Science & Technology before the Spanish Regime

STONE AGE (C. 50,000 – C. 500 BC)

Filipino anthropologist F. Landa Jocano refers to the earliest noticeable stage in the development of proto-
Philippine societies as the Formative Phase. He also identified stone tools and ceramic manufacture as the two core
industries that defined the period's economic activity, and which shaped the means by which early Filipinos adapted
to their environment during this period. Fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone of three individuals had been
discovered on May 28, 1962 by Dr. Robert B. Fox, an American anthropologist of the National Museum. These
fragments are collectively called "Tabon Man" after the place where they were found on the west coast of Palawan.
Tabon Cave appears to be a kind of a Stone Age factory, with both finished stone flake tools and waste core
flakes having been found at four separate levels in the main chamber. Charcoal left from three assemblages of
cooking fires there has been Carbon-14 dated to roughly 7,000, 20,000, and 22,000 BC., but eventually developed
techniques for sawing, drilling and polishing hard stones. These Stone Age inhabitants, subsequently formed
settlements in the major Philippine islands such as Sulu, Zamboanga, Davao, Negros, Samar, Batangas, Laguna,
Rizal, Bulacan, the Cagayan region.
By about 3,000 B.C., they were producing adzes ornaments of seashells and pottery of various designs. The
manufacture of pottery subsequently became well developed and flourished for about 2,000 years until it came into
competition with imported Chinese porcelain. Thus over time pottery making declined. The custom of Jar Burial,
which ranges from Sri Lanka, to the Plain of Jars, in Laos, to Japan, also was practiced in the Tabon caves. A
spectacular example of a secondary burial jar is owned by the National Museum, a National Treasure, with a jar lid
topped with two figures, one the deceased, arms crossed, hands touching the shoulders, the other a steersman, both
seated in a proa, with only the mast missing from the piece. Secondary burial was practiced across all the islands of
the Philippines during this period, with the bones reburied, some in the burial jars. Seventy-eight earthenware vessels
were recovered from the Manunggul cave, Palawan, specifically for burial.
EARLY METAL AGE (C. 500 BC – C. 1 AD)
Although there are some evidences that early Austronesian migrants have bronze or brass tools, the earliest
metal tools in the Philippines are generally said to have first been used somewhere around 500 BC, and this new
technology coincided with considerable changes in the lifestyle of early Filipinos. The new tools brought about a more
stable way of life, and created more opportunities for communities to grow, both in terms of size and cultural
development. Where communities once consisted of small bands of kinsmen living in campsites, larger villages came
about- usually based near water, which made traveling and trading easier.
Gradually, the early Filipinos learned to make metal tools and implements such as copper, gold, bronze and,
later, iron. The Iron Age is considered to have lasted from the second or third century B.C. to the tenth century A.D.
Excavations of Philippine graves and work sites have yielded iron slags. By the first century A.D., Filipinos were
weaving cotton, smelting iron, making pottery, glass ornaments, and engaged in agriculture. Lowland rice was
cultivated in diked fields, and in the interior mountain regions as in the Cordillera, in terraced fields which utilized
spring water. These suggest that Filipinos during this period engaged in the actual extraction of iron from ore,
smelting and refining. But it appears that the iron industry, like the manufacture of pottery, did not survive the
competition with imported cast iron from Sarawak and much later, from China. In the interior and mountain
settlements, many Filipinos were still living as hunters. They gathered forest products to trade with the lowland and
coastal settlements. But they also made "iron lance-points, daggers and certain small tools used in transplanting."
Filipinos had also learned to build boats for the coastal trade. By the tenth century A.D., this had become a
highly developed technology. In fact, the early Spanish chroniclers took note of the refined plank-built warship called
caracoa. These boats were well suited for inter-island trade raids. The Spaniards later utilized Filipino expertise in
boat-building and seamanship to fight the raiding Dutch, Portuguese, Muslims and the Chinese pirate Limahong as
well as to build and man the galleons that sailed to Mexico.
By the tenth century A.D., the inhabitants of Butuan were trading with Champa (Vietnam) and those of
Ma-i (Mindoro) with China. Chinese records with have now been translated contain a lot of references to the
Philippines. These indicate that regular trade relations between the two countries had been well established during
the tenth to the fifteenth centuries. Archaeological findings (in various parts of the archipelago) of Chinese porcelains
made during this period support this contention. From the Sung (960-1278) and Yuan (1260-1368) Dynasties, there
are descriptions of trade with the Philippines, and from the Sung and Ming (1360-1644) Dynasties there are notices
of Filipino missions to Peking. The most frequently cited Chinese account in Philippine history textbooks is that of
Chao Ju-Kua in 1225. He described the communities and trading activities in the islands of Ma-i (Mindoro) and San-
hsu (literally three islands which present-day historians think refer to the group of Palawan and Calamian Islands);
the people of Ma-i and San-hsu traded: beeswax, cotton, true pearls, tortoise shell, medicinal betelnuts, yu-ta cloth
(probably jute or ramie) and coconut heart mats for Chinese porcelain, iron pots, lead fishnet sinkers, colored glass
beads, iron needles and tin. These were practically the same commodities of trade between the islands and China
which the first Spanish colonial officials recorded when they came to the Philippines more than two centuries later.
The Filipinos in Mindanao and Sulu traded with Borneo, Malacca and parts of the Malay Peninsula. This
trade seems to have antedated those with the Chinese. By the time the Spaniards reached the archipelago, these
trade relations had been firmly established such that the alliance between the rulers of manila and Brunei had
become strengthened by marriage. It was through these contacts that Hindu-Buddhist, Malay-Sanskrit and Arab-
Muslim Cultural and technological influences spread to the Philippines.
There have also been some references (by early travelers during the precolonial period) to trade relations
between Japan and the Philippines. To date however, Philippine historians have not found any prehispanic
references to the Philippines in Japanese literature of the period.
By the time the Spaniards came to colonies the Philippines in 1565, they found many scattered,
autonomous village communities (called barangays) all over the archipelago.
These were kinship groups or social units rather than political units. They were essentially subsistence
economies producing mainly what they needed. These communities exhibited uneven technological development.
Settlements along the coastal areas which had been exposed to foreign trade and cultural contacts such as Manila,
Mindoro, Cebu, Southern Mindanao and Sulu, seem to have attained a more sophisticated technology. In 1570, for
example, the Spaniards found the town of Mindoro "fortified by a stone wall over fourteen feet thick," and defended
by armed Moros; "bowmen, lancers, and some gunners, linstocks in hand." There were a "large number of culverins"
all along the hillside of the town. They found Manila similarly defended by a palisade along its front with pieces of
artillery at its gate. The house of Raja Soliman (which was burned down by Spaniards) reportedly contained valuable
articles of trade; "money, copper, iron, porcelain, blankets, wax, cotton and wooden vats full of brandy." Next to his
house was a storehouse which contained: much iron and copper; as well as culverins and cannons which had
melted. Some small and large cannon had just begun. There were the clay and wax moulds, the largest of which was
for a cannon seventeen feet long, resembling a culverin.
These reports indicate that the Filipinos in Manila had learned to make and use modern artillery. The Spanish
colonizers noted that all over the islands, Filipinos were growing rice, vegetables and cotton; raising swine, goats and
fowls; making wine, vinegar and salt; weaving cloth and producing beeswax and honey. The Filipinos were also
mining gold in such places as Panay, Mindoro and Bicol. They wore colorful clothes, made their own gold jewelry and
even filled their teeth with gold. Their houses were made of wood or bamboo and nipa. They had their own system of
writing, and weights and measures. Some communities had become renowned for their plank-built boats. They had
no calendar but counted the years by moons and from one harvest to another.
On the whole, the pre-colonial Filipinos were still highly superstitious. The Spaniards found no temples or
places of worship. Although the Filipinos knew how to read and write in their own system, this was mainly used for
messages and letters. They seem not to have developed a written literary tradition at that time. This would have led
to a more systematic accumulation and dissemination of knowledge, a condition that is necessary for the
development of science and technology. Because of the abundance of natural resources, a benign environment and
generally sparse population, there seemed to have been little pressure for invention and innovation among the early
Filipinos. As governor Francisco de Sande observed in 1575, the Filipinos do not understand any kind of work,
unless it be to do something actually necessary. Such as to build their houses, which are made of stakes after their
fashion; to fish, according to their method; to row, and perform the duties of sailors; and to cultivate the land.

Science & Technology during the Spanish Regime

The beginnings of modern science and technology in the Philippines can be traced to the Spanish regime. The
Spaniards established schools, hospitals and started scientific research and these had important consequences for
the rise of the country's professions. But the direction and pace of development of science and technology were
greatly shaped by the role of the religious orders in the conquest and colonization of the archipelago and by
economic and trade adopted by the colonial government.
16TH CENTURY
Spanish conquest and the colonization of the archipelago were greatly facilitated by the adoption of an
essentially religious strategy which had earlier been successfully used in Latin America. Known as reduccion, it
required the consolidation of the far-flung, scattered barangay communities into fewer, larger and more compact
settlements within the hearing distance of the church bells. This was a necessary response to the initial shortage of
Spanish missionaries in the Philippines. This policy was carried out by a combination of religious conversion and
military force. The net result of reduccion was the creation of towns and the foundation of the present system of local
government. The precolonial ruling class, the Datus and their hereditary successors, were adopted by the Spanish
colonial government into this new system to serve as the heads of the lowest level of local government; i.e. as
cabezas de barangay. The colonial authorities found the new set-up expeditious for establishing centralized political
control over the archipelago, for the imposition and collection of the tribute tax, enforcement of compulsory labor
services among the native Filipinos, and implementation of the compulsory sale of local products to the government.
The Filipinos naturally resisted reduccion as it took them away from their rice fields, the streams and the forests
which were their traditional sources of livelihood and also subjected them to the onerous economic exactions by the
colonial government. Thus the first century of Spanish rule brought about serious socio-economic dislocation and a
decline kin agricultural production and traditional crafts in many places. In the region surrounding the walled city of
Manila, Filipinos migrated from their barangays to the city in order to serve in the convents and thus avoid the
compulsory labor services in the shipyards and forests. Over the centuries, this population movement would greatly
contribute to the congestion of Manila and its suburbs. The religious orders likewise played a major role in the
establishment of the colonial educational system in the Philippines. They also influenced the development of
technology and promotion of scientific research. Hence, these roles must next to be examined.
There was very little development in Philippine agriculture and industry during the first two centuries of
Spanish rule. This was largely due to the dependence of the Spanish colonizers on the profits from the Galleon or
Manila-Acapulco trade, which lasted from 1565 to 1813. It was actually based on the trade with China which
antedated Spanish rule. The galleons brought to Latin America Chinese goods such as silk and other cloths,
porcelain and the like; and brought back to Manila Mexican silver. When the Spanish and Portuguese thrones were
united from 1581 to 1640, goods brought to Manila by ships from Japan and Portuguese ships from Siam, India,
Malacca, Borneo and Cambodia were also carried by the galleons to Mexico. During this time, Manila prospered as
the entrepot of the Orient. The Filipinos hardly benefited from the Galleon trade. Direct participation in the trade was
limited to Spanish inhabitants of Manila who were given shares of lading space in the galleons. Many of them simply
speculated on these trading rights and lived off on their profits. It was the Chinese who profited most from the trade.
They acted as the trade's packers, middlemen, retailers and also provided services and other skills which the
Spanish community in Intramuros needed. Spanish preoccupation with the Manila Galleon eventually led to the
neglect of agriculture and mining and the decline of native handicrafts and industries in the Philippines. The
deleterious effects of the trade on the archipelago's domestic economy had been pointed out by some Spanish
officials as early as 1592. But this seems to have been largely ignored by colonial policy-makers. Only the local
shipbuilding industry continued to prosper because of necessity to build the galleons and other ships required for
internal commerce and the defense of the archipelago. This had become quite well developed according to a French
visitor in the nineteenth century. He observed:
“In many provinces shipbuilding is entirely in the hands of the natives. The excellence of their work is proof
that they are perfectly capable of undertaking the study of abstruse sciences and that mathematical equations are by
no means beyond their comprehension....”
Agricultural development was left to the resident Chinese and the Spanish friars. The latter saw in the
cultivation of their large estates around Manila a steady source of financial support for their churches, colleges,
hospitals and orphanages in Intramuros. The friar estates profited from the expanding domestic food market as a
result of the population growth of Manila and its suburbs. But the friars contribution in the development of existing
agricultural technology was more of quantitative than qualitative in nature. The profitability of their estates was largely
derived from the intensive exploitation of native technology and their free compulsory personal services.
The Spaniards introduced the technology of town planning and building with stones, brick and tiles.
In many places, the religious (such as Bishop Salazar in Manila) personally led in these undertakings. Because of the
lack of skilled Filipinos in these occupations, the Spaniards had to import Chinese master builders, artisans and
masons. The native Filipinos were drafted, through the institution of compulsory labor services, to work on these
projects. In this manner, the construction of the walls of Manila, its churches, convents, hospitals, schools and public
buildings were completed by the seventeenth century.
Various decrees were issued in Spain calling for the establishment of a school system in the colony but
these were not effectively carried out. Primary instruction during the Spanish regime was generally taken care of by
the missionaries and parish priests in the villages and towns. Owing to the dearth of qualified teachers, textbooks and
other instructional materials, primary instruction was mainly religious education. Higher education was provided by
schools set up by the different religious orders in the urban centers, most of them in Manila. For example, the Jesuits
founded in Cebu City the Colegio de San Ildefonso (1595) and in Manila, the Colegio de San Ignacio (1595).
17TH CENTURY
Successive shipwrecks of and piratical attacks on the galleons to Mexico led to declining profits from the trade
and triggered an economic depression in Manila during the latter part of the seventeenth century. This situation was
aggravated by increasing restrictions on the goods carried by the Manila Galleon as a consequence of opposition
coming from Andalusion merchants and mercantilists in Spain.
The progress of establishing higher education was continued. The Colegio de San Jose (1601) was built.
Throughout the Spanish regime, the royal and pontifical University of Santo Tomas remained as the highest
institution of learning. Run by the Dominicans, it was established as a college in 1611 by Fray Miguel de Benavides.
It initially granted degrees in theology, philosophy and humanities. The faculty of jurisprudence and canonical law
was established. The Dominicans had the Colegio de San Juan de Letran (1640) in Manila. Access to these schools
was, however, limited to the elite of the colonial society (the European-born and local Spaniards, the mestizos and a
few native Filipinos). Towards the end of the sixteenth century, the religious orders had established several charity
hospitals in the archipelago and in fact provided the bulk of this public service. These hospitals became the setting
for rudimentary scientific work during the Spanish regime long before the establishment of the University of Santo
Tomas (UST) college of medicine. Research in these institutions were confined to pharmacy and medicine and
concentrated on the problems of infection diseases, their causes and possible remedies. Several Spanish
missionaries observed, catalogued and wrote about Philippine plants, particularly those with medicinal properties.
 18TH CENTURY
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Bourbon dynasty ascended to the Spanish throne and
brought with it political and economic ideas of the French Enlightenment.
This paved the way for more government attention to the economic development of the Philippines.
Enterprising Spaniards began to exploit the mineral wealth of the islands, develop its agriculture, and establish
industries. These efforts were further encouraged by the need to promote economic recovery after the British
Occupation of Manila in 1762-1764.
Research in agriculture and industry was encouraged by the founding of the Real Sociedad Economica de
los Amigos del Pais de Filipinas (Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Philippines) by Governador Jose Basco y
Vargas under authority of a royal decree of 1780. Composed of private individuals and government officials, the
Society functioned somewhat like the European learned societies during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and
a modern National Research Council, it undertook the promotion of the cultivation of indigo, cotton, cinnamon, and
pepper and the development of the silk industry.
In 1789, Manila was opened to Asian shipping. This inaugurated an era of increasing Philippine exports of
rice, hemp, sugar, tobacco, indigo and others and rising imports of manufactured goods.
19TH CENTURY
On the whole, however, higher education was pursued for the priesthood or for clerical positions in the colonial
administration. It was only during the latter part of the nineteenth century that technical/vocational schools were
established by the Spaniards. Courses leading to the B.A. degree, Bachiller en Artes, were given which by the
nineteenth century included science subjects such as physics, chemistry, natural history and mathematics.
In 1871, the schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened. From 1871 to 1886, the University of Santo
Tomas granted the degree of Licenciado en Medicina to 62 graduates. For the doctorate degree in medicine, at least
an additional year of study was required at the Universidad Central de Madrid in Spain. The most notable of these
was Father Fernando de Sta. Maria's annual de Medicinas Caseras published in 1763 which was so in demand that
it had undergone several editions by 1885. Moreover, the Ateneo de Manila (1859) was established. The study of
pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with subjects in natural history and general chemistry and five years of
studies in subjects such as pharmaceutical operations at the school of pharmacy. At the end of this period of the
degree of Bachiller en Farmacia was granted. The degree of licentiate in pharmacy, which was equivalent to a
master's degree, was granted after two years of practice in a pharmacy, one of which could be taken simultaneously
with the academic courses after the second year course of study. In 1876, the university granted the bachelor's
degree in pharmacy to its first six graduates in the school of pharmacy. Among them was Leon Ma. Guerrero, who
became the "Father of Philippine Pharmacy" for his extensive work on the uses of medicinal plants of the Philippines.
There were no schools offering engineering at that time. The few who studied engineering had to go to Europe.
There was a Nautical School created on 1 January 1820 which offered a four-year course of study (for the profession
of pilot of merchant marine) that included subjects as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics,
hydrography, meteorology, navigation and pilotage. While the School of Commercial Accounting and the School of
French and English Languages were established in 1839.
In 1863, the colonial authorities issued a royal decree designed to reform the existing educational system in
the country. It provided for the establishment of a system of elementary, secondary and collegiate schools, teacher-
training schools, and called for government supervision of these schools.
The full implementation of this decree, however, was interrupted by the coming of the Americans in 1898.
In 1814, Manila was officially opened to world trade and commerce; subsequently other Philippine ports were
opened. The prosperity arising from expanded world trade and commerce led to Manila's rapid development as a
cosmopolitan center. Modern amenities: a waterworks system, steam tramways, electric lights, newspapers, a
banking system. Undoubtedly, commercial needs led to the Spanish government establishment of a Nautical School,
and vocational schools. Various offices and commissions were also created by the Spanish government by the
Spanish government to undertake studies and regulations of mines, research on Philippine flora, agronomic research
and teaching, geological research and chemical analysis of mineral waters throughout the country. However, little is
known about the accomplishments of these scientific bodies. Hence the countryside remained poor.
Meteorological studies were promoted by Jesuits who founded the Manila Observatory in1865.
The Observatory collected and made available typhoon and climatological observations. These observations
grew in number and importance so that by 1879, it became possible for Fr. Federico Faura to issue the first public
typhoon warning. The service was so highly appreciated by the business and scientific communities that in April
1884, A royal decree made the Observatory an official institution run by the Jesuits, and also established a network
of meteorological stations under it.
With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the consequent ease in travel and communications that it
brought about, the liberal ideas and scientific knowledge of the West also reached the Philippines. The prosperity that
resulted from increased commerce between the Philippines and the rest of the world enabled Filipino students to go
to Europe for professional advanced studies. These included Jose Rizal who was able to pursue studies in Medicine
and specialize in ophthalmology in Spain.
In 1887, the Manila School of Agriculture was created by royal decree but it was able to open only in July 1889.
The School was designed to provide theoretical and practical education of skilled farmers and overseers and to
promote agricultural development in the Philippines by means of observation, experiment and investigation.
Agricultural stations were also established in Isabela, Ilocos, Albay, Cebu, Iloilo, Leyte and parts of Mindanao. The
professors in the School were agricultural engineers. The School was financed by the government but it appears that
its direction was also left to the priests. The certificates of completion of the course were awarded by the University of
Santo Tomas or the Ateneo Municipal. It seems that the School was not successful as Filipinos did not show much
inclination for industrial pursuits.
It was not surprising, therefore, that few Filipinos ventured to study these disciplines. Those who did were poorly
trained when compared with those who had gone to European universities. Science courses at the University of
Santo Tomas were taught by the lecture/recitation method. Laboratory equipment was limited and only displayed for
visitors to see. There was little or no training in scientific research.
By the second half of the nineteenth century, studies of infectious diseases such as smallpox, cholera, bubonic
plague, dysentery, leprosy and malaria were intensified with the participation of graduates of medicine and pharmacy
from UST. At this time, native Filipinos began to participate in scientific research. In 1887, the Laboratorio Municipal
de Ciudad de Manila was created by decree. Its main functions were to conduct biochemical analyses for public
health and to undertake specimen examinations for clinical and medico-legal cases. It had a publication called
Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas showing scientific studies being done during that time.
There was very little development in science and technology during the short-lived Philippine Republic (1898-
1900). The government took steps to establish a secular educational system by a decree of 19 October 1898, it
created the Universidad Literaria de Filipinas as a secular, state-supported institution of higher learning. It offered
courses in law, medicine, surgery, pharmacy and notary public. During its short life, the University was able to hold
graduation exercises in Tarlac on 29 September 1899 when degrees in medicine and law were awarded.
 Science & Technology during the American Regime
PRE-COMMONWEALTH PERIOD (1898 – 1935)

History

According to TagalogLang.com (n.d.), The Pre-Commonwealth Period also known as the American Period
happened from 1898 to 1935, the time when the Philippines is anticipating independence. It was also the halt of
Katipunan yet the beginning of Emilio Aguinaldo’s reign. In this period, the Spanish-American war took place and the
Spaniards lost their empire at the orient (Izar, n.d).

History of Science & Technology during this period

Science and Technology were evident, and it continued to progress even under even before in American
colonial period. A bureau that specializes in aid for tropical diseases & conducts laboratory projects were formulated
on July 1, 1901 by The Philippine Commission which is the Bureau of Government Laboratories. Years later, the
primary research center, The Bureau of Science, superseded the Bureau of Government Laboratories and the
National Research Council of the Philippines was also built. Also, agriculture, food processing, medicine and
pharmacy was enhanced and invented during this period.

As years go by, the Bureau of Science became the Institute of Science, during the term of President Carlos
P. Garcia, in 1958, the Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958 which developed the National Science
Development Board (Wikipedia, n.d).

Democracy

During the colonization of the Americans in the Philippines, democracy was trying to be achieved by the
country, part of the idea of having the country’s self-identity. Also, when Filipinos worked for the Americans, they
have become more eager to reach the idea of governing their own country. The Philippines became under the
democratic institution during the Commonwealth era. (ANU Press, n.d).

Basically, it was the Americans that influenced the Philippines to have a democratic kind of government
wherein those who aspire to be officials of the state have to run for candidacy and the winners are determined by
elections through the votes of the citizens.

Moreover, having three branches of the government were also contributed by Americans. ANU Press (n.d.),
also said that during the American Period, laws created by the legislatures at the national, provincial, and
city/municipal levels of government make up the Constitution. Supreme Court, a centralized court system, heads the
performance of the judicial function of the state and a career national bureaucracy administered the policies of the
government. Lastly, the executive branch implements and enforces the law, led by the President.

Education

One of the greatest contributions of Americans in the Philippines is education and this advanced the science
and technology in the Philippines for there were numerous scholarship grants for engineering and science,
establishments of organizations for research agencies & science services, and a more extensive public education
system (Caoili, n.d).
 A system of secularized public-school education was started by Americans on 21 January 1901. The
executive and legislative body, which is the Philippines Philippine Commission, until 1907, promulgated Act No. 74
which formulated the Department of Public Instruction in the Philippines. Because of this, public schools were
established which gave primary education to Filipinos with English as medium of instruction.

During this time, Americans implemented a three-level education namely elementary, high school, and
college. There were instances that the government funds for the educational expenses of some students that were
going to be sent to United States which were called “scholars” and “pensionados” (Wikipedia, n.d). Consequently, to
hone Filipino teachers, the Philippine Normal College (now Philippine Normal University) was established, followed
by the Philippine Medical School. Later on, under the Act of Philippine Legislature, the University of the Philippines
was made on June 18, 1908 (Caoili, n.d).

Other schools were also founded such as Colegio Filipino (1900, now National University), Silliman Institute
(1901, now Silliman University, Iloilo Normal School (1902, now West Visayas State University), Cebu Normal School
(1902, now Cebu Normal University,) Negros Oriental High School (1902), Capiz Home School (1904, now Filamer
Christian University, the Echague Farm School (1918, now the Isabela State University) St. Paul College of
Dumaguete (1904, now St. Paul University Dumaguete), Zamboanga Normal School in 1904 (now Western
Mindanao State University), Jaro Industrial School (1905, now Central Philippine University), Instituto de Manila
(1913, now University of Manila), Philippine Women's College (1919, now Philippine Women's University), and
Institute of Accountancy (1928, now Far Eastern University). Examples of vocational schools are: the Philippine
Nautical School, Manila Trade School (1901, now Technological University of the Philippines) and the Central Luzon
Agriculture School (Wikipedia, n.d).

Before 1910, the American colonial government encouraged young men and women to get higher
professional education as much as possible in American colleges. In 1903, the Philippine commission passed an Act
to finance the sending of 135 boys and girls of high school age to the United States to be educated as teachers,
engineers, physicians and lawyers.

In the field of medicine, the Philippine Commission provided for as many scholarships as there were
regularly organized provinces in the Islands.

Selected graduates of the schools of medicine and nursing were also sent on government scholarship to
universities in the United States for postgraduate courses and training in special fields. In 1921, the Rockefeller
foundation provided for six fellowships for qualified Filipinos in universities in the United States and Europe, two each
in the fields of public health (preventive medicine), public health laboratory work and teacher training in nursing
education (Caoili, n.d).

Volunteer American soldiers became the first teachers of the Filipinos. Part of their mission was to build
classrooms in every place where they were assigned. The American soldiers stopped teaching only when a group of
teachers from the U.S. came to the Philippines in June 1901. They came aboard the ship "Sheridan." In August 1901,
600 teachers called Thomasites arrived. Their name derived from the ship they traveled on, the USS Thomas. The
original batch of Thomasites was composed by 365 males and 165 females, who sailed from United States on July
23, 1901. The U.S. government spent about $105,000 for the expedition. More American teachers followed the
Thomasites in 1902, making a total of about 1,074 stationed in the Philippines (Wikipedia, n.d).

Philippine Money

After the United States took control of the Philippines, the United States Congress passed the Philippine
Coinage Act of 1903, established the unit of currency to be a theoretical gold peso (not coined) consisting of 12.9
grains of gold 0.900 fine (0.0241875 XAU), equivalent to ₱2,640 as of 22 December 2010. This unit was equivalent
to exactly half the value of a U.S. dollar. Its peg to gold was maintained until the gold content of the US dollar was
reduced in 1934. Its peg of ₱2 to the US dollar was maintained until independence in 1946.

The act provided for the coinage and issuance of Philippine silver pesos substantially of the weight and
fineness as the Mexican peso, which should be of the value of 50 cents gold and redeemable in gold at the insular
treasury, and which was intended to be the sole circulating medium among the people. The act also provided for the
coinage of subsidiary and minor coins and for the issuance of silver certificates in denominations of not less than 2
nor more than 10 pesos (maximum denomination increased to 500 pesos in 1906).

It also provided for the creation of a gold-standard fund to maintain the parity of the coins so authorized to
be issued and authorized the insular government to issue temporary certificates of indebtedness bearing interest at a
rate not to exceed 4 per cent per annum, payable not more than one year from date of issue, to an amount which
should not at any one time exceed 10 million dollars or 20 million pesos (Wikipedia, n.d).

Economic Progress

In 1902, Bureau of Agriculture was established to promote agriculture. Modern types of farm machinery
were introduced, and more irrigation systems were constructed.

However, the actual American policy favored only the rich landowners and foreign corporations. Take for
example the provisions of the Friar Lands Act of 1904. Moreover, the major agricultural export crops – sugar, copra,
hemp – were controlled by American or foreign interests.

The greatest single factor that caused the phenomenal development of Philippine economy was free trade
relations with the United States. As early as 1902, a reduction of 25% was allowed on goods coming from the
Philippines. Nevertheless, the American Congress consistently refused to admit Philippine products into US free of
duty. Economic laws were passed by the Congress, such as the Payne – Aldrich Tariff Act in 1909 that the partial
free trade relations between the Philippines and US were established until the Simmons – Underwood Tariff Act in
1913 abolished the quota limitations of Philippine export products.

Lured by the lucrative market in America, Filipinos neglected to develop other markets in foreign countries.
Consequently, their commerce with Great Britain, Spain, China, France, Germany, Holland and other nations
decreased considerably. Because of free trade, Filipinos overdeveloped a few big-money products to the utter
abandonment of other crops, because these export products brought them much wealth. Furthermore, free trade with
America was really free trade for the Americans, but not for the Filipinos.

The American period saw the advent of the industrial age of the Philippines. Cigar and cigarette factories,
coconut oil mills, sugar central, cordage shops and textile factories sprang up in cities and towns. Fishing and fish-
canning became a major industry. In addition, mining was one of the backbones of Philippine economy, particularly
on gold mining.

Another major contribution was the establishment of a sound currency system. On March 2, 1936 US
passed Philippine Currency act for the creation of a new currency based on the gold standard, as recommended by
Charles A. Conant. It fixed the value of the Philippine peso to one-half of the US dollar. The first minted coins
(designed by Melecio Figueroa) were silver peso, half peso, 20 centavo and 10-centavo pieces (Badilles, 2013).

Architecture

The Manila Central Post Office is part of the Daniel Burnham plan for Manila. The Silliman Hall in
Dumaguete, an example of a Stick style American architecture.
 The Luneta Hotel, located in Kalaw Avenue, is one of the remaining structures that survived the liberation of
Manila in 1945. The hotel was completed in 1918. According to Dean Joseph Fernandez of the University of Santo
Tomas, the hotel was designed by the Spanish architect-engineer Salvador Farre. The structure is the only remaining
example of the French Renaissance architecture with Filipino stylized Beaux-Arts architecture in the Philippines to
date.

At the Far Eastern University (FEU) in Quiapo, Manila, five Art Deco structures on the campus were
designed by National Artist Pablo Antonio. Three were built before World War II and two, after. Although FEU
buildings were totally damaged during the war, the university was restored to its original Art Deco design immediately
after. The university was given a UNESCO Asia Pacific-Heritage Award for Cultural Heritage in 2005 for the
outstanding preservation of its Art Deco structures.

The El Fraile Island or Fort Drum, also known as "the concrete battleship," is a heavily fortified island
situated at the mouth of Manila Bay in the Philippines, due south of Corregidor Island. The reinforced concrete
fortress shaped like a battleship was built by the United States in 1909 as one of the harbor defenses at the wider
South Channel entrance to the bay during the American colonial period. It was captured and occupied by the
Japanese during World War II and was recaptured by the U.S. after igniting petroleum and gasoline in the fort,
leaving it permanently out of commission.

During the rise of cinema in the Philippines as a form of recreation, several theaters were constructed in the
1930s to 1950s in the Art Deco style designed by prominent architects now recognized as National Artists. The
Manila Metropolitan Theater is an Art Deco building designed by the Filipino architect Juan M. Arellano and built in
1935. During the liberation of Manila by the combined American and FIlipino troops in 1945, the theatre was totally
destroyed.

The Iglesia ni Cristo is an international Christian religion that originated in 1914. Their church buildings
primarily serve as places of worship and are used for other religious functions. These churches were described as
structures "which employ exterior neo-Gothic vertical support columns with tall narrow windows between, interlocking
trapezoids, and rosette motifs, as well as tower and spires." There are multiple entrances leading to the main
sanctuary, where males and females sit on either side of the aisle facing a dais where sermons are made. The choir
loft is located behind the dais, and in larger churches, baptistry pools for immersion baptism are located at the back
of the church (Wikipedia, n.d).

Science & Health

Caoili (n.d.) stated that the old Laboratorio Municipal was absorbed by the Bureau of Government
Laboratories created by the Philippine Commission in 1901. In 1905, the latter was reorganized and renamed Bureau
of Science. It remained the principal government research establishment until the end of the second World War. It
had a biological laboratory, a chemical laboratory, a serum laboratory for the production of vaccine virus, serums and
prophylactics, a library.

The Bureau of Science performed the necessary chemical and biological examinations for the Philippine
General Hospital and Bureau of Health and formulated the serums and prophylactics needed by the latter. Pioneering
research was conducted at the Bureau of Science on such diseases as leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever,
malaria and beri-beri. Results of these studies were readily available to the Bureau of Health for use in its various
programs.

Studies on the commercial value of tropical products, tests of Philippine minerals and roadbuilding
materials, the nutritional value of foods, and other were similarly done at the Bureau of Science. From 1906, it
published the Philippine Journal of Science which reported not only work done in local laboratories but also scientific
developments abroad which had relevance to Philippine problems.
 The American colonial authorities organized other offices which, by the nature of their operations,
contributed further to the growth of scientific research. These were the Weather Bureau (1901), the Board (later
Bureau) of Health (1898), Bureau of Mines (1900), Bureau of Forestry (1900), Bureau of Agriculture (1901), Bureau
of Coast and Geodetic Survey (1905), Bureau of Plant Industry (1929) and Bureau of Animal Industry (1929). From
1927, there were proposals from professional societies for the creation of a National Medical Research Council and a
National Research Council similar to those in the United States, Canada, and Australia.

Transportation and Communication

The first act of the Philippine Commission was the appropriation of Php 2,000,000 for the construction of
roads and bridges. Governor W. Cameron Forbes came to be known as “the American road-Building Governor-
General” because of the many fine roads constructed during his administration.

In 1903, Americans introduced the motor vehicles in the Philippines. The Manila-Dagupan Railway was
purchased by the Philippine Government and became Manila Railroad Company. Another was the opening of 196
ports to shipping. Port works, break waters and lighthouses were built to facilitate navigation.

MERALCO (Manila Electric Railroad and Light Company), owned by an American Mr. Charles M. Swift
introduced the first electric streetcars. These furnished Manila and the suburbs with cheap and fast means of
transportation.

America also introduced air transportation in the Philippines. The first airplane appears in the Philippines in
1911, piloted by a stunt aviator named “Lucky” Baldwin during the Manila Carnival. The following year the first army
planes arrived in the country. Commercial air transportation began in 1930 with the establishment of the PATCO
(Philippine Aerial Taxi Company). In 1933 INAEC (Iloilo-Negros Air Express Company) was established. Manila later
became the key-point of all aviation routes in the Far East (Badilles, 2013).

COMMONWEALTH PERIOD (1935 – 1945)

History

When Tydings-MucDuffie Law (Philippine Independence Act) was confirm, accepted and settled in the
Philippines, it led for the establishment of the Commonwealth Government for a ten-year transitional period in the
Philippines from 1935-1945 in preparation for the independence from the United States.

The settlement of the Commonwealth Government was a watershed in Philippine history. To the Filipino
people, it was realization of their efforts to govern themselves and chart their own destiny as people. The Philippines
became a self-governing commonwealth in 1935.

On November 15, 1935, the inauguration of the Philippine Commonwealth Government happened. Manuel
L. Quezon was elected president and tasked with preparing the country for full independence after a ten-year
transition period. With Sergio Osmena as vice-president, they took their path in the ceremony (Badilles, 2013).

Education

The Government abolished Grade VII as the terminal grade in the elementary curriculum and also instituted
the "double-single session" plan thus reducing the time allotment or dropping certain subjects in the elementary
school.
 The government also enacted Commonwealth Act No. 180 (13 November 1936) reestablishing the Office of
Private Education which had been abolished in 1932. Higher education was provided mainly by the private sector
(Caoili, n.d).

The Improvement of Foreign Trade

According to the statistics provided, the Philippine foreign trade rose to 530 million pesos from the amount
of only 346 million pesos during pre-Commonwealth period (Hartendorp, 1953). Foreign trade was made more
accessible by the Americans to the Filipinos by the reopening of the ports in Manila, Southern Luzon and even in the
Muslim areas of Mindanao.

Arrival of Transportation and Communication Facilities from United States

Inter-island shipping was opened, and railway lines were improved. Buses, vessels, cars and taxicabs
increased in number, thus making the transportation accessible at relatively cheaper prices (Hamlin, 1954).

Airports were also constructed under the Commonwealth government for more comfortable travel for the
Filipinos as well as for faster transport of the goods. In terms of communication, wireless services of telephones were
enhanced, and radio broadcasting centers were opened. By the year 1940, Filipinos owning radio appliances were
already more than 60 thousand (Jenkins, 1954).

Public Welfare for the Filipinos

The Bureau of Public Welfare constructed the Associated Charities to do the same thing as much as it also
called on the National Relief Administration to widely monitor the people in order to extend the scope of its service to
the Filipino people specifically to those unfortunate Filipino citizens.

The people with mental illnesses, poor and delinquent Filipino children were also reached by the Child
Welfare Division to take care of them. On the other side of the American service, the jobless Filipinos were given
part-time & full-time jobs by the National Relief Administration aside the agency’s main service of distributing food to
victims of natural calamities such as earthquakes, flooding, fires and many more.

Women’s Suffrage for Filipinas

Women were given right to education, in contrast to the former colonization of the Spaniards that they were
only treated as second class citizens, thus disallowing them to gain education access. As a result, many of the
Filipino women became professionals.

The Arts and Literature for Filipino Cause

The Commonwealth government held contests for aspiring Filipino artists and writers. A contest in painting
competed by the Filipinos was held under government auspices in 1936 (Grunder & Livezey, 1951). President
Quezon established the Commonwealth Literary Contest in Tagalog, English, and Spanish upon the recommendation
of the Philippine Writers League. The competition included biography writing, history, poetry, drama making, essay
writing, short stores making, and many more. The contests really uncovered the hidden talents of the Filipinos
pertaining to arts and literature.

Economy, Science & Technology

 The Commonwealth government created the National Economic Council to prepare an economic program
and advise the government on economic and financial questions. It also established State-owned National Food
Products Corporation, the National Rice and Corn Corporation, and many more public companies.

Several government corporations were re-organized and new ones were created to perform such varied
functions as

• the exploitation and development of natural resources (e.g., the National Power Corporation);
• the development and promotion of local industries (such as the National Development Company (NDC)
and its subsidiaries, the National Abaca and Other Fibers Corporation);
• promotion of agricultural production and marketing; and the like.

The NDC was especially mandated to undertake the development of successful researches of government
science agencies (such as the Bureaus of Science, Animal Industry and Plant Industry) for commercial production.

For example, it created new agencies, such as the Bureau of Mines, to provide assistance to businessmen
undertaking mining exploration and development. It also increased appropriations for the Bureaus of Science, Plant
and Animal Industry, and thereby encouraged more scientific research for industrial purposes (Caoili, n.d).

The cash economy of the Commonwealth was mostly agriculture-based. Products included abaca, coconuts
and coconut oil, sugar, and timber. Numerous other crops and livestock were grown for local consumption by the
Filipino people. Other sources for foreign income included the spin-off from money spent at American military bases
on the Philippines such as the naval base at Subic Bay and Clark Air Base (with U.S. Army airplanes there as early
as 1919), both on the island of Luzon.

The performance of the economy was initially good despite challenges from various agrarian uprisings.
Taxes collected from a robust coconut industry helped boost the economy by funding infrastructure and other
development projects. However, growth was halted due to the outbreak of World War II (Wikipedia, n.d).

Philippine Money

When the Philippines became a United States Commonwealth in 1935, the coat of arms of the Philippine
Commonwealth were adopted and replaced the arms of the US Territories on the reverse of coins while the obverse
remained unchanged. This seal is composed of a much smaller eagle with its wings pointed up, perched over a
shield with peaked corners, above a scroll reading "Commonwealth of the Philippines". It is a much busier pattern,
and widely considered less attractive.

The "Mickey Mouse money" (Fiat peso)

During World War II in the Philippines, the occupying Japanese government-issued fiat currency in several
denominations; this is known as the Japanese government-issued Philippine fiat peso (see also Japanese invasion
money). The Second Philippine Republic under José P. Laurel outlawed possession of guerrilla currency, and
declared a monopoly on the issuance of money, so that anyone found to possess guerrilla notes could be arrested.
Some Filipinos called the fiat peso "Mickey Mouse money". Many survivors of the war tell stories of going to the
market laden with suitcases or "bayóng" (native bags made of woven coconut or buri leaf strips) overflowing with the
Japanese-issued bills. According to one witness, 75 "Mickey Mouse" pesos, or about 35 U.S. dollars at that time,
could buy one duck egg. In 1944, a box of matches cost more than 100 Mickey Mouse pesos.

"Guerilla Pesos" (Emergency circulating notes)

 The Emergency circulating notes were currency printed by the Philippine Commonwealth Government in
exile during World War II. These "guerrilla pesos" were printed by local government units and banks using crude inks
and materials. Due to the inferior quality of these bills, they were easily mutilated. The Japanese-sponsored Second
Philippine Republic under President José P. Laurel outlawed possession of guerrilla currency and declared a
monopoly on the issuance of money and anyone found to possess guerrilla notes could be arrested or even executed
(Wikipedia, n.d).

Modern technologies

Diosdado Banatao developed the first single-chip graphical user interface accelerator that made computers
work a lot faster. This invention has allowed computer users to use graphics for commands and not the usual typed
commands in older computers. It has allowed data processing to be a little faster using very little space, with small
chips instead of large boards.

Eco-G NanoTechnology developed the Eco-G3000, a low-cost and low-maintenance fuel-emission

reduction device. It is designed to reduce vehicular gas consumption and toxic emission.

Justino Arboleda devised the coconet, a sturdy but biodegradable net made from coconut husk.

Francisco Quisumbing is a Filipino chemist known for being the inventor of Quink ink used by The Parker
Pen Company. He graduated from the University of Chicago under the American pensionado program. He went back
to the Philippines after World War II but was unable to organize the Philippine Ink Corporation under the Japanese
Reparations Program because of too much government intervention. Quink stands for Quisumbing Ink. However,
Parker states that the name is an amalgam of "quick and ink" (Wikipedia, n.d).

PERIOD SINCE INDEPENDENCE (FROM 1946)

History

World War II had been demoralizing for the Philippines, and the islands suffered from rampant inflation and
shortages of food and other goods. Various trade and security issues with the United States also remained to be
settled before Independence Day. The Allied leaders wanted to purge officials who collaborated with the Japanese
during the war and to deny them the right to vote in the first postwar elections. Commonwealth President Osmena,
however, countered that each case should be tried on its own merits. The successful Liberal Party presidential
candidate, Manual Roxas, was among those collaborationists. Independence from the United States came on July 4,
1946, and Roxas was sworn in as the first president.

Architecture

In 1946, the independent Philippines expressed its identity by implementing modernism through the
utilization of reinforced concrete, steel and glass, the pre-dominance of cubic forms, geometric shapes and Cartesian
grids, and the absence of applied decoration.

In 1947, a corps of architects and engineers were tasked to study the modern US and Latin American
capitals and formulate the master plan for Manila.

Federico Ilustre, consulting architect from the 1950s to 1970s, worked on the buildings at the Elliptical Road
in Quezon City. The centerpiece is the 66-meter high Art Deco Quezon Memorial Monument, composed of three
pylons topped by winged figures representing the three island groups.
 The 1950s and 1960s staple architectural elements were the brise-soleil (sunbreaker), glass walls, pierced
screens and thin concrete shells. The post-war doctrine was “Form follows function,” professed by the “third
generation” architects, namely, Cesar Concio, Angel Nakpil, Alfredo Luz, Otillo Arellano, Felipe Mendoza, Gabriel
Formoso, and Carlos Arguelles. The 1950s also witnessed Space Age aesthetics and Soft Modernism, which
experimented with the sculptural plasticity of poured concrete to come up with soft and sinuous organic forms with
the use of thin-shell technology. Examples are Church of the Holy Sacrifice (UP Chapel) by Shubert
Ciencia/Creative Commons, Space Age: Victor Tiotuyco’s UP International Center and Jose Zaragoza’s Union
Church, and Soft Modernism: Church of the Risen Lord, Church of the Holy Sacrifice (UP Chapel) and the Philippine
Atomic Research Center.

In the 1950s, the height of buildings was limited by law to 30 meters. With the amendment of Manila
Ordinance No. 4131, a high-rise fever redefined Manila’s skyline: Angel Nakpil’s 12-storey Picache Building,
considered as the first skyscraper in the Philippines. Cesar Concio’s The Insular Life Building, the first office building
the old 30-meter height restriction (Legaspi, 2013).

Science & Technology

In 1947, the Bureau of Science was reorganized into an Institute of Science. In the same year, an Institute
of Nutrition, and in 1952, the Science Foundation of the Philippines (SFP) were created and placed (along with the
Institute of Science) under the Office of the President. The Institute of Nutrition was to perform research, advisory
and extension functions while the Science Foundation was to stimulate research in the sciences and engineering and
promote science consciousness among the people.

In 1952, the Commission on Volcanology was also created and placed under the National Research Council
of the Philippines (NRCP). Its function was primarily basic research on volcanology.

The U.S. Economic Survey Mission to the Philippines in 1950, noted in its Report the dearth of basic
information needed by industries of the country, the neglect of experimental work and the meager appropriation in the
national budget for scientific research, including the low salaries of government scientists.(98) The Bell Mission
recommended, among other things, the systematic exploration of the country's natural resources to determine their
potentialities for economic development. Following the Bell Mission's Report, the Institute of Science was
reorganized in 1951. Renamed Institute of Science and Technology, it acquired the status of a government-owned
corporation and was placed under the office of Economic Coordination. Added to its former functions of resources
survey, testing and standardization, were the responsibility for improving industrial processes and stimulating
technological development.

In 1957, a report was submitted to the President pointing out the deterioration of Philippine science since
the early years of the American regime. The report analyzed the causes of this decline -- the lack of government
support; dearth of scientists of high training and ability; low morale of scientists and a lack of public awareness of
Science. Consequently, Congress enacted the Science Act of 1958 which created the National Science Development
Board (NSDB) to formulate policies for the development of science and coordinate the work of science agencies. The
Act also created the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) and the National Institute of Science and
Technology (NIST) and placed these, along with the NRCP, under the NSDB.

In the 1960s additional science agencies were created by law like the Philippine Inventors Commission,
Philippine Coconut Research Institute (1964), Philippine Textile Research Institute (1967), and Forest Products
Research and Industries Development Commission (1969). Several existing agencies were also attached to NSDB
for policy coordination -- the NRCP, Metals Industry Research and Development Center (MIRDC), the SFP,
Philippine Science High School (PSHS) and Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR).
 In 1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA)
composed of four Research and Development Councils; Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research
and Development; Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research Development; Philippine Council for Health
Research and Development and the NRCP. NSTA has also eight research and development institutes and support
agencies under it. These are actually the former organic and attached agencies of NSDB which have themselves
been re-organized.

In March 1983, Executive Order No. 889 was issued by the President which provided for the establishment
of a national network of centers of excellence in basic sciences. As a consequence, six new institutes were created:
The National Institutes of Physics, Geological Sciences, Natural Sciences Research, Chemistry, Biology and
Mathematical Sciences.

Related to these efforts was the establishment of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service by
Presidential Decree No. 901 on 19 July 1983. This is designed to attract more qualified scientists to work in
government and encourage young people to pursue science degrees and careers (Caoili, n.d.).

Philippine Money

English Series were Philippine banknotes that circulated from 1951 to 1971. It was the only banknote series
of the Philippine peso to use English as the language.

The Pilipino series banknotes is the name used to refer to Philippine banknotes issued by the Central Bank
of the Philippines from 1969 to 1973, during the term of President Ferdinand Marcos. It was succeeded by the Ang
Bagong Lipunan Series of banknotes, to which it shared a similar design. The lowest denomination of the series is 1-
piso and the highest is 100-piso. This series represented a radical change from the English series. The bills
underwent Filipinization and a design change. After the declaration of Proclamation № 1081 on September 23, 1972,
the Central Bank demonetized the existing banknotes (both the English and Pilipino series) on March 1, 1974,
pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 378. All the unissued banknotes were sent back to the De La Rue plant in
London for overprinting the watermark area with the words "ANG BAGONG LIPUNAN" and an oval geometric safety
design (Wikipedia, n.d).

Discoveries

In 1966, Rodolfo Aquino isolated nine specific breeds of rice for the International Rice Research Institute.
His discoveries helped prevent famine in much of Asia. Recurring polynya was first discovered by Josefino Comiso, a
Filipino physicist working at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center studying global warming in the Arctic. Comiso
located the recurring polynya in the Cosmonaut Sea, south of the Indian Ocean. A polynya is a semi-permanent area
of open water in sea ice.

A method to formulate Erythromycin was discovered by Dr. Abelardo Aguilar A doctor from Iloilo, Aguilar
worked for the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly and Company as a researcher. Then in 1949, he submitted samples
of his work to the company’s research team who in 1952 declared the discovery of a new kind of antibiotic. According
to the team, the new drug was capable of treating several kinds of infections minus the common side-effects of
antibiotics. What’s more, the drug was available to those who were allergic to penicillin in 1949 (Wikipedia, n.d).

Land Transportation

The Jeepney, a modified military jeep, is the most common form of transportation in the country today. After
independence from the United States was declared in 1946, there was a surplus of American military jeeps in the
country. Filipinos then modified these vehicles to serve as makeshift buses. Since then, this ubiquitous vehicle has
faced a lot of innovative transformations until the modern “E-Jeepney” was finally introduced in Metro Manila and
Bacolod.

The Marine Multi-Purpose Vehicle or MMPV uses independent suspensions and portal geared hubs similar
to portal axles to make for a full 16 inches of ground clearance. The vehicle also has disc brakes on all 4 wheels, and
4-wheel double-wishbone suspension. The brake discs are not mounted at the wheels as on conventional
automobiles, but are inboard, attached to the outside of each differential. The front and rear differentials are Torsen
type, and the center differential is a regular, lockable type. Created by the Philippine Marine Corps to replace M151
jeeps in service as they are hard to maintain with problems concerning availability of spare parts (Wikipedia, n.d.)

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