Examining Students' Online Course Perceptions and Comparing Student Performance Outcomes in Online and Face-to-Face Classrooms

Examining Students’ Online Course Perceptions and Comparing Student Performance Outcomes
in Online and Face-to-Face Classrooms
Examining Students’ Online Course Perceptions

and Comparing Student Performance Outcomes
Dan Spencer and Traci Temple
North Carolina State University, Raleigh
Abstract
Through the use of existing grade and student survey data, this study investigated online
courses offered at a public four-year university. Specifically, the study explored differences
in student success rates between online and face-to-face courses for traditional
undergraduate students as well as the climate of student perceptions towards online courses.
Our general results suggest that students performed better in, and had higher levels of
preference toward, traditional face-to-face formats. However, overall perceptions of online
courses were positive, with students viewing instructional technologies as reliable and easy
to use, as well as reporting that online technologies facilitated prompt feedback, enhanced
their problem-solving skills, and met their learning needs. Alongside this, students exhibited
positive views towards their instructors’ skill level and use of technology to support
academic success. Logistic regression analyses of differences in student success across
instructional formats revealed interaction effects with variables of age
(nontraditional/traditional), aid status and whether or not courses were taken to fulfill general
education or major requirements, suggesting a more complex effect of instructional format
across student subpopulations. The variability in the results observed in the current study
warrant further exploration before definitive conclusions on the impact of instructional
format on student outcomes and perceptions can be made.
Keywords: instructional format, student outcomes, student perceptions
Spencer, D., & Temple, T. (2021). Examining students’ online course perceptions and comparing
student performance outcomes in online and face-to-face classrooms. Online Learning,
25(2), 233-261. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v25i2.2227
Online Learning Journal – Volume 25 Issue 2 – June 2021 5 233

Examining Students’ Online Course Perceptions and Comparing

Student Performance Outcomes in Online and Face-to-Face Classrooms
The rise to prominence of distance education (DE) has been primarily driven by the advent
of online instructional technologies and the desire to provide access to education to those who
would otherwise not be able to participate (Bates, 2005; Beldarrain, 2006; Kentnor, 2015). In
recent years, the need for DE programs has increased in order to address the growing population
of college-aged students and increased enrollment numbers (Howell, Williams, & Lindsay, 2003).
Since 2012, DE enrollments have grown steadily (Allen & Seaman, 2017; Seaman, Allen, &
Seaman, 2018). As of fall 2016, nearly one third of students (31.6%) were taking at least one DE
course, with 86.1% of these students studying at the undergraduate level (Seaman, Allen, &
Seaman, 2018). Of these students, a significant portion received their education solely via online
courses (47.2%; Seaman, Allen, & Seaman, 2018).
With the rapid increase in DE course offerings, policymakers and stakeholders in higher
education have been concerned with the quality of education provided to students. Commonly,
comparisons have been made between online DE courses and traditional face-to-face classrooms
(Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia & Jones, 2009), with the most prominent measures of quality
being student success (in the form of completion rate and student grade performance). Conclusions
drawn from this literature have been mixed, with studies varying significantly in their findings.
Several studies have shown reduced completion rates in online courses compared to traditional
face-to-face courses (e.g., Atchley, Wingenbach, & Akers, 2013). However, results for student
success have ranged from lowered success rates and student outcomes in online courses compared
to traditional face-to-face courses (e.g., Brown & Liedholm, 2002; Murphy & Stewart, 2017), to
no differences (e.g., Buckley, 2003; Neuhauser, 2002), and even heightened success for those
online (e.g., Means et al., 2009).
It should be noted that “success” has had a wide range of meanings within the literature
comparing the efficacy of instructional formats. Often studies have compared academic
performance, in the form of grades or grade point average (GPA), and course completion or
retention rates. Yet, these measures have not always been standardized, with researchers noting
differences in the calculation of grades and course completion/retention across studies (Howell,
Laws, & Lindsay, 2004). Also, contemporary researchers have argued for the need to expand
research methodology to include the measurement of variables that may predict success in the
classroom, such as student perspectives, attitudes, or preferences towards the instructional format
itself (e.g., Buchanan & Palmer, 2017; Ganesh, Paswan, & Sun, 2015; Gundlach, Richards,
Nelson, & Levesque-Bristol, 2015; Keramidas, 2012). Therefore, in the current review of the
available literature, findings for student preferences and attitudes, as well as variables (at the
individual and course level) that may impact success in both online and face-to-face formats, are
considered alongside research investigating traditional success measurement areas (e.g., grades or
GPA).

Review of Relevant Literature

In its simplest form, course delivery in higher education can be categorized into one of
three instructional formats: traditional face-to-face learning, online learning, and blended learning.
Each instructional format can use technology. However, in comparison to a traditional face-to-face
classroom where student-teacher interactions are conducted in a physical classroom setting, online
learning involves the learners (for the most part) being physically separated from their teacher(s),
with interactions carried out via synchronous or asynchronous two-way communication (Bernard,
Borokhovski, Schmid, Tamin, & Abrami, 2014). Blended learning, on the other hand, transitions
between traditional and online learning, involving student-teacher interaction in both face-to-face
and online formats, and integrates learning technologies that are most suitable for achieving
learning outcomes (Alexander et al., 2019). A course is often considered blended when the amount
of online time replaces 30% to 79% of the total course time (Allen, Seaman, & Garrett, 2007).
The current study focuses on the comparison of traditional (face-to-face) learning and
online learning, omitting blended learning from its investigation. The rationale for the omission of
blended learning from the study was based on (a) the large variation in what can constitute a
blended course in the research literature (Allen, Seaman, & Garrett, 2007; Brown, 2016), and (b)
the inability to accurately document the extent to which a course was blended due to use of
secondary (institutional) data sources in the main analyses.
Studies investigating differences between online and traditional face-to-face courses have
produced incredibly mixed findings, ranging from positive gains to potential negative impacts of
online course format (Bernard et al., 2004; Means et al., 2009). Studies that have found a positive
impact of online learning suggest that online formats increase students’ performance on course
assignments and examinations (Barak et al., 2016; Faulconer et al., 2018; Greenway & Makus,
2014; Means et al., 2009; Soffer & Nachmias, 2018), increase levels of satisfaction and/or
engagement in the course (Cummings, Chaffin, & Cockerham, 2015; Soffer & Nachmias, 2018),
and help engage students in higher levels of discussion (Chen et al., 2015), as well as in deeper
forms of learning (Manning-Ouellette & Black, 2017).
In contrast, studies evidencing online formats to be detrimental to student success have
shown lower levels of student performance (Amro, Mundy, & Kupczynski, 2015; Bettinger, Fox,
Loeb, Taylor, 2017; Brown & Liedholm, 2002; Buchanan & Palmer, 2017; Emerson & MacKay,
2011; Flanagan, 2012; Ganesh, Paswan, & Sun, 2015; Gundlach et al., 2015; Helms, 2014; Murphy
& Stewart, 2017; Sohn & Romal, 2015), higher levels of dropout or reduced course completion
(Alpert, Couch, & Harmon, 2016; Atchley, Wingenbach, and Akers, 2013; Bettinger et al., 2017;
Brown, 2012; Dutton, Dutton, & Perry, 2002; Faulconer et al., 2018; Helms, 2014; McLaren, 2004;
Murphy & Stewart, 2017; Smith & Ferguson, 2005; Sohn & Romal, 2015), lower student
satisfaction levels and negative course perceptions (Buchanan & Palmer, 2017; Ganesh, Paswan,
& Sun, 2015; Gundlach et al., 2015; Keramidas, 2012), as well as lower levels of skill development
(Callister & Love, 2016). Further muddying the waters, a small number of studies have suggested
that in fact there is no real difference between online and face-to-face instruction, outlining a lack
of variation in performance and satisfaction levels across disciplines (e.g., Cavanaugh &
Jacquemin, 2015), as well as in a number of diverse fields, including clinical/medical settings
(Buckley, 2003; Chan et al., 2016; McCutcheon et al., 2015), business/finance (Ary & Brune,
2011; Daymont & Blau, 2008; DiRienzo & Lily, 2014; Neuhauser, 2002), psychology
(McDonough, Roberts, & Hummel, 2014; Yen, Lo, Lee, & Enriquez, 2018), social work

(Cummings, Chaffin, & Cockerham, 2015), and sociology (Driscoll, Jicha, Huny, Tichavsky, &
Thompson, 2012).
The mixed findings across multiple studies and academic settings suggest that there may
be complex underlying factors influencing student outcomes, perceptions, and retention in online
and traditional face-to-face instructional formats. The following sections separate the available
literature based on discrete variables (at both the individual and course level) that have been shown
to impact student success.
Factors Influencing Student Success
Factors explored by researchers attempting to understand differences between online and
face-to-face instructional formats can be grouped into one of two main categories: individual or
course related. Individual factors commonly relate to student characteristics such as their gender,
race, age, performance level, and prior experience, whereas course-related factors commonly refer
to the design, structure, or implementation of the course itself.
Individual Factors
Gender. Research on gender commonly cites females as outperforming their male
counterparts in traditional face-to-face undergraduate courses (Amro, Mundy, & Kupczynski,
2011; Bayrak & Gulati, 2015), as well as showing equivalent or higher performance online
(Cavanaugh & Jacquemin, 2015; Daymont & Blau, 2008; Flanagan, 2012; Vella, Turesky, &
Hebert, 2016; Wladis, Hachey, & Conway, 2015). Additionally, females have been found to
exhibit higher levels of satisfaction (Maceli & Foligasso, 2011) and have a higher likelihood of
enrolling in online courses compared to males (Wladis et al., 2015).
Having said this, some researchers have suggested that gender may not influence student
success and outcomes as much as the structure of the course itself (Maceli & Foligasso, 2011),
with some also noting that the effect of gender is reduced for older students (Daymont & Blau,
2008; Vella et al., 2016). Further, although general findings indicate females to be at an advantage
compared to males, research has evidenced females to be at an increased risk of course dropout
(Stoessel et al., 2015), as well as showing lower performance in online courses compared to face-
to-face formats (e.g., Flanagan, 2012; Wladis et al., 2015).
Comparisons of student perceptions of online and face-to-face environments have revealed
gender differences. In online environments, female students report a stronger sense of community
and are less likely to view the course as being performance focused compared to males; whereas,
in face-to-face classes this is reversed, with males viewing the course as more communal and less
performance focused/centered (Yang, Cho, & Watson, 2015). Alongside this, gender differences
have been observed in the level of effort students report giving during a course. Specifically, male
students report higher levels of effort compared to female students in online courses, whereas
females report giving more effort in face-to-face courses compared to males (Yang, Cho, Mathew,
& Worth, 2011).
Race. In regard to race, minority students (e.g., Hispanic or African American/Black) are
often found to have lower academic performance than White students in traditional face-to-face
classrooms (Farruggia et al., 2016). This finding has also been replicated in online STEM courses,
with Wladis et al. (2015) reporting that Black and Hispanic students performed worse than White

and Asian students. Additionally, minority students have been found to be less likely to enroll
online (O’Connell, Wostl, Crosslin, Berry, & Grover, 2018; Wladis et al., 2015).
Comparison studies of online and face-to-face courses suggest that instructional format has
little effect on observed achievement differences between racial groups, with minority students
performing at a lower level compared to their peers regardless of instructional format (e.g.,
Richardson). However, it should be noted that racial differences have not always been observed in
prior research comparing online and face-to-face classrooms. For example, the findings of
O’Connell et al. (2018) indicated that regardless of race, the rate at which students dropped or
failed a course was much higher in online sections compared to face-to-face.
Age. In distinguishing differences in age, studies commonly compare traditional and
nontraditional students, with nontraditional students being defined as those over the age of 24
(National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.). In face-to-face settings, nontraditional students
have been found to report working and studying for longer than their traditional peers, however,
this does not translate into differences in performance (Woods & Frogge, 2017). Similar to
findings for face-to-face courses, nontraditional students tend to be more academically engaged as
well as have more positive perceptions of teaching and course interactions online (Rabourn,
BrckaLorenz & Shoup, 2018). Additionally, nontraditional students have been found to be more
likely to take classes online (Rabourn, BrckaLorenz, & Shoup, 2018; Wladis et al., 2015) and (for
students with scholarships or without loans) to be less likely to withdraw from online courses
compared to younger students (Cochran, Campbell, Baker, & Leeds, 2014).
Surprisingly, although nontraditional students have been found to be more likely to enroll
in online courses (Tanyel & Griffin, 2014), studies have failed to find a difference between
traditional and nontraditional students in their preference towards online and face-to-face formats
(Woods & Frogge, 2017). Nonetheless, differences have been found between formats in students’
performance level. Nontraditional students perform at a higher level online compared to face-to-
face, whereas traditional students show no differences in performance between instructional
formats (Slover & Mandernach, 2018).
Performance level. Several studies have investigated whether differences between online
and traditional course formats hold when students are split into high and low performing groups
(e.g., based on overall course performance or GPA). Findings provide support for the negative
effect of online learning across both performance groups, with the largest differences observed in
low performing student populations (Bacolod, Mehay, & Pema, 2018; Lu & Lemonde, 2012;
Sanford, 2017). Students with low GPAs are found to perform even worse in online courses
compared to face-to-face (Cavanaugh & Jacquemin, 2015; Cummings, Chaffin, & Cockerham,
2015; Fendler, Ruff, & Shrikhande, 2016; Johnson & Palmer, 2015). However, in spite of this, low
performing students tend to opt for online courses at a higher rate (Johnson & Palmer, 2015).
Prior experience. Prior content knowledge, course format experience, or prior academic
experience have been outlined as important for student success in both online (Blau et al., 2017;
Estelami, 2014; Gering, Sheppard, Adams, Renes, & Morotti, 2018; Hachey, Wladis, Conway,
2015; Murph & Stewart, 2017) as well as in traditional face-to-face formats (Duff, 2004; Hailikari,
Nevgi, & Komulainen, 2008; Martin, Wilson, Liem, & Ginns, 2013). Those who have successfully
completed prior online courses evidence significantly higher course completion rates compared to
students who have failed to complete a prior online course (Dupin-Bryant, 2004; Hachey et al.,
2015). Moreover, students with higher academic standings (e.g., seniors) have been found to have

higher success rates (Gering, Sheppard, Adams, Renes, & Morotti, 2018) as well as lower
withdrawal rates (Cochran et al., 2014; Levy, 2007), with this finding holding across online and
face-to-face formats (Yen et al., 2018). Students with limited academic experience (i.e., freshmen)
exhibit higher D-grade/fail/withdraw (DFW) rates when taking a course online compared to face-
to-face (Urtel, 2008).
Lower levels of success in even one prior online course negatively impact course
completion compared to those with no prior online experience (Cochran et al., 2014; Hachey et
al., 2015). Interestingly, although students with a history of poor academic performance exhibit
higher rates of withdrawal in online courses compared to face-to-face, they often choose to enroll
in online over traditional face-to-face courses (Poellhuber, Chomienne & Karsenti, 2008; as cited
in Murphy & Stewart, 2017).
Perceptions of course format. Examination of students’ perceptions has focused on three
main areas: flexibility or control in the learning process, level of interaction (student-student and
student-teacher), and knowledge gained from the course (Platt, Amber, & Yu, 2014). These areas
have not only been linked to enrollment choice (e.g., interaction level; Crews, Bordonada, &
Wilkinson, 2017) but also student outcomes such as satisfaction (e.g., flexibility of course; Soffer
& Nachmias, 2018). Overall, studies have found students to perceive online courses to be more
flexible, and face-to-face courses as offering higher levels of interaction. However, there appears
to be less consensus regarding knowledge gained from a course (Platt, Amber, & Yu, 2014).
Further, efforts to understand which format students prefer has also evidenced mixed
findings. Research has shown preferences toward both traditional (Barak, Hussein-Farraj, & Dori,
2016; Blau et al., 2018) and online courses (Brown, 2012; Galy et al., 2011), as well as no
difference in preference (Chen, Jones, & Xu, 2018). This is further complicated by the suggestion
that preferences may depend on individual characteristics. For example, Wood and Frogge (2017)
noted that face-to-face instruction was the top choice for traditional students, while nontraditional
students preferred online courses.
Course Factors
Participation. Studies investigating success in traditional face-to-face formats commonly
assume that students are attending class, but this may not always be the case. Murphy & Stewart
(2017) note that despite the relationship between lecture attendance and higher academic
achievement, student absenteeism remains an issue. Students often decide not to attend class due
to other coursework, low interest in the course topic, poor perception of teaching quality, and/or
availability of course materials outside of class. Similarly, in online classrooms a student’s level
and quality of participation impacts their learning outcomes. Participation in higher-order online
learning activities has been linked with increased grades. Low performers commonly exhibit lower
levels of participation across learning activities (Banoor, Rennie, & Santally, 2018), as well as
displaying lower levels of persistence (Faulconer, Griffith, Wood, Acharyya, & Roberts, 2018).
Further, those who complete courses successfully exhibit higher levels of engagement in online
learning activities than those who withdraw (Morris, Finnegan, & Wu, 2005).
Course structure. Students’ perceptions of the online learning environment and course
structure have been highlighted as fundamental to student satisfaction as well as learning outcomes
(Beach, 2018; Blau et al., 2017; Eom and Ashill, 2016; Galy, Downey, & Johnson, 2011; Gering,
Sheppard, Adams, Renes, & Morotti, 2018). Students have reported that one of the most important
factors for their success online is the course configuration, including easy access to materials, clear

due dates, regular announcements, and distributed assignments (Beach, Stefanick and
VanOverbeke, 2018; as cited in Beach, 2018). Furthermore, student perceptions of e-learning tools
(perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and ability to work independently) have been found
to be related to final course grades (Galy et al., 2011), as well as satisfaction with the overall
course, and retention rate (Park & Choi, 2009).
A well-organized course, although desirable, may not always impact student grades
(Jaggars & Xu, 2016) or satisfaction (Simpson & Benson, 2013). However, the organization of a
course does provide a framework to engage students with each other, the content, and the
instructor, which have all been shown to be important for positive student outcomes (Bernard et
al., 2004; Jokisimovic et al., 2015) and satisfaction (Kuo & Belland, 2016; Kuo, Walker, Belland,
& Schroder, 2013; Kuo, Walker, Schroder, & Belland, 2014).
Research comparing the structure/components of online and face-to-face formats has
identified some subtle differences between modalities. For example, in work by Brocato,
Bonanmo, and Ulbig (2015), pedagogical aspects such as teaching fundamentals, developing a
relationship with students, providing stimulating content, and timely feedback were found to
predict students’ perceptions of a course/instructor in both online and face-to-face formats.
Whereas the pedagogical variable of challenging students in their learning, as well as the course
complexity/level, were only found to be predictors of evaluations for traditional face-to-face
formats. In addition, findings on student perceptions of course structure has indicated that although
students in online courses reported a better understanding of the course structure itself, those in
traditional courses rated reading materials and supplementary materials as contributing more to
their understanding than students online (Soffer & Nachmias, 2018).
Instructor. Student’s perceptions of the instructor are important. Having an instructor that
is flexible, supportive, and communicates frequently and effectively has been cited by students as
one of the most important components of a successful online course (Beach, Stefanick, & Van
Overbeke, 2018, as cited in Beach, 2018). Nevertheless, online instructors have been shown to
receive lower instructor performance ratings from students for their teaching (Brocato, Bonanno,
& Ulbig, 2015).
Another important aspect to consider is the opinions held by instructors themselves. Large
survey-based studies of higher education institutions have been conducted to understand
viewpoints of academic leaders in regard to online education, finding a surprising level of
skepticism amongst faculty (Allen & Seaman, 2013; 2015; 2016). Records dating from 2003 to
2015 indicate some decrease in negative perceptions of online education; however, in 2015 there
were still over 25% of faculty who reported that they believe learning outcomes in online education
to be inferior compared to face-to-face education (Allen & Seaman, 2016). Further, only a small
portion of all academic leaders (approximately 60%) reported that their faculty “accept the value
and legitimacy of online education” (p. 26). Most believe that online learning leads to increased
access and flexibility for students, as well as providing an opportunity for innovative teaching
methods; however, faculty cite challenges in finding adequate resources (including training,
instructor resistance, and specialist support) for online learning, especially for smaller institutions
(Bates et al., 2017).
When asked to compare online and face-to-face formats, faculty reported the development
of an online course as more time intensive and providing less feeling of control when teaching
(Chiasson et al., 2015). Of greater importance, they cited the retention of students as a greater

challenge for online courses than for face-to-face courses, as well as that students need more self-
discipline to succeed online (Allen & Seaman, 2017). Having said this, faculty also reported
increased confidence and improvements with their instruction in their face-to-face courses as a
result of teaching online (Chiasson et al., 2015), and overall faculty ratings of online instruction
are comparable to, or better than, face-to-face instruction (Allen & Seaman, 2017).
Project Overview
Based on the available literature, it appears that the mixed findings when comparing
student success (i.e., course completion, student perceptions, and satisfaction) in online and
traditional learning environments are further complicated by multiple variables relating to students
(gender, age, race, prior experience) and the courses they take (participation, course structure,
instructor). The ambiguity of these findings is heightened by (a) studies often being in isolation
both in setting (e.g., studies of single courses or courses within a department) and construct/factors
examined (e.g., studies that focus on a single variable), as well as (b) researchers questioning study
methodology (e.g., difficulty in interpretation of student outcomes due to large variations in grade
calculations).
Based on these mixed findings and the anecdotal evidence that their institution’s
undergraduate students enrolled in on-campus course sections perform better than students in the
DE sections, the researchers identified the need to focus on understanding differences in student
success between face-to-face and online course formats at their university. In particular, the current
study had three main goals:
(a) Investigate potential differences in student success rates between online and face-to-face
courses for campus-based undergraduate students.
(b) Understand whether differences in online and face-to-face courses (if observed) vary
across specific student populations (e.g., race, gender, age, students receiving aid) or
course types (e.g., general education program (GEP) versus major courses).
(c) Provide an overview of student perceptions of online education over the prior five
academic years.
Alongside the goal to provide information that will aid institutional efforts focused on the
quality of online/DE experiences, promotion of access to higher education, and improvement of
educational attainment rates at the sampled university, our study aimed to expand upon the
available prior literature on three fronts: (a) by examining all courses at the university administered
in both online and face-to-face formats, rather than a single college, department, or academic area;
(b) by using a binary grade outcome variable to reduce the systematic biases in grading across
academic departments or colleges (Dziuban, Graham, Moskal, Norberg, & Sicilia, 2018); and (c)
by controlling not only for multiple individual-related variables (race, gender, financial aid status,
Pell grant status, transfer status, academic standing, GPA, prior academic experience) but also
course-related variables (credit value, course level, and general education program status) in the
same model. Further, we reduced any potential student population bias by looking only at full-
time on-campus students.

Methods
The current study uses two secondary data sources from a public, four-year, research one
and land grant university in order to explore the research goals: (a) institution level data on
courses taught in both online and face-to-face formats, and (b) existing survey response data for
students who have taken online courses at the university.
Population(s)
Course Data
Grade data from fall 2012 to fall 2017 was collated for full-time, on-campus, undergraduate
students enrolled in courses that had a minimum enrollment of 10 students and were administered both
online and face-to-face (N = 471,205). To control for variation in course design that occurs in
specialized course offerings and shortened formats, student data was removed for courses that were
intended for seniors or graduate students (i.e., courses numbered above 300-level) (n = 45,677),
counted for 5 or more credit hours (n = 1), labelled as a physical activity, studio format, student
teaching, recital/ensemble, or Agricultural Institute (AGI) course (n = 22,541), or taught in a shortened
format (e.g., during summer sessions) (n = 2,052). Additionally, due to restructuring/changes in two
colleges (and some of their corresponding departments) between the 2012–13 and 2013–14 academic
years, course data (n = 80,677) had to be removed from the analyses to avoid cross-contamination of
subject level data across academic areas (defined by catalog and course number).
Following this student data was removed for those outside of undergraduate status (n = 3,106)
as well as those who received a grade outside of ABCDFW (n = 12,204). The data set was then
reviewed to remove any courses that (a) did not include both an online and face-to-face section, or (b)
exhibited low student numbers in online sections (i.e., less than 100 cases coded as online) (n = 34,007).
The decision was made to remove courses with low online student numbers as it indicated that the
course had not been taught consistently in both formats across the time period investigated (fall 2012
to fall 2017). This left a final sample of 270,939 cases spanning across academic areas of agriculture
and life sciences (ALS), division of academic and student affairs (DASA), humanities and social
sciences (HASS), natural resources (NR), sciences, management (MGMT), and textiles (TEX). See
Table 1 below for demographics.
Student Survey Data
Secondary data were collated from a biannual survey administered to students enrolled in DE
courses (online and site-based). The purpose of the survey was to gauge the quality of DE students’
experiences, and to measure the effectiveness of services and support toward helping them achieve
their academic goals. Data were collated from surveys administered between fall 2013 and fall 2018
(N = 5,761). Each survey was sent out to a stratified sample of students taking DE courses (30,742
students total across fall 2013 to fall 2018). Response rates for academic years varied from 14% to
22%. The initial data set was cleaned to remove any cases involving students with an academic standing
other than undergraduate (i.e., graduate or nondegree; n = 1,901), as well as responses relating to
courses numbered above 300-level or labelled as AGI courses (n = 272). This resulted in a final sample
of 3,588 cases spanning across academic areas of ALS, design, engineering, HASS, NR, sciences,
MGMT, and DASA. Available demographic information for students completing the survey was
limited to age (nontraditional/traditional), academic standing and prior online experience. See Table 2
below for full demographics. A large majority of students were traditional age (88.8%) upperclassmen
(73.76% junior or senior) and had not completed an online course before (30.34%; 18.86% had prior
experience online, 50.79% did not respond to the question).

Table 1
Frequency Table for Demographic and Course Information for Course Data
Variable F2F Online Total
Gender
Female 101645 31034 132679
(47.01%) (56.73%) (48.97%)
Male 114577 23643 138220
(52.99%) (43.22%) (51.02%)
Missing 17 23 40
(0.01%) (0.04%) (0.01%)
Age
Traditional 149595 25950 175545
(69.18%) (47.44%) (64.79%)
Nontraditional 66612 28727 95339
(30.80%) (52.52%) (35.19%)
Missing 32 23 55
(0.01%) (0.04%) (0.02%)
Ethnicity
Asian 11144 2803 13947
(5.15%) (5.12%) (5.15%)
Black/African American 13693 4436 18129
(6.33%) (8.11%) (6.69%)
Hispanic 9880 2456 12336
(4.57%) (4.49%) (4.55%)
International 9520 1410 10930
(4.40%) (2.58%) (4.03%)
Native American 799 249 1048
(0.37%) (0.37%) (0.39%)
Pacific Islander 170 47 217
(0.08%) (0.09%) (0.08%)
Two or more races 7912 2125 10037
(3.66%) (3.88%) (3.70%)
Unknown 3914 929 4843
(1.81%) (1.70%) (1.79%)
White 159189 40222 199411
(73.62%) (73.53%) (73.60%)
Missing 18 23 41
(0.01%) (0.04%) (0.02%)
PELL Grant Status
Did not receive PELL grant 178617 40865 219482
(82.60%) (74.71%) (81.01%)
Received PELL grant 37622 13835 51457
(17.40%) (25.29%) (18.99%)
Aid Status
Did not receive aid 106659 17695 124354
(49.32%) (32.35%) (45.90%)
Received aid 109580 37005 146585
(50.68%) (67.65%) (54.10%)

Variable F2F Online Total

Transfer Status
Non-Transfer Student 187640 44756 232396
(86.77%) (81.82%) (85.77%)
Transfer Student 28599 9944 38543
(13.23%) (18.18%) (14.23%)
Academic Level
Freshman 67510 2814 70324
(31.22%) (5.14%) (25.96%)
Sophomore 69461 10760 80221
(32.12%) (19.67%) (29.61%)
Junior 51418 18001 69419
(23.78%) (32.91%) (25.61%)
Senior 27850 23125 50975
(12.88%) (42.28%) (18.81%)
Course Level
100 62231 9763 71994
(28.78%) (17.85%) (26.57%)
200 108782 28731 137513
(50.31%) (52.52%) (50.75%)
300 45226 16206 61432
(20.91%) (29.63%) (22.67%)
General Education Program Course Status
Non-GEP course 76735 17434 94169
(35.49%) (31.87%) (34.76%)
GEP course 139504 37266 176770
(64.51%) (68.13%) (65.24%)
Course Credit
3-Credit 168359 48604 216963
(77.86%) (88.86%) (80.08%)
Other 47880 6096 53976
(22.14%) (11.14%) (19.92%)
Course Subject Area
Agriculture and Life Sciences 14871 7166 22037
(ALS) (6.88%) (13.10%) (8.13%)
Education 905 436 1341
(0.42%) (0.80%) (0.49%)
Humanities and Social Sciences 63224 25455 88679
(HASS) (29.42%) (46.54%) (32.73%)
Natural Resources (NR) 4006 1674 5680
(1.85%) (3.06%) (2.10%)
Sciences 91382 10908 102290
(42.26%) (19.94%) (37.75%)
Division of Academic and Student 6376 2992 9368
Affairs (DASA) (2.95%) (5.47%) (3.46%)
Management (MGMT) 30975 4627 35602
(14.32%) (8.46%) (13.14%)
Textiles (TEX) 4500 1442 5942
(2.08%) (2.64%) (2.19%)
Note. Based on the National Center for Education Statistics definition, nontraditional students are
classified as those over the age of 24.

Table 2
Frequency Table for Demographic and Course Information for Student Survey Data
Variable Total
Age
Nontraditional 402
(11.2%)
Traditional 3186
(88.8%)
Academic Level
Freshman 241
(6.7%)
Sophomore 700
(19.5%)
Junior 1129
(31.5%)
Senior 1518
(42.3%)
Prior Online Experience
Taken DE course previously 677
(18.9%)
No prior DE experience 1088
(30.3%)
Missing 1823
(50.8%)
Course Level
100 682
(19.0%)
200 1923
(53.6%)
300 983
(27.4)
Course Subject Area
Agriculture and Life Sciences (ALS) 506
(14.1%)
Education 10
(0.3%)
Humanities and Social Sciences 1712
(HASS) (47.7%)
Natural Resources (NR) 158
(4.4%)
Sciences 541
(15.1%)
Division of Academic and Student 136
Affairs (DASA) (3.8%)
Management (MGMT) 302
(8.4%)
Other 223
(6.2 %)

Measures
Course Data
For the analysis of course data, instructional format (online/face-to-face) was chosen
as the independent variable and student success as the outcome variable. Online courses were
defined as those courses designated in the university’s student information system (SIS) as
online with the instruction mode of internet (IN). Traditional face-to-face courses were
defined as those courses designated in the SIS with an instruction mode, in-person (IP). A
binary grade variable was created for student success by categorizing letter grades into two
categories: pass (or ABC) and fail (or DFW). A binary grade was chosen for performance
based on prior research practices that have suggested that this approach can mitigate the
systematic biases in grading across academic departments or colleges (Dziuban, Graham,
Moskal, Norberg, & Sicilia, 2018).
To isolate the effects of instructional format (online or face-to-face) on student success
several variables relating to both students and the course were measured. These variables
were selected based on the institutional data available and prior research that has noted
factors relating to students, course/program design, and environment that impact student
outcomes in online and face-to-face environments. Continuous variables were used to
measure constructs of cumulative GPA and credits passed. Binary variables were created to
measure student factors of age (traditional/nontraditional), race (white/nonwhite), gender
(female/male), academic level (upperclassmen/underclassmen), transfer status (transfer
student/not a transfer student), financial aid status (received aid/did not receive aid), and Pell
grant status (received grant/did not receive grant), as well as course-related factors of course
level (300 level/other), course credit (3-credit/other), and general education program status
(GEP course/non-GEP course).
Student Survey Data
For the purposes of the current study, four general areas from the student survey were
used to understand the climate surrounding online instruction at the university. These areas
were selected based on their close fit with the current study aim to understand students’
experiences and perceptions of the DE courses they were enrolled in. Other areas that asked
students about general services provided at the university level were not included due to lack
of alignment with study aims.
● Course format: Students were asked to indicate how their course was being taught, why
they chose to enroll in their chosen course format, as well as specify their level of
preference for both online and face-to-face formats.
● Instructional technology: Student perspectives of the instructional technologies used in
their course were sampled, including (a) if they felt prepared to use instructional
technologies entering the class, (b) the level of ease and reliability of instructional
technologies used, and (c) their overall level of satisfaction with instructional technologies.
● DE Experience: Students were asked several questions relating to their experience in online
courses, including (a) if technologies facilitated prompt feedback, enhanced problem
solving, met their learning needs, and contributed to their learning, (b) if they felt more
comfortable interacting with classmates and asking their professor questions online
(compared to other course formats), as well as (c) if the course (and specifically the
technologies used) helped prepare them for the workplace.

● Course instructor technology use: Students rated the extent to which their instructor
effectively used technology to support academic success and facilitate group
work/collaboration, as well as if they felt the instructor had the technical skill to carry out
online instruction.
Analysis Method
Course Data
To compare the occurrence of passing (ABC) grades across traditional face-to-face and
online courses, binary logistic regression was used. The overall model comprised grade (ABC or
DFW) as the outcome variable and class format (online or face-to-face) as the main predictor.
Further, the analysis controlled for individual-related variables of race, gender, financial aid status,
Pell grant status, transfer status, academic standing, GPA, credit passed, and course-related
variables of credit value, course level, and GEP status. Interaction terms of age x format, race x
format, gender x format, aid x format, and GEP x format were added to a second iteration of the
model to understand if the effect of instructional format varied across different subpopulations.
When statistically significant interactions were found, secondary models were analyzed to
tease apart the interaction effects. Interaction analyses investigated two aspects: (a) if there were
differences across online and face-to-face courses for specific groups of students (e.g., for age x
instructional format interactions, differences between online and face-to-face courses for (1)
traditional and (2) nontraditional students) and (b) if there were differences between these student
groups (e.g., for age x instructional format interactions, comparisons between traditional and
nontraditional students) within online and face-to-face courses respectively. Odds ratios (OR) were
used to understand the size of effects observed within interactions. In the context of the current
study, an odds ratio below 1 indicates a group/person to be less likely to obtain an ABC, and an
odds ratio above 1 indicates a group/person to be more likely to obtain an ABC. See Table 3 below
for classification of effect sizes.
Table 3
Effect Size Classifications for Odds Ratios
Less likely to obtain ABC (< 1) More likely to obtain ABC (> 1)
No difference .8–.99 1–1.24

Small .67–.79 1.25–1.49
Medium .45–.66 1.5–2.25
Large < 0.45 > 2.25
For both models, data met the assumptions of logistic regression in that: (a) the dependent
variable (ABC) was binary, (b) observations were independent of each other, (c) there was little
multicollinearity among the independent variables, and 4) the analysis was conducted on a large
sample size. In regard to model fit, following the acceptable ranges in Field (2009), models showed
a good level of fit with the data. In particular, for each model it was observed that Cook’s Distances

was less than 1, DFBeta for the constant and predictors was less than 1, Leverage was close to
expected value, and standardized residuals had values of less than ±2. All models showed a
significant change in -2LL.
Student Survey Data
In order to enumerate overall perceptions of online courses, student survey data analyzed
and reported in the current study was collapsed across academic years. As the biannual student
survey (and its contents) has been modified over the selected sampling period, data for each
measure were not available for every academic year. In the reporting of frequencies, missing data
were removed from the calculation to avoid misrepresentation of the responses given by students.
Descriptive statistics were used to describe trends in students’ perceptions of instructional
technologies, their experience in online courses, as well as their perceptions of online instructors’
proficiencies with instructional technologies. To compare reported levels of preference between
online and face-to-face formats, Wilcoxon signed ranks analyses were used. For the analysis,
response options were recoded into numerical values for preferences towards both face-to-face and
online course format (strongly prefer = 5, slightly prefer = 4, neutral/it depends = 3, slightly do not
prefer = 2, strongly do not prefer = 1). Data met the general assumptions for analysis using
Wilcoxon signed ranks as (a) the dependent variable was ordinal, (b) the independent variable
consisted of two related groups, and (c) the distribution of the differences between the two groups
was closely related in their shape (Laerd Statistics, 2018). Further, to understand the size of effect
observed, the r statistic was calculated. For the purpose of the analyses, 0.1 was considered a small
effect, 0.3 a medium effect, and 0.5 a large effect (Field, 2009).
Results
Course Data
Overall model statistics can be found in Table 4. The general model showed instructional
format to be a significant negative predictor (β = -.24, p < .001) of success, with those online being
1.27 times less likely (OR = .79) to pass the course (receive an ABC) compared to those in a
traditional face-to-face format. Additionally, the interaction model revealed significant
interactions between course format and variables of age (p < .001), aid status (p < .001), and GEP
course status (p < .001).
Age x format interaction. Comparisons between online and face-to-face formats for
nontraditional and traditional students showed differing results. For traditional students, those
online were less likely to receive an ABC grade compared to those face-to-face (OR = .73).
However, for nontraditional students this was reversed, with those online being more likely to
receive an ABC grade compared to those face-to-face (OR = 1.29). When comparing
nontraditional and traditional students within each format, no differences were observed for either
face-to-face (OR = 1.10) or online formats (OR = .85).
Aid x format interaction. Findings for comparisons between online and face-to-face
formats differed based on aid status, with those not receiving aid being less likely to receive an
ABC online compared to face-to-face formats (OR = 0.73). Those receiving aid showed no
significant differences (OR = 0.95). When comparing students who received aid and those who
did not within online and face-to-face formats, students receiving aid were found to be less likely

to obtain an ABC in face-to-face courses compared to those not receiving aid (OR = 0.77).
However, this difference was not replicated in online formats (OR = 0.95).
GEP x format interaction. Comparisons between online and face-to-face formats for GEP
and non-GEP courses revealed those online as less likely to receive an ABC compared to those in
face-to-face formats in non-GEP courses (OR = 0.73), but not GEP courses (OR = 1.07). When
comparing GEP and non-GEP courses, contrasting results were evidenced, with those in GEP
courses being less likely online (OR = 0.59), and more likely in face-to-face formats (OR = 1.33)
to receive an ABC compared to those in non-GEP courses.
Table 4
Model Statistics for Logistic Regression Analysis
Model 1 Model 2
B S.E. B S.E.
Instructional Format -.24*** 0.02 -.32*** 0.05
Age .14*** 0.02 .10*** 0.02
Race -.10*** 0.02 -.10*** 0.02
Gender -.16*** 0.02 -.16*** 0.02
Aid Status -.22*** 0.02 -.26*** 0.02
PELL Grant Status -.02 0.02 -.03 0.02
Transfer Status .07** 0.02 .07** 0.02
Academic Standing -.27*** 0.03 -.27*** 0.03
Cumulative GPA 2.57*** 0.02 2.57*** 0.02
Course Credit Passed .001* < 0.01 .001** < 0.01
College Affiliation .27*** 0.02 .27*** 0.02
Course Level (300) .12*** 0.03 .13*** 0.03
Course Level (200) -.40*** 0.02 -.39*** 0.02
Course Credit (3) .32*** 0.02 .33*** 0.02
GEP Course Status .24*** 0.02 .28*** 0.02
Age x Instructional .16*** 0.04
Format
Race x Instructional .02 0.04
Format
Gender x Instructional -.01 0.04
Format
Aid Status x .21*** 0.04
Instructional Format
GEP Course Status x -.21*** 0.04
Instructional Format
Note. Beta values included in table are unstandardized;
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

Student Survey Data

Course format. The majority of DE students sampled during academic years (AY) 13–14,
AY 14–15, and AY 15–16 reported that their course was being delivered via the internet (average
percentage 86.8%). Students provided a range of reasons why they enrolled in their chosen online
course. The most frequently cited reasons for enrolling online were (a) to make progress toward
their degree/certificate (66.5%), (b) to make progress towards their professional
development/career goals (54.8%), and (c) due to course schedule conflicts (57.7%). Students also
reported taking a course online as an open section was not available on campus (37.5%), for
personal enrichment (38.6%), due to the course only being offered via DE (10.5%), as well as to
enhance their job opportunities after losing a job (9.6%).
To compare student preferences between online and face-to-face formats, data from AY
14–15 through AY 16–17 were analyzed. Results from Wilcoxon signed rank tests indicated that
individuals showed higher levels of preference towards face-to-face course formats compared to
online (z = -11.88, p < .001, r = -.36).
Instructional technology. When students were asked about their perspectives on the
instructional technologies used in their course (data collected each year from AY 14–15 to AY
17–18), a large proportion (81.5%) agreed that they felt prepared to use instructional technologies
entering the class (10.2% neutral, 8.3% disagree).
With regards to the reliability and ease of use of instructional technologies in their course,
students surveyed in AY 13–14 felt course technologies were both reliable (94% rated technology
good or excellent, 5.2% fair, 0.8% poor) and easy to use (91.2% good or excellent, 7% fair, 1.8%
poor). Further, when reporting on the ease of use for specific technologies (during AY 14–15),
student perceptions of course learning management system (LMS), video lectures, and online
collaboration tools were positive. Although almost half of students reported not using online
collaboration tools (42.5%), those who did use such a tool rated them as easy to use (82.1% of
those who used the tool responded “easy”). Table 5 below lists full frequencies for ease of
technology use.
In the most recent DE student survey (AY 17–18), students rated their satisfaction with
specific technologies (LMS, video lectures, online communication tools, and online collaboration
tools). Students reported the highest level of satisfaction with the LMS (89.4% satisfied, 8.8%
neutral, 1.8% dissatisfied), followed by video lectures (78.1% satisfied, 12.5% neutral, 9.4%
dissatisfied), online collaboration tools (76.8% satisfied, 5.4% neutral, 17.9% dissatisfied), and
online communication tools (69% satisfied, 6.9% neutral, 24.1% dissatisfied).

Table 5
Student Perceptions of Specific Learning Technologies (Taken from AY 14–15)
Moodle Video Online Online

Lectures communication tool collaboration tool
(Mediasite) (Blackboard Collaborate) (Google Docs)
Easy 91.9% 76.7% 35.2% 71.2%

Difficult 3.3% 4.5% 5.6% 3.2%
Neutral 4.7% 10.6% 16.6% 12.4%
Do not use 0.0% 8.2% 42.5% 13.2%
DE experience. During the survey in AY 13–14, students were asked to reflect on their
experience in online courses. Student perceptions of their online experience were positive, with a
large majority of students agreeing that the instructors’ use of DE technologies facilitated prompt
feedback (86.9% agree, 13.1% disagree), enhanced problem solving (75.3% agree, 24.7%
disagree), and met their learning needs (77.8% agree, 22.2% disagree). Further, a majority of
students surveyed between AY 14–15 and AY 17–18 felt the course (and specifically technologies)
had prepared them for the workplace (57.3% agree, 32% neutral, 10.7% disagree). Smaller
proportions of students reported that they felt more comfortable interacting with classmates (54.8%
agree, 45.2% disagree) and asking their professor questions online (59.6% agree, 40.4% disagree).
Perceptions of use of instructional technology during course. In both AY 14–15 and
AY 15–16, students were asked whether they felt the instructor effectively used technology in their
classrooms. A large proportion of students had positive perceptions of their instructors, with
students agreeing that the instructor effectively used technology to support academic success
(80.7% agree, 11.6% neutral, 7.7% disagree) as well as had the technical skill to carry out online
instruction (80.9% agree, 11.2% neutral, 7.9% disagree). A smaller proportion of students agreed
that the instructor used technology to facilitate group work and collaboration (59.1% agree, 17.2%
neutral, 23.7% disagree).
Discussion
The current study investigated online courses offered at a public four-year university. In
particular, through the use of existing grade and student survey data, the study sought to both
explore potential differences in student success rates between online and face-to-face courses for
full-time, on-campus students as well as understand current student perceptions of online education
at the university.
Course Data
Our findings in relation to grade data support prior literature that has shown differences
between online and face-to-face classrooms at the college level (Bernard et al., 2004; Means et al.,
2010). In particular, they support the assertion that undergraduate students perform at a lower level

in online classrooms (Amro, Mundy, & Kupczynski, 2015; Bettinger et al., 2017; Brown &
Liedholm, 2002; Buchanan & Palmer, 2017; Emerson & MacKay, 2011; Flanagan, 2012; Ganesh,
Paswan, & Sun, 2015; Gundlach et al., 2015; Helms, 2014; Murphy & Stewart, 2017). The overall
model found that students are 1.27 times less likely to obtain an ABC in online courses compared
to face-to-face courses.
The current study adds to the literature by investigating how the impact of instructional
format is influenced by variables of age, race, gender, financial aid status and general education
course status. Although not all interactions were significant, the results for interactions between
instructional format and variables of age, race, and GEP status nevertheless revealed some
interesting findings for student populations at the sampled university.
Contrasting findings were observed for traditional and nontraditional students when
comparing instructional formats in the age x instructional format interaction. Findings for
nontraditional students match prior literature (e.g., Slover & Mandernach, 2018), in that
nontraditional students were found to be more likely to achieve an ABC online compared to F2F
(OR = 1.29). However, the finding that traditional students were less likely to achieve an ABC
online compared to face-to-face (OR = .73) contradicts prior work that has found no differences in
performance between instructional formats (e.g., Slover & Mandernach, 2018). Although it should
be noted that the observed effect sizes for the interaction between age and instructional format are
small in the current study, the discrepancy in findings may be based on student population
examined, with prior research cited in the literature review being conducted with specific
subpopulations (e.g., business majors in Slover & Mandernach).
When comparing traditional and nontraditional students within a given delivery format, no
differences were observed for face-to-face or online formats. The lack of an age effect for
performance within online or face-to-face courses resembles prior literature that has shown
differences in engagement, but not in overall performance levels for traditional and nontraditional
students (e.g., Woods & Frogge, 2017).
The current study extended knowledge in the field through its exploration of interactions
between instructional format and variables of student financial aid status and general education
course (GEP) status. Due to a lack of prior research that has included interactions between financial
aid and format, our findings provide an initial insight into the impact of instructional format for
differing financial aid groups. Results suggest that receiving financial aid impacts observed
differences in student success between online and face-to-face formats. The model indicated that
for those not receiving aid, students were less likely to receive an ABC in online courses compared
to face-to-face (OR = .73). However, this was not replicated for those with aid. When comparing
students who received financial aid to those who did not, findings indicated that those receiving
aid were less likely to receive ABC in face-to-face settings. This finding contradicts the general
literature on financial aid that has suggested receiving aid leads to improved academic performance
(e.g., Stater, 2009). However, these results should be interpreted with some caution due to the
effect sizes being relatively small (OR = .77). Alongside this, no differences were observed based
on financial aid status in online courses. In the context of the current model/interaction, it could
be argued that the smaller odds ratios observed between aid groups in online settings compared to
face-to-face settings is a result of those without aid showing decreased performance online, rather
than a positive effect of aid in online settings.

Based on studies comparing general education program (GEP) status having not previously
been reported, our findings from the GEP x format interaction provide an initial view into the
impact of instructional format for differing GEP course status. Results suggest that the GEP status
for a course impacts observed differences between online and face-to-face formats. Our model
indicated that for non-GEP courses (OR = .73), students were less likely to receive ABC online
compared to face-to-face. However, this was not replicated for GEP courses. When comparing
GEP and non-GEP courses, contrasting results were evidenced, with those in GEP courses being
less likely online (OR = 0.59), and more likely in face-to-face formats (OR = 1.33) to receive an
ABC compared to those in non-GEP courses. As the model indicated that students in non-GEP
courses were less likely to receive an ABC in online courses, and students in GEP courses show
no differences in formats, it seems contradictory that those in non-GEP courses are found to be
less likely online, and more likely face-to-face, to receive an ABC grade. Unfortunately, based on
the limitations of the current data and analyses, it is unknown why this may have occurred and
warrants further investigation in future research.
Limitations and future directions. Amongst literature investigating online education
there is some debate over whether comparative studies between online and face-to-face instruction
should be conducted. Bernard et al. (2004) outline in their meta-analyses that comparative studies
are useful only when comparison conditions (i.e., traditional classrooms) are clearly outlined and
similarities and differences are acknowledged. Due to the type of data available (and limits of
variables measured), the current study could not control for all variables cited in prior work. It is
hard, therefore, to determine the existence of potential confounds across treatments which makes
the interpretation of our results more difficult. Further research is needed to control for variables
relating to course design and structure. In particular, surveying instructors and examination of
course syllabi may be beneficial in understanding and categorizing the type and quality of
instruction in both course formats.
A second limitation of the analyses is that our overall model is influenced by large amounts
of student data from academic areas of the sciences (38.77%) and humanities and social sciences
(33.82%). While our model is representative of the institution sampled for the study, based on the
diverse nature of online programming across institutions, our ability to generalize the findings to
the wider higher education population is somewhat hindered. Further, the specified models were
limited to five two-way interaction terms. Although our analyses control for the potential impact
of a number of covariates, our models are not able to shed light on the complex potential
relationship between age, race, gender, and financial aid status, and the additive effects of these
on the interaction terms we studied in our specified models. It is recommended that future research
not only expand data collection to academic areas missing in the current study, but also investigate
narrower sub-populations of students through the use of three (or four) way interactions within its
analysis methods.
Survey Data
Student survey data collected in the current study provided a window into the perceptions
of students who take courses online and the climate surrounding online education at the current
institution. Research shows that there is a strong link between student satisfaction, retention, and
college completion rates (Ruffalo Noel Levitz, 2018), which underlines the importance and
rationale for including student perception and satisfaction. Although all the students surveyed were
currently enrolled in an online course, on average they were found to report a higher level of
preference for the face-to-face compared to the online course format. The medium effect size

observed in the current study (r = -.36) supports prior research that has indicated that students
prefer face-to-face formats over online (e.g., Diebel & Gow, 2009). A possible explanation for this
finding could be that students’ preferences toward instructional format are influenced by their
perceptions of student-student and student-teacher interactions (Crews, Bordonada, & Wilkinson,
2017). In the current study it was observed that a relatively small proportion of students felt more
comfortable interacting with classmates and asking their professors questions in an online format.
These negative views towards interactions in the online classroom may have led to lowered
preference ratings towards online formats. Unfortunately, we cannot confirm this hypothesis in the
current study due to the inability to compare student preferences toward online and face-to-face
formats based on their view of online interaction. It is therefore suggested that future research
should explore the influence on student perceptions of course elements (such as student-student
and student-teacher interaction) on their overall preference toward instructional formats.
Although students reported a higher level of preference for face-to-face formats,
experiences online were largely positive. Students reported instructional technologies as reliable
and easy to use, as well as that the technologies facilitated prompt feedback, enhanced problem
solving, and met their learning needs. Alongside this, students had positive perceptions of their
instructors’ skill level and use of technology to support academic success. These results support
literature that has shown high levels of satisfaction and engagement in online courses (Cummings,
Chaffin, & Cockerham, 2015; Crews, Bordonada, & Wilkinson, 2017; Soffer & Nachmias, 2018),
as well as those that suggest online learning can help engage students in higher levels of discussion
(Chen et al., 2015) and deeper forms of learning (Manning-Ouellette & Black, 2017).
Limitations and future directions. From the current findings, it is unclear whether those
in face-to-face classes had similar perspectives on quality standards for (a) their course structure,
instructional technology use, and instructor (Crews, Bordonada, & Wilkinson, 2017), or (b)
whether they would also exhibit differences between preference towards online and face-to-face
courses. Further, due to the anonymity of the data collected, we were unable to connect study
information to individual responses and examine the relation of students’ performance to their
perceptions of instructional format, as well as understand whether factors known to impact student
success in online course sections (i.e., demographic variables, prior experience/performance,
course structure) also impacted their perceptions and preferences. It is recommended that future
studies that rely on institutional data also consider collecting supplementary information available
to the institution (i.e., instructional design, online pedagogy, quality standards, self-selection,
interaction, and feedback, and so on) (Crews, Bordonada, & Wilkinson, 2017) to allow for a more
complex understanding of the impact of student perceptions with regards to online and face-to-
face instruction. Overall, findings from the literature and institutional level data in this study point
to the need for future research to ask more specific questions, moving from the initial testing of
whether there are differences in instructional formats, to (based on our findings) the how and why
traditional undergraduate students enrolled in on-campus course sections perform better than
students in online course sections.

Acknowledgements
We thank Chris Willis and Dr. Tim Petty for their language editing, proofreading, and
engagement in intellectual discussions during the completion of the project.
Data Availability Statement

Due to the nature of this research, participants of this study did not agree for their data to
be shared publicly, so supporting data is not available.
Author Note
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Department of Distance
Education and Learning Technology Applications (DELTA), North Carolina State University,
1010 Main Campus, Raleigh, NC 27606, United States. Email: [email protected].

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Examining Students’ Online Course Perceptions and Comparing Student Performance Outcomes

in Online and Face-to-Face Classrooms

Examining Students’ Online Course Perceptions

Keywords: instructional format, student outcomes, student perceptions

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Examining Students’ Online Course Perceptions and Comparing

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Review of Relevant Literature

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Variable F2F Online Total

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No difference .8–.99 1–1.24

Medium .45–.66 1.5–2.25

Large < 0.45 > 2.25

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Student Survey Data

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Moodle Video Online Online

Easy 91.9% 76.7% 35.2% 71.2%

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Data Availability Statement

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McLaren, C. H. (2004). A comparison of student persistence and performance in online and

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