Anderson, Loren Runar et al "THRUST RESTRAINTS"

Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000
Figure 15-2 Impulse thrust, Qi, at a bend in a pipe due to change in direction of flow, showing a free-vector-
diagram of the components Fx and Fy.

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CHAPTER 15 THRUST RESTRAINTS

A straight pipe section with end closures (valves or Qi = vector sum of impulse forces Fx and Fy,
caps) feels a longitudinal force when internal θ = offset angle of the bend,
pressure is applied. In the case of static pressure, v = average velocity of fluid flow in the pipe.
the longitudinal force F is simply the internal Fx = axial force on the fluid at the elbow,
pressure times the area; i.e., D = inside diameter,
ρ = mass density of the fluid,
F = PπD2/4 (v-vcosθ) = change in the x-components of velocity
as the column of fluid flows around the bend.
where
F = longitudinal thrust in the pipe, Fx and Fy can be found by the principle "impulse
P = internal pressure, equals change in momentum." Both impulse and
D = inside diameter = 2r. momentum are vector quantities. Figure 15-2 shows
a free-body-diagram of a column of fluid (cross-
But suppose the pipe has gasketed joints between hatched). The area is πD2/4, and the length is (vdt).
the ends. See Figure 15-1. Now it cannot resist the Impulse is force times time dt, and change in
force F. Consequently, thrust restraints (thrust momentum is mass times change in velocity. In the
blocks) must be supplied at the ends of the pipe. x-direction;

Impulse = Fxdt
EVALUATION OF THRUST Q
Change in Momentum = (πD2/4)vdtρ(v-vcosθ).
Each thrust restraint must resist F without moving
enough to allow a joint to leak. In addition to the Equating impulse to the change in momentum in the
pressure, P, suppose that the fluid is moving in the x-direction,
pipe due to pressure gradient, ∆ P. Force F is
increased by ∆ F = ∆ PπD2/4. For most buried Fx = π(Dv)2 ρ(1-cosθ)/4
pipeline analyses, fluid friction, ∆F, is negligible
because the length between gaskets is short and is But Fx is only the x-component. In a similar manner
easily resisted by soil friction on the pipe. by equating the y-component of impulse to change in
momentum;
But now, suppose that the gasketed pipe is not
straight. A change in direction is introduced by an Fy = π(Dv)2 ρ(sinθ)/4
elbow (or bend). The sidewise thrust Q at the elbow
is due to both pressure and the impulse of change in From the free-vector-diagram of Figure 15-2, the
direction of flow. It is the vector sum of impulse and resultant of Fx and Fy is,
pressure forces, Qi and Qp, on the fluid at the bend.
Each is found separately. 2Qi = π(Dv)2 ρsin(θ/2) . . . . . (15.1)

Impulse Thrust Qi The angle between Qi an d Fy is tan-1(Fx /Fy) = θ/2.

Noting that the pipe is symmetrical about the Qi
See free-vector-diagram, Figure 15-2. vector, Equation 15.1 could have been written
F = impulse force (vector), directly, because the change in velocity in the Qi
Qi = thrust due to impulse, direction is simply 2vsin(θ/2).

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Figure 15-3 Pressure thrust-Q p at a bend (elbow) in a pipe due to internal pressure, P, showing the free-
vector-diagram for calculating Qp.

Figure 15-4 Passive soil resistance on an elbow and on contiguous gasketed pipe sections showing how the
soil envelope can provide thrust restraint.

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Pressure Thrust Qp SPECIAL SECTIONS

See Figure 15-3; where Special sections redirect or alter flow. Examples
D = inside diameter = 2r, include elbows, wyes, tees, valves, reducers, caps,
P = internal fluid pressure, plugs, etc. The following analyses for elbows can be
Qp = thrust due to internal pressure, applied to any special section. In every case, thrust,
θ = offset angle of the bend (elbow). Q is the sum of impulse thrust, Qi, and pressure
thrust, Qp.
A free-body-diagram of the elbow with pressurized
fluid contents is shown cross-hatched. Neglecting COMMON THRUST RESTRAINTS
the small friction loss of flow around the bend, from
the free-vector-diagram, 1. Welded or Bolted Joints at Special Sections

2Qp = πD2Psin(θ/2) . . . . . (15.2) In a pressurized pipe, at a gasketed elbow, Q must

be resisted by the soil or by a thrust restraint (thrust
Qp is at an angle of θ/2 with the y-axis. block). For a welded elbow, Q is resisted by the
Consequently, thrust, Q, is the sum, Qi+ Qp; i.e., pipe. Two analyses of a welded elbow follow.

2Q = πD2(P + v2ρ)sin(θ/2) . . . . . (15.3) a) If the contiguous pipes are unrestrained and

uncapped (like a garden hose), normal force, F, and
where shearing force, S, act on the elbow. Analysis is
v = average velocity of fluid flow, conservative because soil resistance reduces F and
ρ = mass density of the fluid, S.
θ = offset angle of the bend. σ = F/2πrt = average normal stress,
τ = S/2πrt = average shearing stress.
Example
From the equations of static equilibrium,
Find thrust-Q at a 90o elbow in a water pipe for
which, σ /P(r/t) = (1-cosθ) . . . . . (15.4)
θ = 90o, NORMAL STRESS TERM
D = 30 inches,
P = 200 psi = internal pressure, τ /P(r/t) = sinθ . . . . . (15.5)
v = 15 ft/second = flow velocity, SHEARING STRESS TERM
ρ = γ w /g = mass density of water,
γ = 62.4 lb/ft3 = unit wt. of water, These stress terms are upper limits — twice the
g = 32.2 ft/second2 = gravity. force-per-unit-area — to account for eccentricity of
the F-force and redistribution of stresses. The
Substituting into Equation 15.1, Qi = 3 kips. outside of a bend can stretch more than the inside.
Substituting into Equation 15.2, Qp = 200 kips. Therefore, stresses are greater on the inside. See
Combined, Q = 203 kips. Impulse thrust, Qi is Problem 15-12. Wall thickness is sometimes
usually neglected. increased for elbows. In general, greater wall
thickness is not justified.
If a large diameter pipe with high internal pressure
has an elbow with a large offset angle, θ, thrust-Q is b) If the contiguous pipes are restrained and
enormous. capped, from the equations of equililbrium,
longitudinal stress is,

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σ = Pr/2t . . . . . (15.6) where
K = P/Px = (1-sinϕ)/(1+sinϕ),
This is only half as great as circumferential stress, ϕ = soil friction angle,
and is independent of offset angle, θ. A more γ = unit weight of soil,
precise analysis would show that stress, σ , on the OD = outside diameter,
inside of the bend is increased slightly as the offset H = height of soil cover,
angle, θ, is increased. Most pipes are ductile enough L = length of pipe section.
that the material "plastic-flows" at yield, and does not
fail. Moreover, soil friction resists thrust. In The restraint capacity of soil against elbow is,
practice, contiguous pipes are seldom capped. Qelb = (area) times Px
Longitudinal stress is not critical for isotropic plain
steel and plastic pipes. Of course, joints must be where
adequate. (area) = (OD)Lelb,
Lelb = cord length (approximate) of elbow
For non-isotropic pipes (corrugated, ribbed, or from coupling to coupling as shown.
wrapped with fiberglas or wire), longitudinal strength
must be assured. Neglecting impulse force and soil Multiplying (area) times Px,
resistance, for uncapped, unrestrained contiguous
pipes: Qelb = (2H + OD)γ LelbOD/2K

At elbows, for longitudinal design, Added to this is the restraint capacity of the first
Pπr2(1-cosθ) = Aσ f /sf . . . . . (15.7) section of pipe on each side of the elbow. Full
passive resistance of the soil would be developed at
where the elbow end of each section. At the opposite end,
A = area of longitudinal fibers, each pipe section could rotate, because of the
σf = strength of the fibers. gasket. But there would be no lateral movement.
Passive soil resistance would not be developed. A
At valves or caps (not at bends) for design, crude, but reasonable and conservative assumption,
Pπr2 = Aσ f /sf . . . . . (15.8) is that passive resistance varies linearly from Px at
the elbow end to zero at the opposite end. Due to
2. Embedment As Thrust Restraint soil supporting the two pipe sections, the component
of restraint in the direction of Q is,
If thrust-Q is not large, the embedment is able to
develop adequate passive resistance. It may not be Qsecs = (OD)LP xcos(θ/2)
necessary to provide additional thrust restraint.
Consider in Figure 15-4 the free-body-diagram of an or, substituting for Px,
elbow and one section of pipe on each side. The
joints are gasketed so the pipe can take no Qsecs = (OD)L(2H + OD)γ cos(θ/2)/2K
longitudinal force. Thrust-Q can be restrained only
by the soil bearing against the pipe. The maximum Combining the thrust restraints provided by the
soil pressure bearing horizontally against the elbow elbow and the two pipe sections,
is passive resistance Px at the average depth of soil,
H + OD/2, Restraint-Q =
OD(2H + OD)γ [Lelb + Lcos(θ/2)]/2K
Px = (2H + OD)γ /2K . . . . . (15.9)

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Rewriting Equation 15.3, h = H/B = ratio of soil cover H to side B,
j = ratio of distance between top of block and
Thrust-Q = π(ID)2(P + v2ρ)sin(θ/2)/2 thrust-Q, to side B,
. . . . . (15.10) ϕ = 30° = soil friction angle,
K = 1/3 = (1-sinϕ)/(1+sinϕ),
Equation 15.10 for thrust-Q was derived for a γ = 120 pcf = unit weight of soil,
horizontal bend. For a vertical bend (in a vertical γc = 144 pcf = unit weight of concrete.
plane), thrust-Q has a vertical component. If soil
cover alone is to resist the upward component of Taking the sum of the moments of force about
thrust-Q, then soil cover H must be great enough overturn fulcrum O,
that soil weight can hold the pipe down. A
conservative restraint-Q for this vertical bend is, Q/γ B3 = (2h + 1.10)/(1-j) OVERTURN
. . . . (15.12)
Restraint-Q =
OD(2H + OD)γ [Lelb + Lcos(θ/2)]/2 Taking the sum of the horizontal forces,
. . . . . (15.11)
Q/γ B3 = (3.577h + 2.193) SLIP
This is the same as Equation 15.9 except that K is . . . . . (15.13)
eliminated. For design, restraint-Q must be greater
than thrust-Q. A safety factor should be included. The dimensionless quantity Q/γ B3 is the thrust block
restraint number. A table of values is shown as
3. Thrust Block as Thrust Restraint Table 15-1 for typic al design based on the
assumptions indicated.
Thrust blocks are the most common restraints in use
for pressurized gasketed pipes. See Figure 15-5. Overturn
Thrust blocks are usually concrete. A reasonable
analysis for design starts with the free-body- In order to design a cubical thrust block with the
diagram. Assuming a cubical block, typical soil properties assumed in the analysis above,
B = lengths of sides of the cube, it is only necessary to guess a trial value for B from
γ = unit weight of soil, which values of h and j can be calculated. Entering
γ c = unit weight of the thrust block, Table 15-1 with h and j, the restraint number, Q/γ B3
jB = distance down to thrust-Q from the top of can be found in the overturn columns.
the block,
K = (1-sinϕ)/(1+sinϕ), For a soil unit weight of γ = 120 pcf, Q/B3 = (120
ϕ = soil friction angle. pcf)(restraint number)/sf. Solve for B. If not the
same as the assumed B, using the new B recalculate
Other data are shown on the sketch. Friction on the values for h and j. Enter Table 15-1 for a second
sides of the block is undependable and is trial solution of the restraint number from which a
conservatively neglected. new value of B is calculated. If this new B is
unchanged, then the answer has been found. If not,
T wo modes of failure are considered: overturn recycle the analysis with the new B.
about point O, and slip. The conditions under which
each mode controls are described by an example of Slip
a cubical thrust block.
Example — Assumptions The left of the two SLIP columns of Table 15-1

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Figure 15-5 Free-body-diagram of a cubical thrust block.

Table 15-1 Values of cubical thrust block restraint number, Q/γ B3, for concrete at 144 pcf and soil at 120
pcf and ϕ = 30o. No safety factor is included.

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provides values for the restraint number from couplings allow adequate slip.
Equation 15.13. The right of the two slip columns is
the minimum value of j at which slip is critical. For most couplings, the pipe must be supported on
both sides of the coupling to assure alignment. Good
No safety factor is included. The analysis is so backfill soil may provide alignment. In the case of
conservative, that safety factors need not be large. poor backfill, or pipe on piers, two yokes on each
Nevertheless, the risk of failure may warrant a pier assure alignment as shown in Figure 15-7.
safety factor. Most couplings are not designed to resist longitudinal
moment or transverse shear. The allowable degree
One novel concept is the thrust pin designed to of misalignment of a coupling is limited. For
conserve space. See Figure 15-6. It can be located example, the allowable misalignment (offset angle)
inside the bend if necessary, tied with tendons. is about 3o for steel pipes 30 to 54 inch diameter.
Manufacturers of couplings should be consulted for
4. Tendons restrictions and specific applications. If the pipe is
Instead of thrust blocks or thrust pins, which restrain on piers, couplings should not be located at midspans
the gasketed elbow by compression from outside the between piers.
bend, restraint is by tension tendons inside the bend
fastened to dead-men such as buried concrete Particular care is required for large pipes on steep
blocks, boulders, beams, pins, etc. The tendons slopes because of the difficulties of installation as
could be rods, cables, wires, etc. well as the additional loads on the thrust restraints.
On slopes steeper than about 45°, the pipe is often
Or, instead of tying tendons to dead-men, they could placed on piers above ground. The slope is too
be tied across the bend to corresponding pipe joints steep to excavate a trench, too steep to hold the pipe
on either side of the elbow. See Figure 15-13. in position for welding and backfilling, and too steep
These "harp-strings" cannot resist the thrust without to compact backfill. Moreover, a pipe on a steep
other restraints such as longitudinal friction between slope may feel the downhill drag from creep of
soil and pipes and soil bearing. surface soil (downhill freezing and thawing) and thus
overload the anchor at the bottom of the slope.
PIPES ON STEEP SLOPES Slopes steeper than 45° are usually rock outcrops
that cannot be excavated without ripping or blasting.
The analysis of thrust restraints, for pipes on slopes, On steep slopes, or in inaccessible areas,
is the same as above; but in addition, must include construction might require lowering personnel,
longitudinal forces caused by gravity. For most platforms, and equipment down the pipeline by
pipes, the length tends to shorten when the pipe is in cables. Rock pins are drilled and grouted into place.
service because internal pressure increases and The pipe is laid downhill as the platform is lowered.
temperature decreases. Therefore, it is good Economics often favor service from an overhead
practice to design restraints such that the pipe cable on towers, or from helicopters. Helicopters
shortens downhill. Frictional resistance to are expensive (one to two thousand dollars per
shortening is uphill and partially offsets the downhill hour), but can place pipes and piers quickly if ground
component of weight of the full pipe. crews avoid delays. Under some conditions,
tunneling may be an option.
The thrust restraint (anchor) is clamped to the pipe
uphill from it, and is slip-coupled to the pipe downhill Example
from it. The downhill side is free to slip toward the
next anchor downhill. Expansion joints allow slip. The following example identifies some of the many
For short pipe sections, com-mon sleeve-type problems associated with pipelines on steep slopes.

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Figure 15-6 Alternate concept of thrust restraint at an elbow in a pipeline provided by a thrust pin that
conserves space and quantity of concrete. The hole is bored, reinforcing steel is positionced, and concrete
is cast into the bored hole.

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A 30D steel penstock is to be installed in a remote will be a monolithic casting. The upper ends of the
area in a cold climate. Much of the 4800-ft pipeline rebars may be threaded such that the bands that
is on slopes less than 10°, in soil that can be clamp the pipe will also secure the pipe to the pier.
excavated for burial of the pipe to protect it from
avalanches, falling trees, and temperature extremes. The amount of concrete may be reduced by using
However, part of the pipeline will be placed above prefabricated chairs. In this example, chairs for
ground on piers and anchors in rock outcrops on a supporting the pipe are to be flown in and fastened,
steep 48o decline. See Figure 15-7. The area is either to pins drilled and grouted into the rock, or to
heavily timbered and inaccessible. Elbows in the small concrete footings anchored to the pins. Two
pipeline will be anchored at the top and bottom of the pins must support the downhill components of weight
48° slope. What are the requirements for piers and of the chair and footing plus the pipe section full of
anchors? water uphill from the pins, reduced by the frictional
resistance to the normal component of weight of
It is cost effective to bring in pipes, equipment, and chair, footing, and one full pipe section. The chair
concrete by helicopter. The required pipe wall weighs about 0.5 kips. If the pier requires two cubic
thickness is 0.375 inch. If the maximum length of a yards of concrete it will weigh about 7.5 kips. If the
pipe section is 30 feet, the weight is about 3.6 kips, weight of the full pipe is 430 lb/ft, it will weigh 13
which is the load capacity of the helicopter. Bolted kips. The total weight is about 21 kips. The basic
sleeve-type couplings are selected because they coefficient of friction is the tangent of the soil
eliminate field welding, which is slow and tortuous on friction angle, say, 30°. The resulting downhill
the steep slope. Couplings can be assembled quickly shearing load is 11 kips. See Figure 15-8. The
and without heavy equipment. For 30-ft lengths of shearing stress on two #8 bars of 0.7854 in 2 area
pipe, ordinary sleeve couplings can accommodate each is 11/1.57 = 7 ksi which is not excessive.
the longitudinal expansion and contraction due to However, bearing of steel on grout should be
large temperature changes above ground. A change checked. The upper ends of the #8 bars are
in temperature of 100o Fahrenheit causes a quarter threaded such that the chair can be bolted to the
of an inch change in length in each 30-ft section of pins. If necessary, the downhill chair foot can be
pipe. If the pipe were to be installed in long sections, bolted to pins — one pin in the center of the foot, or
special expansion joints would be needed. two pins at the ends of the foot.

Before the pipes are flown in, piers or chairs must The bands that secure the pipe to the chair also
be in place and fixed. Unless deep foundations can clamp the pipe and prevent slipping of the band due
be provided, rock pins are required. Holes are to the 11-kip shearing load. See Figure 15-9. To
drilled into the rock at the uphill side of each pier. prevent slip, each band must be tensioned to four
Deformed reinforcing rods (rebars) are grouted into kips (assuming coefficient of friction between band
the drilled holes as shown in Figure 15-8. In order to and pipe is one-third). It may be prudent to clean
assure bond, the depth of the holes should be at least and roughen the surface or to apply epoxy and "salt"
50 diameters of the rod. If #8 rebars are used, the the surface with carborundum dust. To tension the
depth of the holes must be 50 inches. In cold bands, with a margin of safety, use 3/4 bolts with
climates, frost penetrates more than 50 inches, so tensile strength of 6.19 kips each and tensioned to 5
10-ft depth is prudent. If piers are to be used, kips. The band is a 1/4-inch steel strap, 4 inches
concrete placed from a helicopter requires a wide. A large square washer is required to
tremie and good luck as well as skill. Forms for the distribute the load and eliminate bending at the
piers can be light-weight and reusable. Each pier hole where band width is only about 3 inches.

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 P

Figure 15-7 Penstock on a slope showing examples of a concrete pier with two yokes for alignment of the
coupling, and anchors (thrust restraints) at the elbows.

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Figure 15-8 Chair on a 48o slope on a rock outcrop, showing rock pins used to secure the chair to the outcrop,
and showing a bolt, at the downhill end of the diagonal brace, that serves as a pivot for slight rotation of the
downhill legs of the chair, eliminating the need for a slip band.

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Figure 15-9 Partial details of a chair that can be flown onto location by helicopter and bolted to rock pins.

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Adjustment of the fit of band-to-chair and chair-to- EXPANSION INSERTS
pins (or footing) is accomplished as follows. Bolt
holes are slotted to allow for horizontal adjustment, An expansion/contraction insert allows for slight
and shims are inserted to allow for vertical longitudinal expansion or contraction without
adjustment and rotation. Adjustment of longitudinal overstressing the pipe or joints. Slip couplings and
displacement of the downhill pipe section with gaskets essentially eliminate all longitudinal thrust in
respect to the uphill pipe section is accomplished by the pipe. However, under some circumstances, a
pivots at the lower ends of the downhill chair legs. corrugated pipe insert or bellows section can reduce
See Figure 15-9. A 7/8 bolt is adequate in double thrust to acceptable levels. Two questions arise:
shear. The vertical leg must be cut to allow for 1. What is the elongation of the insert per unit length
slight rotation. of pipe at yield or endurance limit?
2. What is the longitudinal force per unit length of
Thrust restraints (anchors) are required at the circumference of the insert at yield stress or at the
elbows shown in Figure 15-7. Anchor, A, at the endurance limit?
inverted elbow is critical because the pins are in
tension. The depth of the six bored holes must be Analysis is based on the free-body-diagrams of
determined. If pressure in the pipe is 433 psi (1000 Figure 15-10 for a corrugation, and Figure 15-11 for
ft static head), the uplift thrust at the elbow is Qp = a bellows.
158.56 kips. If mean velocity of flow is 15 fps, Qi =
1.12 kips which can be neglected. If the weight of Notation
elbow and anchor is assumed to be 50 kips, Q = 160 T = thrust per unit circumference,
- 50 = 110 kips. To hold the elbow down, each of x = elongation of insert due to T,
six deformed steel bars must resist a pullout load of b = pitch of corrugation (or bellows),
20 kips. Because the loads may not be equally c = depth of corrugation (or bellows),
distributed, assume 30 kips. Select #11 rebars with t = thickness of insert material,
cross-sectional areas of 1.485 in 2 for which tensile σ = maximum stress in the insert,
stress is 20 ksi. If the shearing bond between the E = modulus of elasticity,
bar and the grout is 100 psi (equivalent to 50 σf = yield stress.
diameters of overlap), each bar must be grouted to
a depth of 6.2 ft. Specify 12 ft of depth to assure a From symmetry and static equilibrium, analysis is
margin of safety. The hydrodynamic design of the performed on one-fourth of the pitch, b/4 as shown
elbow is within acceptable limits. See Chapter 18. in Figure 15-10. Maximum stress is,
The mean radius of the bend is greater than 2.5 pipe
diameters (about three diameters), the inside length σ = T/t + 3Tc/t2 . . . . . (15.14)
of each mitred section is greater than half the pipe
radius, and the angle offsets of continuous mitred For corrugations with ratios of b/c = 3, the axial
sections are only 7.5°. term, T/t, is less than 6% of the flexural term, 3Tc/t2,
and may be neglected. This is mitigated by using
The height of each chair must be custom fit to the elastic theory for elasto-plastic pipes. The ratio of
rock outcrop. A laser beam is useful for measuring axial to flexural stress, is t/3c. If c = 2 and t =
up each chair. If the height is too great, towers must 0.1345 inch, the ratio of axial to flexural stress is
be designed. Sections of prefabricated towers can 0.02. Axial stress is negligible.
be flown in. If concrete is a realistic alternative, the
tower could be a vertical pipe filled with reinforced Elongation, ∆ x, of a fourth of a corrugation due to
concrete.

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Figure 15-10 Procedure for analysis of a corrugation to find the relationship of thrust to elongation.

Figure 15-11 Procedure for analysis of a bellows to find the relationship of thrust to elongation.

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T is found by the Castigliano equation, from which, required to provide extension of a half inch.
for a full corrugation, x = 5.273(T/E)(c/t)3. For all
practical purposes, For design by endurance limit, of concern is the
matter of full reversal of stress or cyclic stress
x = 5(T/E)(c/t)3 . . . . . (15.15) superimposed on a standing stress. Details are
found in texts on mechanics of solids. The analyses
where x is elongation per corrugation length, b, due above are conservative because a corrugated pipe or
to thrust T per unit of circumference. E is the bellows is a three-dimensional problem — not just a
modulus of elasticity and b/c = 3. two-dimensional cross section of the corrugation or
bellows. In fact, ring restraint is significant.
For bellows, from Castigliano's equation, the
elongation of a repeating section is ∆ x =
(3π/2)(T/E)(c/t)3. But a repeating section of bellows PROBLEMS
is only 2/3rds as long as corrugation, b, of equal
depth, c. Therefore, compared to a 3x1 corrugation, 15-1 Prove that the angle of the impulse thrust, Qi,
the elongation of bellows per unit length of is = θ/2.
corrugation, b, is,
15-2 What forces act at an elbow in a water pipe?
3
x = 7(T/E)(c/t) . . . . . (15.16) D = 6 ft = inside diameter,
P' = 120 psi = internal pressure,
The ratio of elongation per unit length of expansion θ = 60° = offset angle,
insert of bellows to corrugation is 7/5. Performance v = 10 ft/second = average flow velocity,
limit of x is yield stress (or endurance limit). ϕ = 30° = soil friction angle,
C = 0 = soil cohesion.
For a corrugation,
x = 5σf c 2/3Et per corrugation length, b. 15-3 Design a thrust restraint for the 60° elbow in
. . . . . (15.17) the pipe of Problem 15-2. Assume the thrust
restraint is to be a solid cube (block) of reinforced
For a bellows, concrete with its top at ground surface. Assume
x = 7σf c 2/3Et per corrugation length, b, thrust-Q = 500 kips. γ = 120 pcf for soil and γ c =
. . . . . (15.18) 144 pcf for the reinforced concrete.

where depth, c, and thickness, t, are the same for 15-4 What is the diameter of a thrust pin for
bellows and corrugation. Problem 15-2 assuming the maximum depth reached
by the boring auger is 25 ft?
Thrust, T, at yield stress or endurance limit, can be
found from Equation 15.14. Neglecting axial stress, 15-5 On the 48° slope of Figure 15-8, the
σf = 3Tc/t2. perpendicular distance to the bottom of the pipe from
rock pins must be 12 ft. Design a tower that can be
Example flown in and onto which a chair can be attached.
What about loads on the pins? Should the tower be
What is thrust, T, at yield stress for a 6x2 vertical?
corrugation if t = 0.1345 inch and σf = 36 ksi? T =
σf t2/3c = 108.5 lb/inch. The corresponding increase 15-6 On the 48° slope what would be the problem
in length of the corrugation, from Equation 15.17, is between the two anchors of Figure 15-7 if the pipe
x = 5σf (c 2/3Et) = 0.06 inch. Eight corrugations are

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©2000 CRC Press LLC
were welded rather than coupled in 30-ft lengths. 15-12 Stress-terms as functions of offset angle, θ,
Assume that maximum change in temperature are shown below for worst-case (triangular) stress
could be + or - 100°F from mean installation distribution for which the maximum stress is twice
temperature? Assume a coefficient of thermal the average.
expansion of 6.5(106)/°F for the steel pipe. NORMAL STRESS TERM IS σ /P(r/t),
SHEAR STRESS TERM IS τ /P(r/t).
15-7 If expansion joints are used at 90-ft spacing in
the welded pipe of problem 15-6, how much
expansion (contraction) must be accommodated at
the expansion joints?

15-8 What is the longitudinal spring constant, T/x,

for a 6x2 corrugation with steel thickness of
0.1345 inch? What is the elongation in percent at
yield stress?

Given:
Mortar-coated, gasketed steel pipe with a 90o elbow
shown in Figure 15-12.
ID = 60 inches,
t = 0.375 inch,
L = 30 ft,
P' = 100 psi, internal pressure,
v = 12 ft per second flow rate,
µ' = 0.4 = coef. of frict. soil on pipe,
H = 4 ft, height of soil cover,
γ = 120 pcf = soil unit weight.

15-9 How many contiguous sections must be

welded on each side of the elbow to resist the thrust-
Q?

15-10 What is the effect on the welded sections of

Problem 15-8 if the pipe shortens due to temperature
decrease and pressure increase?
Ignore shear stress term because the pipe is
15-11 An alternative to the welded sections of restrained by soil, and because maximum shearing
Problems 15-8 and 15-9 is a series of cross ties stresses are near the neutral surface of the elbow
shown in Figure 15-13. Design and show details for where normal stresses are minimum. Compound
an adequate number of cross ties and clamps stress analysis is not justified. What is the maximum
(bands) for attaching the ties to the pipes at the normal (longitudinal) stress on this 90o elbow? [Pr/t]
joints. Neglect soil friction.

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