5 Superstructure

Construction Planning &
Technology (CE F242)

BITS Pilani Superstructure – Building Envelope
Hyderabad Campus
Topics to be covered
 Types of walls – types and construction
 Fenestrations – Doors & windows
 Floors & roofs
 Finishes
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Walls
 Walls are one of the most essential components of a

building
 Function is to enclose or divide space of the building to
make it more functional and useful
 Walls provide privacy, afford security and gives protection
against heat, cold, sun and rain
 They provide support to floors and roofs

Walls (contd…)
Walls have to be designed as to have provision of adequate

 Strength and stability
 Weather resistance
 Durability
 Fire resistance
 Thermal insulation
 Sound insulation

Walls (contd…)
Walls may be basically divided into two types:

 Load bearing
 Non-load bearing

Masonry
 Masonry may be defined as the construction of building

units bonded together with mortar.
 Depending upon the type of building units used, masonry
may be of following types:
 Stone masonry
 Brick masonry
 Hollow concrete blocks masonry
 Reinforced brick masonry
 Composite masonry

Terminology
 Course
 Header
 Stretcher
 Header Course
 Stretcher Course

Terminology (contd…)
 Closer – One face is uncut

 Queen closer
 King closer
 Mitred closer
 Bat – Cut across width
 Frog

 Sill – Bottom surface of a door
or window opening
 Lintel
 Plinth – Horizontal projecting
course provided at the base of
wall above ground level
 Jambs – Vertical sides of a
finished opening for door or
window etc
 Reveals – Exposed vertical
surfaces left on the sides of an
opening after the door or
window frames has been fitted
 Corbel – Projecting stone
provided to support for joist,
truss
 Cornice – Projecting
ornamental course near the top
of the wall to dispose off rain
water
 Parapet – Portion of low height

wall constructed along edge of
the roof

Classification of Stone
Masonry
Stone masonry
Rubble masonry Ashlar masonry
1. Random rubble masonry

1. Ashlar fine masonry
- Coursed - Uncoursed
2. Ashlar rough tooled
2. Square rubble masonry
3. Rock (or) quarry faced
- Coursed - Uncoursed
4. Ashlar chamfered
3. Polygonal rubble masonry
5. Ashlar block in course
4. Flint rubble masonry
5. Dry rubble masonry

Random Rubble Masonry
http://www.valleyofstone.org.uk/journey/stoneinthelandscape/fashions

Square Rubble Masonry
www.aggregate.com
www.aggregate.com

Polygonal Masonry
www.dry-stone.co.uk
Flint Rubble Masonry

Dry Rubble Masonry
www.docbrown.info
www.merchantcircle.com
www.nexus.globalquakemodel.org

Ashlar Masonry

Topics for Further Reading
 Joints in stone masonry
 Appliance used for lifting stones

Brick Masonry
 Brick masonry is made of brick units, bonded together

with mortar
 Brick masonry is preferred over other masonry due to the
following reasons
 All bricks are of uniform size & shape. Can be laid in uniform
pattern
 Light in weight and small in size. Easy to handle
 Brick laying is easy to understand, even unskilled masons can
do the brick masonry
 Easily available at all sites, ornamental works are easy to do
Brick Masonry (contd…)
 Good bricks are ascertained by a hard ringing sound
emitted when two bricks are struck together
 Strength of brick masonry depends on
 Quality of bricks
 Quality of mortar (1:3 or 4)
 Method of bonding used

Bonds in Brick Work
To get a good bond, the following rule should be observed:

 The length of the brick should be twice its width plus one joint, so that
uniform lap is obtained
 Amount of lap should be minimum ¼ brick along the length of the wall
and ½ brick across the thickness of wall
 In alternate courses, the centre line of header should coincide with
centre line of header
 Vertical joints in alternate courses should be along same perpend
 Stretchers should be used only in facing, they should not be used in
hearting. Hearting only with headers
 Preferable to provide every sixth course as a header course on both
sides of wall
Brick

Types of Bonds
 Stretcher Bond  Raking Bond

 Header Bond  Zigzag Bond
 English Bond  Garden Wall Bond
 Flemish Bond
 Facing Bond
 English Cross Bond
 Brick on Edge Bond
 Dutch Bond

Stretcher Bond

Stretcher Bond

Header Bond

English Bond

English Bond (contd…)

Flemish Bond

Double Flemish Bond
 Every course consists of

headers and stretchers placed
alternatively
 The facing and backing of wall
in each course have the same
appearance
 Quoin closers are used next to
quoin headers in every alternate
course

Single Flemish Bond
 Double Flemish bond facing and

English bond backing and hearting
in each course
 Strength of English bond and
appearance of Flemish Bond

English vs Flemish Bond

Tools for Brick Laying

Brick Laying Construction
 All bricks to be used for
construction are thoroughly
soaked in water
 Corner of the wall is constructed
first and continue the first course
 The level & alignment is checked
regularly

Further Reading Topics
 Improved method for brick laying by CBRI
 Typical structure in brick masonry (Arches, Lintels,
Buttress, thresholds, corbel, coping, jambs)
 Defects in Brick Masonry

Concrete Masonry
 Uses cement concrete blocks, either hollow or solid
 A hollow unit is defined as that unit which has core-void area

greater than 25% of the gross area
 They are used for both load bearing and non-load bearing walls
 Method of construction is same as that used for brick masonry
 Concrete blocks have high thermal expansion due which walls

crack at corners

Concrete Masonry (contd…)
 Blocks are light and easy to handle
 Great saving of material
 They are structurally stronger than bricks
 Because of large size, number of joints are less resulting in

saving of mortar
 Due to hollow space, wall has better insulating properties

against sound, head and dampness

Reinforced Brick Masonry
 When brick work has to bear tensile and shear stresses
 When it is required to increase the longitudinal bond
 When the brick work is supported on soil which is susceptible to

large settlement
 When brick work is supposed to act as lintel over openings
 When brick work is used in seismic areas

Floors
 Purpose of floors is provide a level surface capable of

supporting the loads on it
 To do that, it must satisfy

 Adequate strength & stability
 Adequate fire resistance
 Sound insulation
 Damp resistance
 Thermal resistance

Floors (contd…)
 The floors resting directly on the ground surface are known

as “Ground Floors” while the other floors of each storey
above the ground level are known as “Upper Floors”
 Major challenge with ground floors is damp exclusion and

thermal insulation
 For upper floors, it is strength & stability and partly sound

insulation and fire resistance

Components of Floor
 Sub-floor, base course or floor base
 Floor covering or flooring

Materials for Floor Base
 Cement Concrete
 Lime Concrete
 Stones
 Bricks
 Wooden blocks

Floor Finish
 Mud and Muram  Wood or timber
 Bricks  Rubber
 Flag Stones  Linoleum flooring
 Concrete  Cork
 Terrazzo  Glass
 Mosaic  Plastic or P.V.C
 Tiles
 Asphalt
 Marble
 Granolithic finish

Floor Finish - 01
Mud and Muram Bricks
7.5 cm thick
25 cm thick
sand; bricks
moist earth;
& mortar or
chopped
10-15 cm
straw; cow-
lean
dung-
concrete;
cement
bricks on
12mm
mortar bed
Flag Stones Concrete

10-15 cm 7.5-10 cm
lean lean
concrete; concrete;
bricks on square or
20-25 mm rectangular
mortar bed panels of
cement
concrete
(1:2:4) with
glass strips

Floor Finish - 02
Terrazo Mosaic
40 mm concrete
base and above 5-8 cm thick
that 6mm thick concrete
terrazzo topping base; 3mm
(cement and cement
marble chips) in mortar,
panels; powdered
grinding/curing/gri marble;
nding/curing/grindi mosaic
ng/polishing chips as per
design;
rolling
Tiles Marble
25-30 mm
thick mortar
over
concrete
base of 75-
100 mm;
Bedding
mortar and
tiles; curing
for 7 days

Tile Laying

Tile Laying

Floor Finish - 03
Granolithic Finish Wood
Asphalt Rubber

Floor Finish - 04
Linoleum Cork
Glass Plastic or PVC

Selection of Flooring Material
Initial Cost
Appearance
Cleanliness
Durability
Damp Resistance
Sound Insulation
Thermal Insulation

Upper Floors
Depending upon the materials used for construction, and upon the
arrangement of beams, girders etc. for supporting the flooring,
upper floors may be classified into:
 Steel joist floors
 Jack arch floors
 Reinforced cement concrete floors
 Ribbed or hollow tiled floors
 Filler joists floors
 Precast concrete floors
 Timber floors
Steel Joist Floor
Spans of 1 to 3 m
Widths 30 to 60 cm

Jack Arch Floor

Reinforced Cement Concrete
Floors
Flat Slab
(Self Study)
Ribbed or Hollow Tiled Floor

Filler Joists Floor

Precast Concrete Floor

Timber Floor

Doors & Windows
 Door may be defined as an openable barrier secured in a
wall opening
 Door consists of two parts: (i) door frame, (ii) door shutter
 Window is also a vented barrier secured in a wall opening
 Window also consists of two parts
 Window frame
 Window shutter

Location of Doors & Windows
 The number of doors should be kept as minimum in a
room.
 It should meet the functional requirements.
 Preferably be located at the corner of the room, nearly 20

cm from corner.
 If there are two doors in a room, they shall be located

facing each other.

Location of Doors & Windows
 Size and number of windows should be decided on basis of

distribution of light, control of ventilation, privacy etc
 Location of window should also meet functional requirements
 Window should be located in opposite wall, facing a door or

another window
 From point of view of fresh air, a window should be located on

the northern side of a room
 Sill of window should be located about 70 to 80 cm above floor

level

Doors
• FRAME:- It is an assembly of
horizontal and vertical members,
forming an enclosure,to which
the shutters are fixed
• SHUTERS:-These are the
openable parts of a door or
window.
• HEAD:-This is the top or
uppermost horizontal part of
frame

Windows
• SILL:-This is the lowest

or bottom horizontal part
of a window frame, not
provided in door frames.
• HORN:- These are the
horizontal projections of a
frame..
• REBATE :- It is the
depression or recess
made inside the frame to
receive the shutter.

Size of Doors
In general, doors should allow largest object likely to pass
Larger sizes in public buildings

The common width-height relations used:
 Width = 0.4 to 0.6 Height
 Height = (width + 1.2)m
General sizes used:
a) Residential
External door – 1.0 x 2.0 to 1.1 x 2.0 m
Internal door - 0.9 x 2.0 to 1.0 x 2.0 m
Bath & WC – 0.7 X 2.0 to 0.8 x 2.0 m
Garages for cars – 2.25 x 2.25 m to 2.40 x 2.25 m
b) Public
1.2 x 2.0 m or 1.2 x 2.1 m or 1.2 x 2.25 m

Designation of Doors
The size of an opening is indicated by number of

modules where each module is of 100 mm.
e.g. 10 DS 20 OR 10 DT 20
size of opening = 1000 x 2000 mm
D – Door opening
S – Single shutter
T – Double shutter

Types of Doors
Types of Doors
Arrangement Method of Working

Metal Doors
of components construction Operations

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Classification on basis of
arrangement of components
Battened & ledged doors
• These doors consist of
vertical boards called
battens which are nailed or
screwed to the horizontal
members, called ledges .
Often the battens are a-
bout 15 to 18 cm wide and
2 to 3 cm thick. Doors
made with narrow battens
like these have a better
appearance.
Battened, ledged and braced doors
• This is a ledged and
battened door to which
braces have been
added to prevent
sagging. These braces
must slope upwards
from the hinge edge of
the door, and they are
housed with a skew
notch into the ledges.
Battened, Ledged & Framed Doors
• It is improved
version of
battened and
ledged doors with
provision of frame.
Two vertical
members known
as styles are
provided
Battened, Ledged , Braced &
Framed Doors
• Same as above with
extra braces.
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Classification on basis of method of

construction
Framed & Panelled Door
• These doors consist of a

frame made up of styles (a),
a top rail (b), a bottom rail (c)
and sometimes an
intermediate rail (d). into this
framework a plywood panel
(e) is fitted. This panel may
fit into a groove or a rebate.
Glazed or Sash Doors
• These are provided
where the visibility
of the interior of the
room is required.
Flush Doors
• The flush door with a
framed core is a type of
door that we frequently
make in Rural Building.
This door consists of a
frame which has stiles, top
and bottom rails, and
narrow intermediate rails.
It is covered on each side
by a sheet of plywood
Plywood-covered flush
doors cannot be used
where they will be
exposed to rain and sun.
Louvered Doors
• These permit free
ventilation through
them and at the
same time maintain
the privacy of the
room.
Wire gauged doors
Wire gauge or fly
proof door shutters
are fixed to provide
free air circulation
and prevent
mosquitoes, flies,
insects etc. from
entering into the
building.
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Classification on basis of working

operations
Revolving Doors
• These are
provided only at
public places to
provide entrance
to one and exit
to the other
person.
Sliding Doors
• A sliding door is a
type of door which
opens horizontally by
sliding, whereby the
door is either mounted
on or suspended from
a track
Swing Doors
• A door that swings on
a double hinge;
opens in either
direction
Collapsible Steel Doors
• Mainly provided in
godowns, workshop,
public windows and
etc.
Rolling Steel Shutter Door
• A roller shutter, roller door or
sectional overhead door is a type
of door or window shutter consisting
of many horizontal slat hinged
together. The door is raised to open
it and lowered to close it. On large
doors, the action may be motorized.
It provides protection against wind
and rain.
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Metal Doors
Mild Steel Sheet Door
• Mainly provided in
godowns, workshop,
public windows and
etc. It is quite strong.
Corrugated Steel Doors
• Exactly same as the
above type, except that
corrugated steel sheets
are welded to shutter
frame instead of MI
sheets.
Hollow Metal Doors
• Appearance as
wooden door but
have more strength.
Metal Covered Plywood Door
• These are composite
doors of plywood and
mild steel and are
reasonably fire proof.
Windows
 Breadth of window = 1/8 (width of room + height of room)
 Total area of window-openings should normally vary from

10 to 20% of the floor area of the room
 Windows are classified based on nature of operational
movements of shutters, materials used for construction,
manner of fixing and their location

Fixed windows
A window that cannot
be opened, whose
function is limited to
allowing light to enter.
This type of window is
used in situations
where light or vision
alone is needed as no
ventilation is possible
through fixed
windows
Pivoted Window
• A window having a
section which is
pivoted near the
center so that the top
of the section swings
in and the bottom
swings out.
Double hung windows
• A window with two
parts that overlap
slightly and slide up
and down inside the
frame. The two parts
are not necessarily
the same size.
Sliding Windows
Their shutters move

either horizontally or
vertically.
Casement Window
• A casement window
to its frame by one or
more hinges.. They
are used singly or in
pairs within a common
frame.
Sash Window
Louvred Window
• A louver is a window,
blind with horizontal
slats that are angled to
admit light and air, but
to keep out rain, direct
sunshine, and noise.
The angle of the slats
may be adjustable,
usually in blinds and
windows, or fixed.
Metal Windows
• Metal windows, made
up of mild steel having
lesser cost and more
strength.
Bay Window
• A multi-panel
window, with at
least three panels
set at different
angles to create a
protrusion from the
wall line.
Clere Storey Window
• These are provided in
a room which has
greater ceiling height
than the surrounding
rooms
Corner Window
• This type of window
has two faces in
perpendicular
directions and these
are provided in the
corner of room.
Dormer window
• Dormer window is a
window provided on
the sloping roof
Gable Window
• It is a vertical
window provided in
the gable end of a
pitched roof.
Lantern Window
• Such windows
are provided
over the flat
roof, to provide
more light and
air to the inner
room. The
windows
project above
the roof level.
Ventilators
• Ventilators are small
windows, fixed at a
greater height than the
window, generally
about 30 t0 50 cm
below roof level.
Self Study Topics
 Types of hinges used for doors & windows
 Types of bolts used in for doors & windows

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Roofs
Roofs
 Roof is the uppermost part of the building, provided as a

structural covering, to protect the building from weather
 Structurally, a roof is constructed in the same way as an

upper floor, though the shape of its upper surface may
be different.
 Roof must have thermal resistance, fire resistance, water

proof and sound insulation apart from adequate strength
& stability

Types of Roofs
 Pitched or sloping roofs – Areas where rainfall/ snowfall

is very heavy; Buildings with irregular plan or with long
spans are a challenge to design
 Flat roofs or terraced roofs – In Plains or in hot regions
 Curved roofs – Give architectural effects, suitable for

public buildings like libraries, theatres etc

Pitched Roofs

Types of Pitched Roofs






Forms of Roof Trusses
1. King post roof truss  Single roofs

 Double or Purlin roofs
 Trussed roofs
2. Queen post roof truss
3. Combinations of king post and queen post trusses

When the span of the roof exceeds 5 m and
4. Mansard roof truss where there are no inside walls to support the
purlins, framed structures known as trusses are
5. Truncated truss provided at suitable interval along the length of
the room.
6. Belfast truss The roof consists of 3 major elements:
a) Rafters: to support the roofing
material
7. Steel truss b) Purlins: to provide intermediate
support to the rafters
8. Composite truss c) Trusses: to provide support to the
ends of the purlins
King Post Truss
Spacing of king post truss is limited to 3m c/c.

Suitable for spans varying from 5m to 8m.
Queen Post Truss

Self Study
1. King post roof truss
2. Queen post roof truss
3. Combinations of king post and queen post trusses
4. Mansard roof truss
5. Truncated truss
6. Belfast truss
7. Steel truss
8. Composite truss
Roof Covering for Pitched
Roofs
1. Thatched covering
2. Wood shingles
3. Tiles
4. Asbestos cement sheets
5. Galvanized corrugated iron sheets
6. Slates

Flat Terraced Roofing
 Flat roof is one which is either horizontal or with a slope of

10 degrees.
 Advantages & disadvantages compared to pitched roofs
 Types of flat terraced roofing – self study

Curved or Shell Roofing
 Shell roofs are made to meet functional and architectural

requirements.
 The roofs are provided in public buildings like libraries,

theatres, recreation centers, factories or workshops etc.
 These roofs are used where large floor areas are required
to be covered without obstruction from columns.
 Disadvantages: Can’t be used to construct upper floor; Has

problems of natural light and ventilation; Costly for
construction.
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Building Finishes
Building finishes have two functions:
 Gives protective coating to surfaces
 Provide decorative finishes or effects which add to

appearance of the materials surface and building as a
whole
Plastering, Pointing, White-washing, Colour-washing
Painting, varnishing, distempers and miscellaneous finishes.

Plastering
 Process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns,

ceilings and other building components with thin coat of
plastic mortars to form a smooth durable surface.
 Requirements of good plaster
 Tools for Plastering
 Number of coats
 Methods of Plastering
 Defects in Plastering

Pointing
 Pointing consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 to 20

mm and filling it with better quality mortar in desired shape.

Painting, Distempering and
White-Washing
 Paints are liquid compositions of pigments and binders
which when applied to the surface in thin coats dry to form
a solid film to impart the surface a decorative finish apart
from protecting the base material from weathering,
corrosion and other chemical and biological attacks.
Self Study

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus

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Construction Planning &

Technology (CE F242)

 Types of walls – types and construction

 Fenestrations – Doors & windows

 Floors & roofs

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Walls are one of the most essential components of a

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Walls have to be designed as to have provision of adequate

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Walls may be basically divided into two types:

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Masonry may be defined as the construction of building

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Closer – One face is uncut

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Parapet – Portion of low height

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Rubble masonry Ashlar masonry

1. Random rubble masonry

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Joints in stone masonry

 Appliance used for lifting stones

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Brick masonry is made of brick units, bonded together

 Good bricks are ascertained by a hard ringing sound

emitted when two bricks are struck together

 Strength of brick masonry depends on

 Quality of mortar (1:3 or 4)

 Method of bonding used

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

To get a good bond, the following rule should be observed:

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Stretcher Bond  Raking Bond

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Every course consists of

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Double Flemish bond facing and

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Improved method for brick laying by CBRI

 Typical structure in brick masonry (Arches, Lintels,

Buttress, thresholds, corbel, coping, jambs)

 Defects in Brick Masonry

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 Uses cement concrete blocks, either hollow or solid