C H A P T E R 3

Sources of Food Contamination

ABOUT THIS CHAPTER

In this chapter you will learn:
1. Where microorganisms in foods come from
2. The difference between foodborne infection and foodborne intoxication
3. How microbes in food cause illness in people
4. How specific foods and ingredients become infected
5. How contamination of foods can be prevented and controlled

INTRODUCTION
Nutrients for Microorganisms
Food products provide nutrients that people need. Microorganisms need many of
the same nutrients, so food products are an ideal source of nutrition for microorgan-
isms. Foods also generally have a pH value (acidity level) that encourages growth
of microorganisms.

Where Do Microorganisms in Food Come From?

Microorganisms are everywhere: in soil, feces, air, and water. Food can be contami-
nated any time it comes in contact with these substances during harvesting, process-
ing, distribution, and preparation.

Animal carcasses. The intestines of animals used for meat are full of microorgan-
isms, and even animals that seem healthy may have microorganisms in their liver,
kidneys, lymph nodes, and spleen. It is easy for these microorganisms to reach the
meat during slaughter and butchering. As the meat is cut into retail portions, more
and more surface area is exposed to the microorganisms.

Controlling Growth of Microbes

Food processors try to control the growth of these microorganisms by controlling the
temperature (refrigeration) and oxygen and moisture levels (wrapping and packag-
ing) during processing and distribution of foods.

Temperature. Refrigeration is one of the most important ways contamination of

foods is controlled. Refrigeration prevents outbreaks of foodborne illness by slowing
the growth of microbes. But when foods are not handled properly in cold storage,
they can become heavily contaminated. The growth rate of microorganisms can in-
crease tremendously with only a slight increase in temperature.

Food volume and container size. Foods tend to cool slowly in air, and large contain-
ers or large volumes of food take a long time to cool through to the center. The sur-
face of the food can feel well chilled while the middle is still warm. Slow cooling of
large pieces of meat or large containers of broth in the refrigerator has caused many
outbreaks of foodborne illness caused by growth of Clostridium perfringens.

Infection vs. Intoxication

There are two types of foodborne illness caused by microorganisms: infection and in-
toxication.
• Foodborne infection occurs when the microorganism is eaten with the food and
multiplies in the person's body. Examples include Salmonella, Shigella, and some
types of enteropathogenic Escherichia coll
• Foodborne intoxication occurs when microorganisms grow and release toxins
into the food before it is eaten. When the food is eaten, the toxins cause illness.
Examples include C. perfringens and some strains of enteropathogenic E. coll

THE CHAIN OF INFECTION

A small number of harmful microorganisms (pathogens) in food are unlikely to cause
a foodborne illness. However, these few pathogens could cause a problem under cer-
tain conditions. One model that illustrates how various factors and events can be
linked together to cause an infection is called the "chain of infection."
A chain of infection is made up of four links: agent, source, mode of transmis-
sion, and host. To cause a foodborne infection, each of these links must be present in
the environment in which the food is produced, processed, or prepared.
• The agent is the pathogen that causes the illness.
• The source is where the pathogen comes from.
• The mode of transmission is how the pathogen is carried from
the source to the food.
• The host is the food that supports growth of the pathogen.
To survive and grow, the pathogen also needs nutrients, moisture, the right level
of acidity or alkalinity (pH) and oxidation-reduction potential, and lack of competi-
tive microorganisms and inhibitors. The food also needs to be held in the best tem-
perature range for that organism long enough to allow it to grow enough to cause
infection or intoxication.
The chain of infection model shows that foodborne diseases have many causes. A
disease agent (pathogen) has to be present, but each of the other steps is also essen-
tial in causing foodborne disease.

How FOODS BECOME CONTAMINATED

The food itself is the most common source of contamination. Equipment and waste
products are other common sources.

Dairy Products
The udders of cows and milking equipment can contaminate milk products, al-
though equipment with well-designed sanitary features and control of disease in
dairy cows have made dairy products more wholesome. Pasteurization of milk prod-
ucts in processing plants has also reduced pathogens in milk. However, dairy prod-
ucts can be cross-contaminated by items that have not been pasteurized.
Cross-contamination occurs when utensils or equipment used for unpasteurized
milk are used for pasteurized milk, or when staff working with unpasteurized milk
products move to an area containing pasteurized milk products. Not all dairy prod-
ucts are pasteurized, so some pathogens (especially Listeria monocytogenes) have be-
come more common in the dairy industry. (See Chap. 11 for more information.)

Red-Meat Products
The muscles of healthy animals are nearly free of microorganisms while alive. Meat is
contaminated by microorganisms on the animal's surfaces that have external contact
(hair, skin, intestines, and lungs). While the animal is alive, its white blood cells and
antibodies control infection. But these defense mechanisms are lost during slaughter.
Microorganisms first reach the meat if contaminated knives are used to bleed an-
imals. The blood is still circulating and quickly carries these microorganisms
throughout the animal's body Microorganisms reach the surface of the meat when it
is cut, processed, stored, and distributed. Meat can also be contaminated if it comes
in contact with the hide, feet, manure, dirt, and visceral (intestinal) contents if the
digestive organs are punctured. (See Chap. 12 for more information.)
Poultry Products
Poultry may be contaminated by Salmonella and Campylobacter during processing.
These microorganisms are easily spread from one carcass to another during defeath-
ering and removal of the intestines (evisceration). Salmonellae can also be transferred
from contaminated hands, gloves, and processing tools. (See Chap. 12 for more
information.)

Seafood Products
Seafoods may be contaminated with microbes during harvesting, processing, distrib-
ution, and marketing. Seafoods are excellent sources of proteins, B vitamins, and a
number of minerals that bacteria need to grow. Therefore, microbes grow well on or
in seafoods. Seafoods are handled a lot from the time they are harvested until they
are eaten, which provides many opportunities for contamination. They may be also
sometimes be stored without being refrigerated, which allows microorganisms to
grow. (See Chap. 13 for more information.)

Ingredients
Ingredients (especially spices) can carry harmful or potentially harmful microorgan-
isms and toxins. The amounts and types of these microbes and toxins depends on
where and how the ingredient was harvested and how the ingredient was processed
and handled. The food plant management team needs to know the type of hazards
that can occur with each ingredient. Food processors should only obtain materials
from suppliers that use good practices.

OTHER SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION

Equipment
Equipment can be contaminated during production and while it is not being used.
Most equipment is designed to be hygienic, but it can still collect microorganisms
and other debris from the air, employees, and food ingredients. Food is less likely
to be contaminated if equipment is designed to be hygienic and is cleaned regularly
and thoroughly.

Employees
The most common source of microorganisms in foods is employees. The hands, hair,
nose, and mouth carry microorganisms that can be transferred to food during pro-
cessing, packaging, preparation, and service by touching, breathing, coughing, or
sneezing. Because the human body is warm, microorganisms grow and multiply
rapidly. Therefore, sanitary practices, such as good handwashing and use of hairnets
and disposable plastic gloves, are essential. (See Chap. 4 for more information.)
Air and Water
Water is used for cleaning and as an ingredient in many processed foods. However, if
the water is not pure, it can contaminate foods. If the water source is contaminated,
another source should be used, or the water should be treated by chemicals, ultravi-
olet units, or other methods.
Microorganisms in the air can contaminate foods during processing, packaging,
storage, and preparation. The best ways to reduce air contamination are to use filters
for air entering food-processing and preparation areas and to package or cover food
products to reduce contact with air.

Sewage
Raw, untreated sewage can carry microorganisms, causing typhoid and paratyphoid
fevers, dysentery, and infectious hepatitis. Raw sewage may contaminate food and
equipment through faulty plumbing. If raw sewage drains or flows into drinking-
water lines, wells, rivers, lakes, and ocean bays, the water and seafood will be
contaminated. To prevent this kind of contamination, toilet facilities and septic tanks
should be separated from wells, streams, and other water sources. Raw sewage should
not be used to fertilize fields where fruits and vegetables are grown. (See Chap. 8 for
more information.)

Insects and Rodents

Food and food waste attract flies and cockroaches to kitchens, foodservice opera-
tions, food-processing facilities, toilets, and garbage. These insects transfer dirt from
contaminated areas to food through their waste products; mouth, feet, and other
body parts; and saliva. Any pests should be eradicated and prevented from entering
food-processing, preparation, and serving areas.
Rats and mice carry dirt and disease with their feet, fur, and feces. They transfer
dirt from garbage dumps and sewers to food or food-processing and foodservice ar-
eas. (See Ghap. 9 for more information.)

How TO PREVENT AND CONTROL CONTAMINATION OF FOODS

The Environment
Foods should not be touched by human hands if they will be eaten raw or after they
have been cooked. If contact is necessary, workers should thoroughly wash their
hands before handling the food and wash regularly during handling or use dispos-
able plastic gloves. During storage, holding, and service, processed and prepared
foods should be covered with a clean cover that fits well and will not collect loose
dust, lint, or other debris. If the food cannot be covered, it should be held in an en-
closed dust-free cabinet. Foods in single-service wrappers or containers, such as
milk and juice, should be served directly from these containers. Foods on a buffet
should be served on a steam table or ice tray and protected by a transparent shield
from sneezes, coughs, and other contact with air, employees, and customers. Food
that touches an unclean surface should be thoroughly washed or thrown away
Equipment and utensils used in food processing, packaging, preparation, and service
should be cleaned and sanitized between use. Foodservice managers should train
employees to handle dishes and eating utensils so that their hands do not touch any
surface that will come into contact with food or the consumer's mouth.

During Storage
Storage facilities should have plenty of space and an organized storage layout, and
stock should be rotated. These measures help to reduce contamination from dust, in-
sects, rodents, and dirt, and allow for easy cleaning. Storage area floors should be
swept or scrubbed, and shelves or racks should be cleaned and sanitized. (See
Chaps. 5, 6, and 7 for more information.) Trash and garbage should not be allowed
to accumulate in food storage areas.

Litter and Garbage

The food industry generates large amounts of waste from used packaging, containers,
and waste products. Refuse should be kept in appropriate containers and removed
from the food area regularly. The best method (required by some regulatory agencies)
is to use separate containers for food waste from those used for litter and rubbish.
Clean, disinfected, seamless trash containers should be kept in all work areas. All con-
tainers should be washed and disinfected daily; plastic liners may also be used as a
cheap way to keep trash. Close-fitting lids should be kept on the containers, except
when they are being filled and emptied. Containers in food-processing and food
preparation areas should not be used for litter and rubbish from other areas.

Toxic Substances
Poisons and toxic chemicals should not be stored near food products. Only chemi-
cals required for cleaning should be stored in the building, and these should be
clearly labeled. Only cleaning compounds, supplies, utensils, and equipment ap-
proved by regulatory or other agencies should be used in food handling, processing,
and preparation.

SUMMARY
• Food products are attractive breeding sites for microorganisms because they are
rich in nutrients.
• Most microorganisms come from water, air, dust, equipment, sewage, insects,
rodents, and employees.
• The chain of infection is a model that shows how foodborne diseases are carried.
• Raw materials can also be contaminated from the soil, sewage, live animals,
external surfaces (skin, shells, etc.), and internal organs of meat animals. With
modern health care, diseased animals rarely cause illness.
• Chemicals can contaminate foods by accidental mixing.
• Good housekeeping, sanitation, storage, and garbage-disposal practices prevent
and control contamination of food.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bryan, E L. 1979. Epidemiology of foodborne diseases. In Food-Borne Infections and
Intoxications, 2d ed., p. 4-69, H. Riemann and E L. Bryan, eds. Academic Press,
New York.
Fields, M. L. 1979. Fundamentals of Food Microbiology. AVI Publishing Co., Westport,
Conn.
Guthrie, R. K. 1988. Food Sanitation, 3d ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Hobbs, B. C., and Gilbert, R. J. 1978. Food Poisoning and Food Hygiene, 4th ed. Food
& Nutrition Press, Westport, Conn.
Judge, M. D., Aberle, E. D., Forrest, J. C., Hedrick, H. B., and Merkel, R. A. 1989.
Principles of Meat Science. 2d ed. Kendall Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, Iowa.
Lechowich, R. V 1980. Controlling microbial contamination of animal products.
Unpublished data.
Marriott, N. G. 1994. Principles of Food Sanitation, 3d ed. Chapman & Hall, New
York.
Todd, E. C. D. 1980. Poultry-associated foodborne disease—Its occurrence, cost,
sources, and prevention. J. Food Prot. 43:129.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between foodborne infection and foodborne intoxication?
2. Give three reasons why seafood is easily contaminated.
3. What is the most common source of contamination of food?
4. List two ways that foods can be protected from microbes on hands.
5. How can food be protected against microbes in air?
6. Describe three features of buffet serving areas that protect the food from microbial conta-
mination.
7. Where and how should garbage or trash be stored?

To FIND OUT MORE ABOUT FOOD CONTAMINATION

1. Call the USDA Meat and Poultry Hotline, (1-800) 535-4555. Ask for information about
keeping meat and poultry free from contamination.
2. Call the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Drinking Water SAFE DRINK-
ING WATER HOTLINE, (1-800) 426-4791. Ask for information about keeping water
supplies free from contamination.
3. Look in the telephone directory and call your local water utility for information on how
contaminants are controlled in your local water supply.
4. Check the refrigerator and cupboards in your own kitchen. Are all foods covered? Are
cleaning products stored away from food? Is the garbage can clean and covered?

MONITORING OUTBREAKS OF FOODBORNE DISEASE

Between 1983 and 1987, a total of 2,397 outbreaks of foodborne disease representing
91,678 cases were reported to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). The cause could
not be determined in 62% of outbreaks, but the following table shows the proportion
of outbreaks and cases caused by various agents when the cause was known.

Cause Outbreaks, % Cases, %

Bacteria 66 92
Chemicals 26 2
Viruses 5 5
Parasites 4 <1

Salmonella caused 57% of the bacterial disease outbreaks and was the most common
pathogen. Fish poisoning due to ciguatoxin and scomrotoxin caused 73% of the out-
breaks due to chemical agents. Trichinella spiralis caused all parasitic disease outbreaks
for 3 of the 5 years; three Giardia outbreaks occurred during the other 2 years.
Hepatitis A caused 71% of the outbreaks due to viruses.
For each year from 1983 to 1987, the most commonly reported food preparation
practice that contributed to foodborne disease was improper storage or holding tem-
peratures, followed by poor personal hygiene of the food handler. Food obtained from
an unsafe source was the least commonly reported factor. Inadequate cooking and con-
taminated equipment each ranked third or fourth in each of the 5 years.
Many more outbreaks occur than are reported to CDC. An outbreak is more likely to
be reported if it is easily recognized and the source is confirmed by laboratory analysis
of feces, blood, or food. Data on sporadic, individual cases of foodborne disease are not
included, but are far more common than outbreaks.
CDC monitors foodborne disease outbreaks for three reasons:
1. Disease prevention and control Surveillance of foodborne disease allows contami-
nated foods to be removed from stores quickly, shows when faulty food prepara-
tion practices need to be corrected in foodservice and at home, and identifies
human carriers of foodborne pathogens, who can then be treated.
 2. Knowledge of causes of disease. The pathogen causing a foodborne disease outbreak
is often unidentified, either because it was not tested, the laboratory investigation
was too late or incomplete, or the pathogen could not be detected even after
thorough testing. Earlier and more thorough investigations and better testing
methods are needed.
3. Administrative guidance. Data from investigations of foodbourne disease can show
emerging problems and common errors in food handling. Surveillance helps to
increase the awareness of food protection methods, leads to better training pro-
grams, and encourages use of available resources.

Most reports come to CDC from state and local health departments, but some also
come from federal agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA), the U.S. Armed Forces, and occasionally from pri-
vate physicians.

Source: Bean, N. H., Griffin, P M., Goulding, J. S., and Ivey, C. B. 1990. Foodborne disease out-
breaks, 5-year summary, 1983-1987. MMWR Surveillance Summaries 39(SS-1):15.