GOLD PYRAMID GROUP

Mining And Petroleum Rocks & Ore Forming Minerals

Accessory Secondary Ore minerals
Essential minerals
minerals minerals
Ore minerals are those that contain large
A primary mineral whose A mineral phase within a Minerals Which form at a amounts of metals of value. Most metallic ore
presence in an igneous rock rock whose presence does later time through processes minerals are native elements, sulfides,
is essential to defining the not affect the root name of such as weathering by sulfosalts, oxides, or hydroxides ..etc.
root name of that rock. For the rock. hydrothermal alteration.
example, plagioclase and Cu Fe Sb
the pyroxene augite are Pb Zn Ni Sulphides Mo Hg
essential to defining the Tourmaline Carbonate
root name ‘gabbro.
Ag Chalcopyrite Chalcocite Sphalerite
(Gem) Minerals Co
Covellite Bornite Pyrite

(Hydrothermal)
Hematite Calcite Magnesite Galena
Felsic Mafic Pentlandite Pyrrhotite

Ankerite
(Iron ore) (Hydrothermal) (Iron ore)
Minerals Minerals Argentite Millerite Marcasite
Magnetite Siderite Dolomite Cobaltite Cinnabar Arsenopyrite
Quartz Olivine (Iron ore) (Iron ore) (Hydrothermal)
Skutterudite Molybdenite
Stibnite
Apatite Hydroxides Minerals Sn
Alkali (Phosphate ore)
Ti
Ta,Nb Oxides
Bismuthinite
Pyroxene Diaspore Mn
feldspar Zircon
Goethite Gibbsite Rutile ilmenite Cassiterite
(Iron ore) (Aluminum ore)

Cordierite
Orthoclase Diopside (Gem) Tantalite Columbite Pyrolusite
Sanidine Augite Sphene Clay Minerals Chromite Uraninite Bismite
Corundum Pyrophyllite Illite Carbonate Sr W
Plagioclase Amphibole
Topaz Talc Kaolinite Smithsonite Strontianite
feldspar Hornblende
Cerussite Malachite Azurite
Albite Biotite Sulfate Amphibole Phlogopite

Minerals

Lepidolite
(mica) Minerals Minerals Mica REE Phosphate
Anorthite Muscovite
Actinolite (Sericite) Monazite Apatite
Anhydrite
Nepheline Wolframite
Biotite
Serpentine

Barite Tremolite
Serpentine
Antigorite

(Feldspathoid)
Minerals

(Barium Ore) Metamorphic Index Native Metal

Metamorphic

Sillimanit
Muscovite Alunite minerals Chlorite Biotite Gold Copper Antimony
(mica) Epidote Garnet Kyanite Silver Bismuth Diamond
Jarosite
Wollastonite Staurolite Andalusite Platinum Arsenic Graphite
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Rock-Forming Minerals
Ch.
Mineral
formula
Color Geological Occurrence

Felsic minerals Colorless In all rocks it is associated chiefly with feldspar and
transparent muscovite; in veins with practically the entire range of vein
minerals. Often carries gold and becomes an important ore of
Quartz SiO2 that metal.

White or its pink Orthoclase In granites, granite pegmatites, granodiorites and

Orthoclase syenites. In cavities in basalts; in high-grade metamorphic rocks and
crystals give granite
Alkali Sanidine as a result of potassic hydrothermal alteration. Sanidine occurs in
its typical color,
feldspar (K,Na) silicic igneous rocks but is restricted to rocks that have cooled
sometimes orange quickly. Typical occurrences are as phenocrysts in rocks such as
AlSi3O8 or yellow trachyte or rhyolite. Alters to Kaolinite + Serecite
Albite Albite occurs in granitic and pegmatite masses, in some hydro-
NaAlSi3O8 thermal vein deposits, and forms part of the typical greenschist
Plagioclase Anorthite White or green
metamorphic facies for rocks of originally basaltic composition.
CaAl2Si3O8 pale yellow when
feldspar alters to K-feldspar
Anorthite found primarily in mafic igneous rocks. In igneous
rocks, it associates with amphibole, pyroxene, or olivine. It is
occasionally found in metamorphosed carbonates.
Nepheline is forms large, tabular phenocrysts in igneous rocks.
White to pale grey Phonolite, nepheline syenite, and nepheline basalt are important
Nepheline Two poor cleavages rocks in which nepheline is an essential constituent. It is found only
NaAlSiO4 in rocks whose magmas contained insufficient silica to combine with
(Feldspathoid) , one occasionally
distinct soda to form feldspar. Easily alters to various other minerals, such
as zeolites, sodalite, muscovite, kaolin.
Colourless to pale In siliceous igneous rocks as granite and syenite. Especially
KAl2
Muscovite brown or green. One characteristic of pegmatite dikes, and found lining cavities in
(AlSi3O10)
(mica) excellent cleavage granites. Also very common in metamorphic rocks, as gneiss and
(OH)2 thin flexible sheets schist, mica-schists. The product of alteration of feldspar (Finite).

Mafic minerals Olivine, an abundant mineral in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks.
Olive green, It usually crystallizes inside the presence of plagioclase and
(Mg,Fe)2 yellow-green, pyroxene to form gabbro or basalt. Ultramafic rocks, an olivine
Olivine SiO4 sometimes brown content of over 40% are described as peridotites. Dunite has an
olivine content of over 90%. Alters to serpentine.
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Rock-Forming Minerals
The upper mantle of Earth is composed mainly of olivine and
Pyroxene Diopside Black to dark pyroxene. Pyroxene and feldspar are the major minerals in basalt,
Gp. Augite green or brown andesite, and gabbro and common in ultramafic rocks. It also occurs
(Chain (Mg, Fe, Yellowish- in relatively high-temperature metamorphic rocks such as granulite
Ca) 2Si2O6 green and metamorphosed iron formations. It occurs in association with
Silicates) orthoclase, sanidine, labradorite, olivine, amphiboles.
Black to brownish black or dark green dark blue. Amphiboles are more common in
intermediate to felsic igneous rocks. Hornblende It is usually associated with plagioclase
Amphibole Hornblende and may coexist with quartz or with mafic minerals such as pyroxene or olivine. It is an
Gp. Ca2(Mg, essential mineral in those of intermediate composition such as syenite or diorite.
(Chain Fe)5Si8O22 Actinolite is commonly found in metamorphic rocks, such as contact aureoles
(OH)2 surrounding cooled intrusive igneous rocks and an alteration product of pyroxene.
Silicates) Amphibolite (Hornblende+ Actinolite) is the metamorphosed gabbro or diabase rock
bodies.
Black to dark brown, One excellent cleavage thin sheets. Biotite occurs in many igneous
Biotite K(Mg,Fe)3 rocks (e.g., granites and granodiorites), is common in many pegmatite masses, and
(AlSi3O10) constitutes one of the chief components of many metamorphic rocks (e.g., gneisses, schists,
(mica) (OH)2 and hornfelses). E.g. (Biotite granite, Biotite schist & Biotite gneiss,) may be found in
association with its common alteration product chlorite.

Frequent accessory minerals Long thin prismatic needle-shaped crystals. It is a characteristic

mineral in granitic pegmatites. It is an accessory mineral in granite,
Na(Mg,Fe)3 Black, may be granodiorite, and related felsic rocks. It is also a common mineral in
Tourmaline Al6B3Si6O22 blue, red or schist, gneiss, quartzite, and phyllite. Also found in metasomatically
(Gem Minerals) (OH,F)4 green altered limestone and dolomite in contact metamorphic zones.

Black, brownish-black Hematite is found as a primary mineral and as an alteration

Hematite product in igneous, metamorphic (during contact metamorphism when hot magmas react
(Iron ore Fe2O3 with adjacent rocks). , and sedimentary rocks. It can crystallize during the differentiation
Mineral) of a magma or precipitate from hydrothermal fluids moving through a rock mass.

Black, brownish-black It is found disseminated as an accessory mineral through most

Magnetite igneous rocks. Most commonly associated with metamorphic rocks, also frequently in
(Iron ore Fe3O4 rocks that are rich in ferromagnesian minerals, such as diorite, gabbro, peridotite.
Mineral) Association Chromite, ilmenite, rutile, apatite, silicates (igneous); pyrrhotite, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, pentlandite, sphalerite, hematite, silicates (hydrothermal, metamorphic).
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Rock-Forming Minerals
Pale green to yellow Green. Apatite is very common as an accessory mineral in igneous and
metamorphic rocks, where it is the most common phosphate mineral. However, occurrences
Apatite Ca5(PO4)3 are usually as small grains which are often visible only in thin section. Coarsely crystalline
(Phosphate ore apatite is usually restricted to pegmatites, gneiss derived from sediments rich in carbonate
(OH)
Mineral) minerals, skarns, or marble. Economic quantities of apatite are also sometimes found in
nepheline syenite or in carbonatites.
Yellow, brown. Zircon is a common accessory of all kinds of igneous rocks, but particularly
Zircon ZrSiO4
granite and felsic igneous rocks and persists in sedimentary deposits. Zircon can occasionally
(Gem Mineral) be found as a trace mineral in ultrapotassic intrusive rocks such as kimberlites, carbonatites,
and lamprophyre. It played a role in radiometric dating.
Colourless to yellow, green or brown, One good cleavage. Titanite occurs as a common
Titanite accessory mineral in intermediate and felsic igneous rocks and associated pegmatites. It also
(Sphene) CaTiSiO5 occurs in metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and schists and skarns. Also normally present
are rare earth metals which includes cerium and yttrium. It is a minor ore of titanium and a
(Gem Mineral)
minor gemstone called “sphene.”

Secondary minerals White, translucent, three sets cleavage. It is an essential and major mineral in limestones and
marbles, occurs in cave deposits, and occurs as a vein mineral with other carbonates, sulfides,
barite, fluorite, and quartz. Calcite also occurs in some rare carbonate-rich igneous
Carbonate Minerals rocks. It is the primary mineral in metamorphic marble. It also occurs in deposits from hot
springs as a vein mineral; in caverns as stalactites and stalagmites; and in volcanic or mantle-
Calcite CaCO3 derived rocks such as carbonatites, kimberlites, or rarely in peridotites.
white, gray, brown, or yellow . Magnesite can be formed via talc carbonate metasomatism of
peridotite and other ultramafic rocks. Magnesite is formed via carbonation of olivine in the
Magnesite presence of water and carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures and high pressures typical of
(Hydrothermal MgCO3 the greenschist facies, serpentinite and other magnesium rich rock types in both contact and
Mineral) regional metamorphic terrains. It also occurs in some Mg-rich schists and as a primary
mineral in some rare chemical sediments and is found as a replacement for calcite or
dolomite in limestone.

Siderite is distinguished from other carbonates by its high specific gravity and brownish
Siderite color. Siderite is a relatively common mineral found in veins with galena, pyrite,
(Iron ore FeCO3 chalcopyrite, and tetrahedrite; as a rock-forming mineral associated with limestone, clay,
Mineral) shale, coal or ironstone; as a replacement mineral in limestone; and less commonly in
metamorphic rocks.
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Rock-Forming Minerals
Dolomite is characterized by typical rhombohedral carbonate habit and cleavage and
Dolomite effervescence by cold dilute HCl only when powdered. It is sometimes confused with
(Hydrothermal CaMg(CO3)2 calcite or ankerite. usually a shade of pink, can be white. It also occurs in hydrothermal
Minerals veins with fluorite, barite, other carbonates, and quartz, and as a secondary mineral or
alteration product in limestone.
Yellow, brown. Ankerite occurs with siderite in metamorphosed ironstones and sedimentary
Ankerite banded iron formations. It also occurs in carbonatites. In sediments it occurs as authigenic,
(Hydrothermal
CaFe(CO3)2
diagenetic minerals and as a product of hydrothermal deposition. It is also found in veins
Minerals) and as replacements in limestones.
Yellowish to reddish to dark brown or black. Goethite forms from the surface weathering of
Hydroxides iron-rich materials, especially sulphides and oxides. Low-temperature hydrothermal deposits
can yield goethite as a primary mineral. In these deposits it is associated with quartz
Goethite (amethyst variety), siderite and calcite. It concentrates in sediments, gossans, and laterites.
(Iron ore FeO(OH) Common associated minerals include siderite, pyrite, magnetite, and many residual
Mineral) weathering products.
White, pale gray, colorless, Platey. Diaspore is common in geothermal systems dominated
by acid-sulphate waters, high-sulphidation epithermal deposits, the upper parts of some
Diaspore porphyry systems, and some gold deposits associated with deformed advanced argillic
(Aluminum ore AlO(OH) alteration. Diaspore may also occur in metamorphic rocks, whose protolith may represent
Mineral) earlier alteration (high-sulphidation or surficial acid-leach zones above boiling geothermal
systems) or weathered regoliths (bauxite). Associated with Pyrophyllite, Pyrite.

Grey-white to silvery-white. Illite occurs as an altered product of muscovite and feldspar in

Clay Minerals weathering and hydrothermal environments; it may be a component of sericite. It is common
in sediments, soils, and argillaceous sedimentary rocks as well as in some low grade
Micalike metamorphic rocks. Illite forms in the presence of weakly acid (C02-rich) fluids. It occurs
Illite clay both proximal and distal to epithermal mineralization and in the peripheral upper parts of
(phyllosilicate)
mineral some intrusion-related systems. X-ray diffraction analysis is used to confirm its presence.

White to cream. Kaolinite/dickite formed during hydrothermal alteration occur in pervasive

and selectively pervasive styles within the marginal argillic zone of high-sulphidation
systems; the minerals are indicative of formation at a pH of around 3-4. Kaolinite forms
Kaolinite Al2(OH)4Si2
under low-temperature conditions (<150-200°C), whereas dickite forms at higher
(phyllosilicate) O5 temperatures (<200-250°C) transitional to those for pyrophyllite formation. Kaolinite also
forms in the near surface, steam-heated environment above the water table, and occasionally
as zones of massive argillic alteration in low-sulfidation epithermal environments,.
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Rock-Forming Minerals
Pyrophyllite is a characteristic mineral of advanced argillic alteration that typically results
Al2Si4O10 from the reaction of low-pH fluids with rocks. The mineral forms at temperatures
Pyrophyllite intermediate between kaolinite and andalusite (-200-350°C) and is therefore important in the
(phyllosilicate) (OH)2 deeper parts of some high-sulphidation epithermal deposits and the upper parts of some
porphyry systems. It occurs in phyllite and schistose rocks associated with kyanite.
Light to dark green, brown, white, grey. Talc is a metamorphic mineral resulting from the
Talc Mg3Si4O10 metamorphism of magnesian minerals such as serpentine, pyroxene, amphibole, olivine, in
(Metamorphic (OH)2 the presence of carbon dioxide and water. This is known as talc carbonation or steatization.
mineral) Also formed by thermal low-temperature metamorphism of siliceous dolostones. And
Alteration of magnesium-rich ultramafic rocks. Famous rocks Talc carbonate schist.

Sulfate Minerals Anhydrite is a common alteration mineral in some porphyry copper deposits, particularly
those associated with diorite to granodiorite intrusions. It usually occurs in potassic
alteration but may also be present in sericitic and advanced argillic alteration. Anhydrite
Anhydrite veins may contain mineralization or may be barren. In high-temperature (>300°C)
(Anhydrous CaSO4 environments, anhydrite precipitates from cooling hydrothermal fluids, but it may also
Sulfate Group) precipitate from heated seawater because of its retrograde solubility. Therefore, anhydrite
also occurs in and above some volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits.
White, pale gray, colorless. Barite is a common gangue mineral in hydrothermal veins,
Barite associated with fluorite, galena, quartz, calcite, or dolomite. It is also found in veins in
(Anhydrous BaSO4 limestone, and as residual masses in clay. It forms a minor late phase in Epithermal veins,
Sulfate Group) cavities and vugs, and is a major alteration phase in some stratiform deposits. In the latter, it
may also occur as beds of massive barite, laminated bariteor reworked and brecciated barite.
Hypogene alunite may be white, pink, or tan.. Frequently, feldspar phenocrysts are replaced
by alunite, producing white pseudomorphs.Alunite is a significant mineral in advanced
argillic alteration, and is associated with a variety of types of mineralized systems that
Alunite KAl3(SO4)2 include porphyry Cu+Au+Mo and high-sulphidation epithermal precious metal deposits. It
(Hydrous sulfates) (OH)6 Occurs as veins and replacement masses in trachyte, rhyolite, and similar potassium rich
volcanic rocks. It is formed by the action of sulfuric acid bearing solutions on these rocks
during the oxidation and leaching of metal sulfide deposits (pyrite).

Yellow or dark brown. A secondary mineral in oxidized portions of sulfide-bearing rocks,

typically altering from pyrite; less common as a low-temperature, primary hydrothermal
Jarosite KFe3(SO4)2
mineral, including as deposits around hot springs. Jarosite is a basic hydrous sulfate of
(Hydrous sulfates) (OH)6 potassium and iron. This sulfate mineral is formed in ore deposits by the oxidation of iron
sulfides. Associated minerals Alunite, pyrite.
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Rock-Forming Minerals
Amphibole Minerals Dark green fibrous to columnar crystals, particularly in veins or cavities. occurs as an
alteration mineral in the core of some porphyry Cu deposits, where it may be associated with
potassic alteration and mineralization. It also occurs in sodic-calcic alteration, which may
form by the interaction of external fluids with magmatic-hydrothermal systems, and in calcic
Actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe)5 skarn alteration, particularly endoskarn. In some systems, actinolite occupies an inner
(Metamorphic (higher temperature) zone of propylitic alteration, succeeded outward by epidote-chlorite-
Si8O22(OH)2
mineral) dominated assemblages. In active geothermal systems hosted by intermediate to mafic
volcanic rocks, actinolite is characteristic of alteration proximal to intrusive bodies.

Tremolite Fibrous (asbestiform) tremolite veins are common in many metamorphic rock types as a
(Calcium
Ca2Mg2Si8 result of contact metamorphism of Ca, Mg-rich siliceous sedimentary rocks and in
amphiboles (Mg, O22(OH)2 greenschist facies metamorphic rocks derived from ultramafic or Mg carbonate bearing
Fe) silicates) rocks. It is associated with calcite, dolomite, talc, quartz (Carbonate, Propylitic Alter.)

Mica Group Minerals Phlogopite is often found in association with ultramafic intrusions as a secondary alteration
phase within metasomatic margins of large layered intrusions. Phlogopite is encountered as a
primary igneous phenocryst within lamproites and lamprophyres. Phlogopite is a mineral
Magnesium
Phlogopite found in metamorphosed impure magnesian limestones, where it forms by reactions between
mica the dolomite and either K-feldspar or muscovite.
Coarse muscovite occurs as a major alteration phase in several intrusion-related mineral
white deposits and is particularly important in some Sn-W systems, associated with greisen
Muscovite
(colourless) alteration. Sericite is produced by the alteration of orthoclase or plagioclase feldspars in areas
(Sericite) micas that have been subjected to hydrothermal alteration typically associated with copper, tin, or
other hydrothermal ore deposits. Sericite also occurs as the fine mica. phyllic alteration.
Biotite is black, brown or green in hand sample and is characterized by its dark colour and
Biotite micaceous cleavage. Many rocks containing abundant biotite are schistose or phyllitic. Biotite
(phyllosilicate K(Mg,Fe)3 may occur within veins, commonly as radiating or foliated masses.. It is a common alteration
minerals) (AlSi3O10) mineral in shear zone and vein-hosted mesothermal gold deposits that were formed between
(Metamorphic (OH)2 sub-greenschist and amphibolite-facies conditions. Biotite-dominant alteration frequently
forms an alteration zone adjacent to zones with chlorite, muscovite/sericite and/or
Index mineral)
carbonates. Associated with Pyrite & Potassic alteration in Mesothermal, Cu-Au Porphyry.
Pink, light purple, purple. It is the most abundant lithium-bearing mineral and is a
Lepidolite K(Li,Al)3 secondary source of this metal. It is associated with other lithium-bearing minerals like
(phyllosilicate (Al,Si,Rb)4O10 spodumene in pegmatite bodies. It is one of the major sources of the rare alkali metals
minerals) (F,OH)2 rubidium and caesium. It occurs in granite pegmatites, in some high-temperature quartz
veins, greisens and granites. Associated with quartz, feldspar, tourmaline, columbite..
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Rock-Forming Minerals
Other Silicate Bluish gray, black, or blue; prismatic crystals, Cordierite (sometimes also known as iolite) is
a common accessory mineral in contact metamorphic rocks (schists and cornean with
cordierite - andalusite) or high regional metamorphism (cordierite - biotite gneiss,
amphibolites, anatexites...), as well as in basic aluminous plutonic rocks (norites) or acid
(some granites, pegmatites and microgranites). Cordierite may occur around
Cordierite metamorphosed massive sulphide deposits, where it is associated with hydrothermally
(Magnesium iron (Mg,Fe)2Al4 altered rocks that have undergone strong Mg-Fe enrichment and Na-Ca-K depletion. A
aluminium Si5O18 spotted homfels texture, termed dalmatianite in the Noranda area, Quebec, develops in
cyclosilicate) chlorite-rich footwall alteration pipes below massive sulphide deposits in regionally
metamorphosed areas or in the contact metamorphic aureole surrounding post-volcanic
intrusions. Alteration products include mica, chlorite, and talc. Associated with Volcanogenic
massive sulphide.

Serpentine Minerals Green, Yellowish-green, Blueish-gray. The serpentine group describes a group of common
rock-forming (Serpentinite) hydrous magnesium iron phyllosilicate minerals, resulting from
the metamorphism of the minerals that are contained in ultramafic rocks. Serpentine results
from the alteration, either during metamorphism or by late-stage hydrothermal action, at
Serpentine temperatures below 400°C, of ultramafic rocks rich in magnesium, containing olivine,
Chrysotile, pyroxene or amphibole, such as picrites, peridotites, etc. Serpentine minerals are always
group Lizardite, secondary, they occur together as alteration products of Al-poor, magnesian minerals,
(Metamorphic Antigorite especially Olivine, Mg-Pyroxenes, Mg-amphiboles. The most characteristic occurrence of
mineral) serpentine is that derived from dunites, peridotites and other ultramafic-mafic rocks. A
second occurrence of serpentine is in metamorphic contact zone in carbonate rocks, where it
results from the alteration of forsterite marble. Forming Serpentinite.

Green, Yellowish-green, Blueish-gray. Antigorite is found in low-temperature, high-

pressure (or high-deformation) environments, including both extensional and compressional
tectonic regimes. Serpentines are commonly found in the ultramafic greenschist facies of
Antigorite (Mg, Fe)3 subduction zones, and are visible on the Earth's surface through secondary exhumation.
(The serpentine Serpentinites that contain antigorite are usually highly deformed and show distinct textures,
group)
Si2O5OH4 indicative of the dynamic region where they were formed. Antigorite serpentinites
commonly have associated minerals of magnetite, chlorite, and carbonates. Olivine under
hydrothermal action, low grade metamorphism and weathering will transform into
antigorite, which is often associate with talc and carbonate.
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Rock-Forming Minerals
Metamorphic minerals Chlorite is generally green and sometimes green-brown in thin section. Chlorite is a Chlorite schist
common mineral in low- to intermediate grade metamorphic rocks, diagnostic of the
greenschist facies. It is also a common secondary mineral after biotite, muscovite, and other
mafic silicates in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Chlorite is a common hydrothermal
Chlorite alteration mineral (with hydrothermal ore deposits and commonly occurs with epidote,
Prehnite sericite, adularia and sulfide minerals), in many systems, particularly in peripheral propylitic
Chlorite Sepiolite alteration (e.g., porphyry and epithermal deposits) or retrograde overprinting alteration (e.g.,
(Mg-rich sheet Apophyllite replacement of hydrothermal biotite in porphyry deposits). In volcanogenic massive
silicates ) sulphide deposits, chlorite is a diagnostic mineral commonly concentrated in the footwall
(Metamorphic zones that also host chalcopyrite-pyrite stringer veins. When present, chlorite and quartz-
Index mineral)
(Mg,Fe,Al)6 chlorite alteration typically occupies an innermost alteration zone, and passes outward into
(Si,Al) sericite alteration. In addition to mineralogical zoning, the composition of chlorite may vary
(OH)8 from Fe-rich adjacent to massive sulphide mineralization, to Mg-rich on the periphery of
mineralized zones. This occurs particularly in Precambrian deposits, whereas younger
deposits may be dominated by Mg-rich chlorite.
Wollastonite is usually white. It forms when impure limestone or dolomite is subjected to
Wollastonite high temperature and pressure, which sometimes occurs in the presence of silica-bearing
(Skarn rock)
CaSiO3 fluids as in skarns or in contact with metamorphic rocks. Associated minerals include
garnets, vesuvianite, diopside, tremolite, epidote, plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene and calcite.
Red. The mineral garnet is found in green-schist facies metamorphic rocks including gneiss,
Pyrope hornblende schist, and mica schist. Garnets can be chemically altered and most often alter to
Almandine serpentine, talc, and chlorite. Pyrope is an indicator mineral for high-pressure rocks. The
Garnet Group garnets from mantle-derived rocks, peridotites, and eclogites commonly contain a pyrope
(Metamorphic Spessartine variety. Almandine is a common mineral in medium- and high-grade metamorphic rocks. It
Index mineral) (Mg, Fe)3 is often found with quartz, feldspar, micas, staurolite, cordierite, chloritoid, tourmaline, and
Si2O5OH4 kyanite or sillimanite. Spessartine occurs most often in granite pegmatite and allied rock
types and in certain low grade metamorphic phyllites.

Metamorphic Index mineral Staurolite reddish brown is a regional metamorphic mineral of intermediate to high grade. It
occurs with almandine garnet, micas, kyanite; as well as albite, biotite, and sillimanite in
Chlorite, Biotite, gneiss and schist of regional metamorphic rocks. Kyanite blue colors occurs in biotite gneiss,
Garnet Fe2Al9Si4O23 mica schist, and hornfels, which are metamorphic rocks formed at high pressure during
Staurolite (OH)2 regional metamorphism of a protolith rich in aluminium (a pelitic protolith). Andalusite
Kyanite Al2SiO5 brown to red forms under low pressure and low to high temperatures occurs in pelitic rocks.
Andalusite Sillimanite white to brown fibers is the high-temperature. It occurs with andalusite,
Sillimanite kyanite, potassium feldspar, almandine, cordierite, biotite and quartz in schist, gneiss.
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Rock-Forming Minerals
Epidote is generally green is a silicate mineral that is commonly found in regionally
metamorphosed rocks of low-to-moderate grade. In these rocks, epidote is often associated
with amphiboles, feldspars, quartz, and chlorite. It is frequently found in veins that cut
granite. It occurs as monoclinic crystals in pegmatites. It is also found in massive form and as
monoclinic crystals in marbles and schists that were formed or altered through contact
Zoisite
metamorphism. Epidote occurs in altered volcanic rocks, where hydrothermal temperatures
Epidote
exceeded about 230°C; hence, epidote is common both proximal and distal to mineralization
Epidote Gp. Ca2Al2(Fe3+;Al)
in deep epithermal and porphyry environments. Epidote is susceptible to replacement by
(SiO4)(Si2O7)O
calcite in the presence of C02-rich fluids. Crystals increase in size and appear more prismatic
(OH)
with increasing temperature. Epidote also occurs with K-feldspar in some potassic alteration
zones in mafic rocks, and as part of retrograde alteration assemblages in skams. Epidote-
quartz alteration is a semi-conformable (or stratabound), synvolcanic style of alteration
present within the footwall and hanging wall stratigraphy of (VMS). Zones of alteration are
commonly extensive; they may be tens of km in strike length and hundreds of metres thick.

Topaz is Colorless Gem. a late-stage igneous or hydrothermal mineral. It is an accessory in

Topaz Al2SiO4 granite, rhyolite, and granitic pegmatites and may be found in contact aureoles adjacent to
(hydrothermal silicic plutons. It is often associated with lithium and tin mineralization. Associated minerals
(F, OH)2
Gem mineral) include quartz, feldspar, muscovite, tourmaline, fluorite, cassiterite, apatite, and beryl.

Ore-Forming Minerals White or gray to greenish, Gibbsite is a secondary mineral associated with aluminum
deposits, bauxites, and laterites and as an alteration product from aluminosilicates. Diaspore
Gibbsite and böhmite, other aluminum hydroxides, are typically intimate associates. Boehmite
Al(OH)3 White, pale greyish brown occurs in tropical laterites and bauxites developed on alumino-
Boehmite AlO(OH) silicate bedrock. It also occurs as a hydrothermal alteration product of corundum and
(Aluminum ore nepheline. It occurs with kaolinite, gibbsite and diaspore in bauxite deposits; and with
Mineral) nepheline, gibbsite, diaspore, natrolite and analcime in nepheline pegmatites.
Monazite is a primarily reddish-brown a rare phosphate mineral with a chemical
composition of (Ce,La,Nd,Th) (PO4,SiO4). It usually occurs in small isolated grains, as an
accessory mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, pegmatite, schist, and
Monazite (Ce,La,Th)PO4 gneiss. These grains are resistant to weathering and become concentrated in unconsolidated
(RRE Phosphate beach or stream sediments, where it is associated with other heavy minerals such as
ore Mineral) minerals magnetite and ilmenite. monazite minerals concentrate in alluvial sands when released by
the weathering of pegmatites. These so-called placer deposits, they are mined for their rare
earth and thorium content. are often beach or fossil beach sands and contain other heavy
minerals of commercial interest such as zircon and ilmenite.
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Ore-Forming Minerals
Sulfide Minerals & Ores Pale brass-yellow reflective. Pyrite crystals may be cubic can also be massive or granular.
Formed under a wide variety of conditions. In hydrothermal veins as very large bodies, as
magmatic segregations, as an accessory mineral in igneous rocks, in pegmatites; in contact
Pyrite metamorphic deposits, also in metamorphic rocks; as diagenetic replacements in sedimentary
rocks. Most hard-rock gold and silver deposits are in quartz-rich hydrothermal veins. Pyrite
Marcasite FeS2 (fool’s gold) and other sulfides are often associated with native gold and silver in the veins.
(Hydrothermal Marcasite is , white-green to pale bronze, yellow a low-temperature mineral found in sulfide
iron Mineral) veins with lead and zinc minerals or as a replacement mineral in limestones or shale.
Common associates are galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, calcite, and dolomite.
It has a brassy to golden yellow color. Chalcopyrite, the most important Cu ore mineral.
Chalcopyrite formation is under a variety conditions. It may be some is primary, crystallizing
Chalcopyrite from melts as accessory minerals in igneous rocks. Chalcopyrite ore occurs in a variety of ore
(Cupper Ore CuFeS2 types, from huge masses to irregular veins and disseminations associated with granitic to
Mineral) dioritic intrusives as in the Au-Cu porphyry & VMS deposits & in pegmatite dykes and come
into contact with metamorphic stones. Some are spread through schist and gneiss.
Bornite ( peacock ore) has a brown to copper-red color on fresh surfaces that tarnishes to
Bornite various iridescent shades of blue to purple in places. Bornite is an important copper ore
(Cupper Ore Cu5FeS4 mineral and occurs widely in porphyry copper deposits along with the more common
Mineral) chalcopyrite & in the supergene enrichment zone of copper deposits. Bornite is also found as
disseminations in mafic igneous rocks, in contact metamorphic skarn deposits, in pegmatites.
Dark gray to black. Chalcocite is sometimes found as a primary vein mineral in
Chalcocite hydrothermal veins. However, most chalcocite occurs in the supergene enriched
environment below the oxidation zone of copper deposits as a result of the leaching of
Covellite Cu2S copper from the oxidized minerals. It is also often found in sedimentary rocks. It has been
(Cupper Ore CuS mined for centuries and is one of the most profitable copper ores. The reasons for this is its
Mineral) high copper content (66.7% atomic ratio and nearly 80% by weight) and the ease at which
copper can be separated from sulfur. Covellite is a rare copper sulfide mineral.
Metallic luster, bronze-yellow color and association help identify pentlandite. It’s the most
important nickel ore mineral, is found in late-stage sulfide deposits with other nickel
Pentlandite minerals (millerite, niccolite), pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite. Pentlandite often occurs as
Millerite (Fe,Ni)9S8 exsolved blebs and lamellae within pyrrhotite. Pentlandite is found within the lower margins
(Nickel Ore NiS of mineralised layered intrusions, the best examples being the Bushveld igneous complex.
Millerite is brassy in colour and has an acicular habit & a common metamorphic mineral
Mineral) replacing pentlandite within serpentinite ultramafics. forms disseminated needle like https://e-
rocks.com/item/pdm5991
millerite crystals dispersed throughout the rock mass. 67/pentlandite-pyrrhotite
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Ore-Forming Minerals
Sphalerite is, brown-orange-red, the most common sulfide minerals. It appears in many
types of deposits; it is found in skarns, hydrothermal deposits, sedimentary beds,
Sphalerite volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits (VMS), Mississippi-valley type deposits (MVT),
(Zinc Ore (Zn,Fe)S granite and coal. It is found with galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite, barite, fluorite, carbonates, and
Mineral) quartz in voids and fracture fillings of carbonate hosts. It is found in hydrothermal veins
with pyrrhotite, pyrite, and magnetite, and is also found in contact metamorphic aureoles.
Lead gray and silvery, Galena is one of the most abundant and widely distributed sulfide
minerals. It is the most important ore of lead and an important source of silver. Galena
Galena typically is found in hydrothermal veins in association with sphalerite, marcasite,
(Lead Ore PbS chalcopyrite, cerussite, anglesite, dolomite, calcite, quartz, barite, and fluorite.
Mineral) It is also found in association with sphalerite in low-temperature lead-zinc deposits within
limestone beds. Minor amounts are found in contact metamorphic zones, in pegmatites, and
disseminated in sedimentary rock (MVT). VMS. Skarn. Sedex.
Pyrrhotite is a bronze, dark brown also called magnetic pyrite, because the color is similar to
pyrite and it is weakly magnetic. Pyrrhotite is a rather common trace constituent of mafic
Pyrrhotite igneous rocks especially norites. It occurs as segregation deposits in layered intrusions
(Hydrotherml Fe(1-x)S associated with pentlandite, chalcopyrite and other sulfides. It is an important constituent
Mineral) of the Sudbury intrusion where it occurs in masses associated with copper and nickel
mineralisation. It also occurs in pegmatites and in contact metamorphic zones. Pyrrhotite is
often accompanied by pyrite, marcasite and magnetite.

Molybdenite Black, lead-silvery gray, Similar in appearance and feel to graphite. Molybdenite occurs in
high temperature hydrothermal ore deposits as an accessory mineral in some granitic rocks,
(Molybdenum MoS2 including pegmatites. It also is found in porphyry copper deposits; in vein deposits with
Ore Mineral) scheelite, cassiterite, wolframite, and fluorite; and in some contact aureoles.
Cinnabar is bright red to brownish red, generally occurs as a vein-filling mineral associated
Cinnabar with recent volcanic activity and alkaline hot springs. Cinnabar is the most significant Hg ore
(Mercury Ore HgS mineral. It is found as masses in volcanic or sedimentary rocks, in veins, or as disseminated
Mineral) grains. Associated minerals include native mercury, realgar, stibnite, pyrite, marcasite,
calcite, quartz, and opal.

Argentite Acanthite is lead-gray to black a common silver mineral Argentite is the proper name of the
(Acanthite) high-temperature in moderately low-temperature hydrothermal veins and in zones of
(Silver Ore
Ag2S supergene enrichment. It occurs in association with native silver, pyrargyrite, proustite,
polybasite, stephanite, aguilarite, galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, calcite and quartz.
Mineral)
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Ore-Forming Minerals
Metallic luster, silver-white color, and crystal form help identify arsenopyrite. Arsenopyrite
also can be associated with significant amounts of gold. Consequently, it serves as an
indicator of gold bearing reefs. Many arsenopyrite gold ores are refractory. is found in high
Arsenopyrite temperature hydrothermal veins, in pegmatites, and in areas of contact metamorphism or
(Hydrothermal FeAsS metasomatism. the most abundant and widespread arsenic mineral, is found in Fe, Cu, Sn,
Mineral) Co, Ni, Ag, Au, and Pb ores. It occurs in veins, pegmatites, contact aureoles, or as
disseminations in low- to mediumgrade metamorphic rocks. Common associated minerals
include chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, cassiterite, and gold and silver minerals.
Tin-white or silver-white. It occurs in high-temperature hydrothermal deposits and contact
Cobaltite metamorphic rocks. It occurs in association with other cobalt and nickel sulfides, arsenides,

Skutterudite CoAsS and related minerals. Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, galena, and magnetite are also associated
minerals. It may be veined or disseminated. Skutterudite. It is a hydrothermal ore mineral
(Cobalt Ore CoAs3 found in moderate to high temperature veins with other Ni-Co minerals. Associated minerals
Mineral) are arsenopyrite, native silver, erythrite, annabergite, nickeline, cobaltite, silver sulfosalts,
native bismuth, calcite, siderite, barite and quartz.

Stibnite Lead- grey color. Stibnite is found in hydrothermal veins, in replacement deposits, and more
(Antimony Ore Sb2S3 rarely, in hot spring deposits. Typical associates include orpiment, realgar, cinnabar, galena,
Mineral) sphalerite, pyrite, barite, and sometimes gold.

Oxides Minerals & Ores Red, red-brown to black. Rutile is a common mineral in sand and one of the most important
sources of titanium. The other important titanium-bearing mineral is ilmenite. Rutile occurs
in many igneous (intermediate to mafic mostly plutonic) and metamorphic rocks (especially
Rutile TiO2 amphibolite, eclogite, and metamorphosed limestones) but usually as small crystals. Big
crystals may grow in pegmatites or hydrothermal veins with quartz and apatite.
It is a weakly magnetic black or steel-gray solid. It is a common accessory mineral found in
metamorphic and igneous rocks. It is found in large concentrations in layered intrusions
Ilmenite where it forms as part of a cumulate layer within the silicate stratigraphy of the intrusion. It’s
(Titanium Ore FeTiO3 a common vein mineral, is found as masses in igneous rocks, in pegmatites, as an accessory
Mineral) in high-grade metamorphic rocks, and is present in black sands where associated minerals
include quartz, hematite, magnetite, rutile, zircon, monazite dense minerals.
Black, brownish black. Most sources of cassiterite today are found in alluvial or placer
Cassiterite deposits containing the resistant weathered grains. Cassiterite is a widespread minor
(Tin Ore SnO2 constituent of igneous rocks. The Bolivian veins and are concentrated in high temperature
quartz veins and pegmatites associated with granitic intrusives. The veins commonly contain
Mineral)
tourmaline, topaz, fluorite, apatite, wolframite, molybdenite, and arsenopyrite.
GOLD PYRAMID GROUP
Mining And Petroleum Ore-Forming Minerals
Black, manganese oxides with a dendritic crystal habit. Pyrolusite occurs associated with
Pyrolusite manganite, hollandite, hausmannite, braunite, chalcophanite, goethite, and hematite under
(Manganese Ore MnO2 oxidizing conditions in hydrothermal deposits. It also occurs in bogs and often results from
Mineral) alteration of manganite.

Columbite Iron-black to brown, Members of the columbite-tantalite series are uncommon. Primary
Tantalite niobium and tantalum mineral deposits are found in three main types of igneous intrusive
(Niobium-
(Fe,Mn) rocks. 1. Carbonatites and associated alkaline rocks (Nb dominant), 2. Alkaline to peralkaline
tantalum Ore (Nb,Ta)2O6 granites and syenites (Nb dominant), and 3. Rare-metal granites and pegmatites of the
Mineral) lithiumcesium-tantalum. (Niobium and Tantalum USGS Report).

Black, brownish black. Small amounts of chromite are found in many types of rock.
Chromite However, chromite deposits that are large enough for mining are generally found in: 1)
stratiform deposits (large masses of igneous rock such as norite or peridotite that slowly
(Chromium FeCr2O4 crystallized from subsurface magma); 2) podiform deposits (serpentines and other
Ore Mineral) metamorphic rocks derived from the alteration of norite and peridotite); and, 3) beach sands
(derived from the weathering of chromite-bearing rocks).

Carbonate Ore Minerals Colourless, white, gray, light yellow, pale green. Strontianite is an uncommon mineral. It
occurs in hydrothermal veins with barite, celestite, and calcite. Hosts include limestones,
Strontianite
(Strontium Ore) SrCO3 sulfide veins, vugs, and concretions.

Cerussite Colorless, gray, or white, tabular crystals. Cerussite is a common secondary lead mineral
PbCO3 found in altered ore deposits. Typical associated minerals include galena, anglesite, limonite,
(Lead Ore) and pyromorphite. It occurs in both veins and bedded deposits.

Bright green, dark green. It occurs most notable in the oxidized and supergene zones of
Malachite
Cu2CO3 copper deposits, especially where CO2 is available. As such, it occurs in the state in the small
(Cupper Ore copper deposits associated with the Upper Mississippi Valley zinc-lead district, the
Mineral) (OH)2 volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits, and is often found with azurite, goethite, and calcite.
Typically found with copper deposits associated with limestone, the source of the carbonate.

Azurite is a soft, deep-blue copper mineral produced by weathering of copper ore deposits.
Azurite Cu3(CO3)2 While not a major ore of copper itself, the presence of azurite is a good surface indicator of
(Cupper Ore the presence of weathered copper sulfide ores. It is often found associated with and altering
Mineral)
(OH)2 too malachite, but is considerable less common than this mineral. Other commonly
associated minerals include chalcocite, chalcopyrite, cuprite, tenorite, calcite, and goethite.