOAD TAP CHANGING
TRANSFORMER
• It is used when changes in transformer ratio to be needed frequently
• No need to switch off the transformer to change the tap of
transformer
• It is used on power transformers, auto transformers, bulk distribution
transformers and at other points of load service
R R

ON LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• In the fig shown, the voltage is maximum and since the currents
divide equally and flow in opposition through the coil between Q1
and Q2 the resultant flux is zero and hence minimum impedance
• To reduce the voltage, the following operations are required in
sequence:
• Open Q1
• Move Selector Switch S1 to the next contact
• Close Q1
• Open Q2
• Move Selector Switch S2 to the next contact
• Close Q2
• Thus, six operations are required for one change in tap position
• The voltage change between taps is often 1.25% of nominal voltage

System level control using generator voltage
magnitude setting
• Transformers transfers the reactive power from one side to
another side by altering in-phase component of system voltage

System level control using generator
voltage magnitude setting
• Let us consider the tap changing transformer at both ends of
a line as shown in Fig.
• Taps are usually provided on the HV side to enable a fine
control of voltage
• Let t1, t2 be the fractions of nominal transformation ratio
i.e. tap ratio / nominal ratio
• For example a transformer with nominal ratio 3.3/11 kV when
tapped to give 12 kV has t1 = 12/11 = 1.09 (t1>1, t2<1)
• Let V1, V2 be the nominal voltages at the ends of the line
• The actual voltages will be t1V1and t2V2
• Since the line has an impedance, it is necessary to find the tap
changing ratios required to compensate the voltage drop in
the line so that the voltage at the receiving end is
maintained at a desired level
• The product t1t2 will be made unity; this ensures that the
overall voltage level remains in the same order and that the
minimum range of taps on both transformers is used.
• We can write, t1V1 = t2V2 + IZ
= t2V2 + IR cos + IX sin
• But I cos = P2 / t2V2 and I sin = Q2 / t2V2
+
For complete line drop compensation,
• V1 = V2
• Sending end voltage VS = t1 V1 and t2 = 1 / t1

• For a given load and nominal voltages, we can find t1 and t2 as to
keep  V2  constant at a specific value.
• For high line drops, the tap changing transformer do not improve
voltage profile because it does not have any reactive power
generation capability.
• For small voltage variation or line drop, tap changing transformer
is used to improve voltage magnitude of the system.
• A 415 kV line is fed through an 132/415 kV transformer from
a constant 132 kV supply. At the load end of the line, the
voltage is reduced by another transformer of ratio 415/132
kV. The total impedance of line is (40+j80) . Both
transformers are equipped with tap-changing, the product of
the two off-nominal setting is unity. If the load on the system
is 200 MW at 0.8 pf lagging, calculate the settings of the tap
changers required to maintain the voltage at 132 kV
Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
• An SVC is a shunt-connected static generator and / or absorber of
reactive power in which the output is varied to maintain or control
specific parameters of an electrical power system.
• The term “static” is used to indicate that SVCs, unlike synchronous
compensators, have no moving or rotating main components
• Types: The following are the basic types of reactive power control
elements which make up all or part of any static var system.
❑ Saturated reactor (SR)
❑ Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)
❑ Fixed Capacitor - Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR)
❑ Thyristor Switched capacitor (TSC)
❑ Thyristor Switched Capacitor-Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TSC-
TCR)
❑ Thyristor controlled Transformer (TCT)
Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
A typical Static VAR system
11/08/2010 Power System Operation and Control 77

A typical Static VAR system
• A typical SVS scheme consisting of a TCR, a three unit
TSC, and a harmonic filter
• At power frequency, the filters are capacitive and
produce reactive power of about 10 to 30% of TCR
MVAR rating.
• In order to ensure a smooth control characteristics,
the TCR current rating should be slightly larger than
that of one TSC unit.

Saturated Reactor (SR)
• The variable element is an iron-cored reactor working in the
saturated region and a capacitor bank is in parallel
• The saturated reactor (SR) provides the control of reactive
power, whereas the capacitor gives the bias in the leading
power-factor range.
• A simple saturated iron-core reactor produces highly
distorted voltage and current waveforms
• It does not require any control system and automatically
adjusts its loading to that required by the system
• To match its characteristics to the system requirement, it may
be necessary to reduce the slope reactance of the SR by
connecting a slope correction capacitor in series
Fixed Capacitor - Thyristor Controlled
Reactor (FC-TCR)
Reactor (FC-TCR)
• The TCR provides continuously controllable reactive power
only in the lagging power-factor range.
• To extend the dynamic controllable range to the leading
power-factor domain, a fixed-capacitor bank is connected in
shunt with the TCR
• The fixed-capacitor banks, usually connected in a star
configuration, are split into more than one 3-phase group.
• Each capacitor contains a small tuning inductor that is
connected in series and tunes the branch to act as a filter for a
specific harmonic order.
Reactor (FC-TCR)
• The fixed capacitor extends the operating-control range of

the SVC to the leading side
Thyristor Switched Capacitor - Thyristor
Controlled Reactor (TSC-TCR)
• It comprises ‘n’ TSC banks and a single TCR that are connected in
parallel.
• To avoid a situation in which all TSCs and, consequently, the
associated filters are switched off (with only the TCR in operation),
an additional non switchable capacitive-filter branch is provided.
• A FC–TCR behaves like a parallel LC circuit that tends to set up a
resonance with the ac system impedance during large disturbances
• When severe voltage swings are experienced and followed by load
rejection, a TSC–TCR can quickly operate to disconnect all the
capacitors from the compensator, precluding the resonant
oscillations.
• This feature of disconnecting the capacitor in exigencies is not
available with FC–TCRs.
• Here, the total operating range consists of four sub ranges

• It can be seen that the sub ranges overlap, which is required for
continuous, stable control
V-I Characteristics of the SVC
• The steady-state and dynamic characteristics of SVCs

describe the variation of SVC bus voltage with SVC current or
reactive power.
Dynamic Characteristics
• Reference Voltage, Vref
– Vref, terminal voltage during floating condition (SVC is neither
absorbing nor generating any reactive power) can be varied
between Vref max and Vref min (by the SVC control system)
• Slope or Current Droop
– The slope or droop of the V-I characteristic is defined as the
ratio of voltage-magnitude change to current-magnitude
change over the linear-controlled range of the compensator
• Overload Range
– Here the SVC traverses outside the linear-controllable range on
the inductive side, where it behaves like a fixed inductor.
• Over current Limit
– To prevent the thyristor valves from being subjected to
excessive thermal stresses, the maximum inductive current is
constrained to a constant value by an additional control action
Steady-State Characteristics
• It is very similar to the dynamic V-I characteristic except for a dead band
in voltage, as depicted in Fig. (a).
• In the absence of this dead band, in steady state SVC will tend to drift
toward its reactive-power limits to provide voltage regulation.
• To prevent this drift, a dead band about Vref holds the ISVC at or near zero
value, depending on the location of the dead band.
• Thus the reactive power is kept constant at a set point (Iset or Qset)
• This output is quite small; hence the total operating losses are minimized
• A slow susceptance regulator is employed to implement the voltage dead
band, which has a time constant of several minutes.
• Hence the susceptance regulator is virtually ineffective during fast
transient phenomena, and it does not interfere with the operation of the
voltage controller.
Application of SVC
• Control of temporary (power frequency) over
voltages
• Prevention of voltage collapse
• Enhancement of transient stability
• Enhancement of damping of system oscillations
• Enhancement of Steady-State Power Transfer

THE STATCOM
• STATic Synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM or SSC) is a shunt-
connected reactive-power compensation device that is capable of
generating and/or absorbing reactive power.
• It is in general a solid-state “switching converter” capable of generating
or absorbing independently controllable real and reactive power at its
output terminals when it is fed from an energy source or energy-
storage device at its input terminals.
• It is a voltage-source converter that, from a given input of dc voltage,
produces a set of 3-phase ac-output voltages, each in-phase with and
coupled to the corresponding ac system voltage through a relatively
small reactance (which is provided by either an interface reactor or the
leakage inductance of a coupling transformer)
• The dc voltage is provided by an energy-storage capacitor.
• A STATCOM can improve power-system performance in such
areas as (Applications):
1. The dynamic voltage control in transmission and
distribution systems;
2. The power-oscillation damping in power-transmission
systems;
3. The transient stability improvement;
4. The voltage flicker control; and
5. The control of not only reactive power but also active
power in the connected line, requiring a dc energy source
• To summarize, a STATCOM controller provides voltage
support by generating or absorbing reactive power at the
point of common coupling without the need of large external
reactors or capacitor banks.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Fig.1 The STATCOM Principle diagram (a) Power circuit (b) Equivalent circuit (c) Power exchange
• A STATCOM is a controlled reactive-power source.
• It provides desired reactive-power generation and absorption
entirely by means of electronic processing of the voltage and
current waveforms in a voltage-source converter (VSC).
• A single-line STATCOM power circuit is shown in Fig. 1 (a),
where a VSC is connected to a utility bus through magnetic
coupling.
• In Fig. 1 (b), a STATCOM is seen as an adjustable voltage
source behind a reactance—meaning that capacitor banks
and shunt reactors are not needed for reactive-power
generation and absorption, thereby giving a STATCOM a
compact design, or small footprint, as well as low noise and
low magnetic impact.
• The exchange of reactive power between the converter and the ac
system can be controlled by varying the amplitude of the 3-phase
output voltage, Es of the converter, as illustrated in Fig. 1 (c).
• If the amplitude of the output voltage is increased above that of
the utility bus voltage, Et then a current flows through the
reactance from the converter to the ac system and the converter
generates capacitive-reactive power for the ac system.
• If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased below the
utility bus voltage, then the current flows from the ac system to
the converter and the converter absorbs inductive-reactive power
from the ac system.
• If the output voltage equals the ac system voltage, the reactive-
power exchange becomes zero, in which case the STATCOM is said
to be in a floating state.
• Adjusting the phase shift between the converter-output voltage
and the ac system voltage can similarly control real-power
exchange between the converter and the ac system.
• The primary need for the capacitor is to provide a circulating-
current path as well as a voltage source.
• The magnitude of the capacitor is chosen so that the dc voltage
across its terminals remains fairly constant to prevent it from
contributing to the ripples in the dc current.
• The reactive power of a STATCOM is produced by means of power-
electronic equipment of the voltage-source-converter type.
• A number of VSCs are combined in a multi-pulse connection to
form the STATCOM.
• In the steady state, the VSCs operate with fundamental-frequency
switching to minimize converter losses
• However, during transient conditions caused by line faults, a PWM
mode is used to prevent the fault current from entering the VSCs
• In this way, the STATCOM is able to withstand transients on the ac
side without blocking.
The V-I Characteristic
Fig. 2 The V-I characteristic of the STATCOM

• STATCOM can supply both the capacitive and the inductive
compensation and is able to independently control its output
current over the rated maximum capacitive or inductive
range irrespective of the amount of ac-system voltage.
• The STATCOM can provide full capacitive-reactive power at
any system voltage—even as low as 0.15 p.u.
• It is capable of yielding the full output of capacitive
generation almost independent of the system voltage
(constant-current output at lower voltages).
• This capability is particularly useful for situations in which the
STATCOM is needed to support the system voltage during and
after faults where voltage collapse would otherwise be a
limiting factor
• Figure 2 also illustrates that the STATCOM has an
increased transient rating in both the capacitive-
and the inductive-operating regions.
• The maximum attainable transient over current in
the capacitive region is determined by the maximum
current turn-off capability of the converter switches.
• In the inductive region, the converter switches are
naturally commutated
• So, the transient-current rating of the STATCOM is
limited by the maximum allowable junction
temperature of the converter switches.
• In practice, the semiconductor switches of the converter are not
lossless
• So the energy stored in the dc capacitor is eventually used to meet
the internal losses of the converter, and the dc capacitor voltage
diminishes
• However, when the STATCOM is used for reactive-power
generation, the converter itself can keep the capacitor charged to
the required voltage level.
• This task is accomplished by making the output voltages of the
converter lag behind the ac-system voltages by a small angle (0.18–
0.28 range).
• In this way, the converter absorbs a small amount of real power
from the ac system to meet its internal losses and keep the
capacitor voltage at the desired level.
• The same mechanism can be used to increase or decrease the
capacitor voltage and thus, the amplitude of the converter-output
voltage to control the var generation or absorption.
COMPARISON BETWEEN SVC AND STATCOM
SVC STATCOM
1. It is bulky because of 1. Compact in size (30-40 %
passive components of SVC)
2. Transportation lag is high 2. Transportation lag is less
(250 ms) (2.5 - 3 μs)
3. Dynamic reactive power 3. Suitable for Dynamic
compensation is not reactive power
possible compensation
4. Real power exchange is 4. With sufficient energy
not possible. storage components, it can
exchange real power also
Contd.
SVC STATCOM
5. Transient stability margin 5. Transient stability margin

is comparatively low is high
6. Reactive power generated 6. Reactive power generated
is  V2 is  V
7. Voltage stability 7. Voltage stability
improvement is low improvement is high

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UNIT-III

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 1

• Basics of reactive power control

• Excitation systems – Modeling

• Static and dynamic analysis

• Methods of voltage control: tap-changing transformer, SVC (TCR +

• Principle of operation, V-I characteristics and Secondary voltage

• Voltage control with distributed generation

• In the above formula, if Ecos  >V then Q > 0 and the

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 3

• This inequality is generally satisfied when the generator is over

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 4

• When the machine is used as over-excited it is known as

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 6

• Zn is called natural impedance of the line and the loading

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 7

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 8

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 9

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 10

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 11

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 12

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 15

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 16

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 17

• Based on excitation power source used

1. D.C Excitation system

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 19

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 20

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 21

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 22

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 24

• The modern excitation system, Brushless or static design

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 25

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 27

• Schematic diagram of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 28

Potential transformer and rectifier

• Taking Laplace Transform,

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 30

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 31

VR  e or VR = kAe  (2)

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 32

• From the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.

• At no load, the drop can be neglected, hence, V = E

• Taking Laplace transform,

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 39

Tdo’ = Open circuit direct axis time constant = Lf/Rf

• Combining all the individual blocks

• Open loop transfer function,

• Where, open loop gain, k = KAkeKf

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 43

• From Fig., Open loop T.F.

• e0 must be less than some specified percentage ‘P’ of

• Substituting eqn. (2) in (1), we get,

• For a constant input, the transfer function is obtained by

• Position error constant,

• If K increases, e0 decreases, So static error decreases with

• If we specify that the static error (e0) should be less than

• From Fig., Open loop Transfer function,

• Taking Inverse Laplace transform