CHAPTER - 111.

Buddhist Monastic Education in Ancient India.

In ancient tins-s the various religious

orders in India had their own ideals and educational methods .

They also received the active support and patronage of ruling

-t
powers like kings and chieftains and the rich bankers (sefhis )

of the locality and the time. The Brahmanical system of educa-^

tion,as already discussed,Is the most ancient. It has been prev­

alent ev-tn to-day since the Vedic age. Here we are concerned with

the Buddhist system of education which differs with that of Brah­

manical system In some respects.The Buddhist monasteries were

centres of learning and teaching was imparted to a collective

body of pupils. Both religions and secular subjects were taught

to t!h&- younger monks by tH&» -senior monks ( Theras ) therein.lt

was learned monks who carried on all the educational activities

in those days.In fact,they were really the only custodians and

■forch-bear^xs of Buddhist learning and culture.They were practi­

cally no well-organised educational institutions wherein was reg­

ularly imparted excepting the Buddhistic monasteries conducted

by Buddhist Sangha. The history of Biddhist system of education

is really the history of then Buddhist Sangha .We skould discuss

first the growth and development of the Buddhist Sangha.

Formation of Buddhist Sangha :

In Pre-Buddhist India reclueship

was nofc unknown. There were brahma^ic and non-brahmajdic recluses

and paribrajakas who dwelt,or moved about in groups and there

also in the forests and outskirts of Towns and Villages hermita-
%

ges ( asramas } wherein lived not only those who had taken the
third and four tbMa dramas of life^namely, Vanaprastha and Yati but
also life-long sannyasins with their disciples including someti­
mes the members of their families , male and female,who had taken
the vow of bramacarya or celibacy.

In the pali Nik"ayas ( e.g., Majjh-

ima NiKaya, i.p. 343-349) we find accounts referring to rich Khp-
ttiyas ( Skt.Ksatriyas ) and brahmanas,who after having their
head and moustache shaven, body unbesmeared with oil and putting
deerskins and using deer THuorns for scratching his body,took res­
ort to Thermit age newly built on the town and dwelt ^tere with
wife and purohite-living on cow’s milk. Leading such a life they
performed also sacrifices offering animal victims and so forth.
Them were also’ "asramas of life-long sannyasins like Had a Kajt-

sTma and Rudraka $amputra,?. In these asramas the Guru or the Chief
teacher not only acted as spiritual head imparting esoteric and
exoteric religious instructions but also,regulated the daily li-
fe of the inmates according to the usages of brahmacar^ins .While
before and at the time of appearance of Buddhism so well organi­
sed monasticism in the form it obtained among the Buddhistewas
unique and unknown in India. The Jains may be regarded as the Pre-
Buddhistic religious order which had a monastic system and a code
but not so systemetic like that of the Buddhists. The story of
the Buddha’s forming the Sangha is related thus r

Prince Siddhs^tha Gautama,son of

the SiTkyan king Suddhodana of Kapilavastu, seeing suffering and unh
apiness in the World left his royal palaG%-in a dark night and
giving up his princely dress embraced the life of a mendicant.
He wandering about in different places in search of the cause of
suffering in the World,what is good and incomparable,matchiess
path to pea.ce ( Nibfiana ) approached the two famous yogi teachers
a J&iania and Rudraka Rimaputxa and quickly acquired their equ-
al spiritual stages of the sphere of nothingness, nor unconscious-
7s.
ness ( neve- sanna nasarirfeyatana J^espectively. But being not sat­
isfied with their methods and the attainments he left tjKem and
walking on tour through Magadha in due course arrived at Uruvefa
(Budddhagaya ), a delightful place on the bank of the river Naira-
njaria and stayed there for six years striving to achieve the goal.
At last he realised the fundamental truth that all Worldly pheno­
mena are dependently originated with cause and condition ( idapp-

acc^samuplada ) and are transitory ( anicca ) .unsubstantial or sou­

lless ( anatta ) and sorrowful ( dukkha ).Henceforth he became

known as Enlightened one ( Buddha ).

Though at first Euddha was reluct­

ant to preach his newly achieved ikamma which is so . abtruse
and difficult to understand to the common men who are deluded and
full of attachment ( raga ),but out of compa§sfon for the suffe­
ring humanity he changed his decision and intended to set turning
the wheel of the Doctrine { Dhammacakkapa’fattana ). He started
his missionary career at the age of thirty-five and continued it
for long forty-five years till his Mahaparinibbana.
*

Formation[ of i Bhikkhu San^ba *

Buddha delivered Kis discourse at

Isipatana ( Saranath ) to the group of fA've monks ( Pancavaggiya)

In the Buddhist literature this is known as the Dhammacakkappa-

vattanagatta ( Turning the wheel of Law ). It explains the four
 r7
noble Truths ( Cat tali ariyasaccani ).They axe Eu. kkha^nir odha
( cessation of suffering ) and dukkha nirodhagaminipatipacia ( the
path of leading to thr cessation of suffering ) which is also
called the noble Eighfold Path ( Ariyatthangikamagga ).It consi­
sts of sammavaca ( right spe-ech ), samma kammanta ( right action ),
Samma-ajTve { right livelihood ), Samma - vyiyama ( right exert­
ion ) ,Sammasati ( right mindfulness ), Samma saniadhi( rigKt concen­
tration), Samma sahkappa ( right intention ) and sammaditj^hi
( right views ). It is also known as the Middle Path ( Majjhima
Patipada" ) which, avoids the two extremes,indulgence in sensual pl­
easures ( ESfmekama-sukhalliklanuyogo 5 and self-mortifications
( AttakilamatKanuyogo ). Biddha first delivered his dXamma to the
five ascetics ( Pancavaggiyas ) his former companions, namely Ann-
ata Kondanna, Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mafiariama and Assaji.

There- was at Benaras a young man na­

med Yasa,son of a v^ry wealthy merchant. He had three palaces to
live in .He was surrounded by female musicians. He lived in great
luxury. One night he woke up and saw singing girls in loathsome
postures. Then he being disgusted l£ft home tB-iat night and went
to Buddha. Euddha delivered a discourse to tarn. Yasa accepted Bud­
dha's refuge and became a monk. His parents and former wives were
converted as his lay devotees ( Up’ssaka ). Yass_fs fifty friends
Also became monks. There were then sixty- one monks including
Buddha himself who were frefc- from all types of Worldly bondage
and attained complete emancipation.With these sixty- one monks the
Bhikkhu^was formed completely for the. first time. Buddha wanted
to propagate his doctrine far and wide. From the Mahavagga we

come to know that he sent the.monks out in different directions

to preach his teaching with the words ; Go,ye now,0 Hiikkhus,
wander,fox thejgain of the many,for the welfare of the many,out
of compassion for th&- World. Let not two of you go tM-same way.
Preach the doctrine which is glorious in the beginning,mi o4le and
end,in the spirit and in the letter, proclaim a consummate,perfe-
ct and pure life of holiness. ( Caratha Rhikkh^ave CJarikam bahu-
janahitaya bahujana sujfckhaya,lokahukampaya althaya hitaya sukiiaya,
>»pm IN* »«■»>■ I' Vi>P>i>u| pm pm »■»■ »«»■■ pw puipm —■ PmP» P-lwpmpiii

devamanussanam,efc^na dve agamittha^^sebba t?hikkhuve dhammatp

adikalyanam,maj j haJkalyanagi pariye_sanakalyanam, sattham,sabyan-
janam keval=~apaxipunnam, parisuddham brahmacariyam pakasatha ( Vin-
tm »—p<.»pmtw«»w£—<^-pjrpt»p«ip»tw’IP>»»pm^«Pmp»p«.P»pmrflp»p«jpip«>p»Pmpa1PmPap»p»P»»mPmpB»m^ »»>»■pm pm »n»pnnpmp.wpm —» pm pm

aya-Mahavagga, p.2i). Then Buddha did not remain content with

this.He himself also left for Uruveia to propagate his new doctr­
ine .On the way he met a party of thirty young men of respectable
families ( Bhaddavaggiya") .They were converted to Buddhism and bec­
ame monks.

In course of his travelling Buddha

reae-hed Uruveia where dwelt at that time three ascetics - UruveHa- .
Kassapa, Nadi- kassapa and Gaya- Kassapa, Uruve-4©-Kassapa, fke
eldest brotKer had five hundred disciples, Nadi -Kassapa,tke seco­
nd brother had three hundred and Gaya- Kassapa,the youngest one
had two hundred.They worshipped fire and believed in the destruc­
tion of mental defilements such as greed ,hatred,delusion,etc.Bud­
dha overcame them through his magical powers iBuddha converted the-
se three fire -worshipping Jatila brothers by preaching to them

the famous sermon known as the » Fire Sermon ■ Adittapariyay^sutta

which explains that the real fire consists of xaga ( attachment ),
dosa ( hatred ) and moha ( delusion ),the Buddha proceeded to Raja-
V**

gaha. He had a large number of followers with him .The king Bimbisara
was accompanied by his ministers ,courtiers and citizens met aid*
dha who delivered his discourses and converted them to Buddhism
as lay devotees .King Bimbisara was very pleased and donated his
Bamboo Grove ( ( VeJ.uvana ) to Buddha and his followers for resi­
dence of the Bhikkhus by sprinkling water .This was the establi-
shment of the first Eudclhist Vihar^resided here for sometime
and went from Rsjgaha to his homeland Kapilavatthi.Here he permi­
tted FTaThula,his son,to join the order ( Sangha ) and asked Sari-
putta to give him the ordination. Among otfcier Sakyas that joined
order were Nanda, Ananda,Devadatta,Anuruddha,Bbaddiya, Bhagu,
Kimbila and the barber Up*ali. Most of these figured notably in

the subsequent history of Buddhism.

.<*-
As ascetic named Sanjaya of Raj.gaha
'K

had two hundred and fifty disciples including Saxiputta and Mogg-
allana of a Brahmin family. One morning,Sariputta saw the vener­
able Assaji, a disciple of Buddha,on his begging round at £aja-
gaha .Sari putta was highly imprea-sed and asked of his teacher’s
doctrine. Then the venerable Assaji uttered the following verse
’’Those things which produced from a cause,
of these the truthfinder has
told the cause,
and that which is their stopping
The great recluse has such a doctrine."
( Ye dhamma hetuppabhava
tesam foeluin Tathagato~iha
tesagi ea yo nirodho evamvadi Maihasamano

On hearing the Buddha’s teachings from

Assaji,Sariputta becacme satisfied ani went to his friend,Mogga-
llana and told him all .Then both of them wanted to join the Bidd-
hist Sangha.
Then they along v with two hundred and fifty disciples of San-
jaya went to Buddha who was staying at Veluvana and became his
disciples. When staying at Rajagaha Biddha converted many reli­
gious teachers and paxibbajakas as his disciples and house-hold­
ers as lay- devotees to Buddhism .A very wealthy house-holder cal­
led Kassapa subsequently known as Mahakassapa hearing his dis­
course became his discipies.Sudatta,known as Anathapia-dika ox
Anathapidada was a wealthy merchant of Savatthi:.Once he request­
ed thfe- Biddha to pay a visit to Savatthi witK his followers .Budd­
ha accepted his invitation and came to Savatthi ( Sahet Mahet ),
the capital of Kosala,one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas ( Great
Countries ). Here tW Biddha delivered a large number of discou­
rses as also framed most of the rules of the Patimokkha.

Anathapindika purchased from Jeta a

large garden with as many gold as would, cover the entire garden.
He erected a monastery and presented it to Biddha for the resi­
dence of the monks. It is known as the famous Jetavana Vihara.
Sons Kolivisa.a son of the wealthy merchant lived at Campa!,the
capital of Ahga .Having heard the name of Buddha,and his teachings,
he was moved and became a monk.Mahakaccayana who was the son of
the royal priest of king Canda Pajjota came to Benares to pay a-
• *

visit to Buddha .Having heard Buddha’s teachings,he became a monk.

Gradually Biddha moved his disciples to propagate his teaching
and organised tW-monastic order. The number of lay-devotees and
monks ( bhikkhis ) began to increase. Ananda was tK^prominent
disciple of EuddHa.Kutadanta,the Brahmin priest.Sonodanda a Brah­
min well-versed in Brahmanical lores^Nigrdha,the paribbajeka
( the wandering teacher ) and many others became disciples of
djLK-c*~.
 GJ

.The account of the foundation of the Bhikkhuni Sangha

runs thus :
Five years aft«r the enlightenment of
the Prince Siddhartha,his father Suddhodana died .At that time
there was a great quarrel between Sakys- and the Koliya over tak­
ing the water of RohinI river. After the solution of this
dL ’ _
quarrel the Budha was staying at NigrodRarama of Kapilavatthu.
A _
At that time Mahapaj'apati Gotami along with other Sakye-woman
went to Buddha fox the formation of the order of nuns.
The Buddha did not permit her and said to ber that she should not
pray for the entrance into order of nuns. Though rejected by the
Euddha ,MaRipaj'apati GotamI* did not loose Ker patience.She prayed
for the second and tKe-third time.She placed her prayer befor e
the Buddha who denied again and again. > Then Mahapajapati
GotamI went back with a great sorrow and weeping.Immediately '
the Buddha left Kapilavatthu and went to Vesali.At that time MaRa-
pajapati and her followers,most of whom were members of Gotama»s
own clan,the Sakyan,depressed,but not daunted,cut off their hair,
adopting tW symbol of a life of renunciation and put on the
saffron-coloured rob-ts and followed ^er,arriving bitterly sad
and painfully travel-strained.( Atho Mahapajapati Gotami Sunehi

Padehi raj—okinnena gattena dukkhi dummana as^surmkhl rudarriina

—J
bi^M^w-T^^Cotthake, a^thasi).

They were-met by the gentle Ananda who

stocked to see them in this doleful plight,but deeply impressed
by th^ir zeal and determination,undertook to plead ttoir cause
fox them witK- tW-Buddha .He asked thus-Lord three times, saying
” were well,Lord,if wonien were to have permission granted
them to do as she desires .But the Buddha remained adament .Ana; .-
nda solicited on a fresh argument.appealing to Buddha's sense of
justice and truth,he got him to admit that women were as capable
as men of leading a contemplative life and of treading on the pa-
ths of arjiatship .The Buddha admitted that women .having taken to

the life of pabbajja in Buddhism,are capable of attaining the

higher fruits of religious life as far a£ Arhatship?

SiddHSrtha lost his mother Mayadevi

MaHapajapati GotamI took care of Siddhartha giving "Her breast-
milk.He was brought up by her carefully .The Euddha could not
neglecttV\is prayer .At last the Brddha most reluctantly gave per­
mission but imposed eight cardinal conditions ( Atthagarudhamma)
on women .Women oust abide by the Chief eight rules for the admi­
ts
ssion into the order,These important eight rules are as follows :-

1. An almswoman ( bhikkhurii ) even if of a hundred years stan­

ding shall make salutation to .shall rise up in the presen­
ce of,shall bow down before,and shall perform all proper
duties towards almsman ( bhikkhu ) if only just initiated.
This is a rule to be revered and reverenced,honoured and obs-
tl
erved.and her life long never to be transgressed.( Vassasa-
tupassmpannaya bhikkhuniya tadahupasampannasas bhikkhuno abhi-

vadanam paccutthanam ahjalikammam satni ci kammaff Katabbam^ ays-

am pi dhammo Sakka_4;va garukatva manetva pujetva Y^vajiva^m

anatikkamaniyo. Cullavagga -P.T.S.X Pg.255.

2. An almswoman is not to spend the rainy season ( of vasso.)
in a district in which there is no almsman. This is a rule
 fi.
never to be transgressed. ( na bhikklmniya abhikkhuke avase va-

ssaip vs si t a bbsrri ay am pi d hammo

anatikkamaniyo, Cullavagga - P.T.S.X Pg. 255)

Every ftalf-month an aimswoman is to await from t4ae almswo-

man two things,the asking as ( the date of ) the Uposatha

ceremony,and the ( time when the almsman ) will come to gi­

ve the exhortation .This a rule ................ never to

be transgressed. ( anvaddhajtoasam bhikkhuniya bhikkbu sam-

ghato UposathapuccHakan ca ovadupasankamsnanca paxiyesi-

tabbarg.)

if ter keeping the rainy season ( of vassSL) the aimswoman

is to hold Pavarana ( to enquire whether any fault can be

%

laid to her ( charge ) before both Sangha - as well thatof

the Almsman as that of the Almswomen - with respect to th­

ree matters, namely what has been seen,What has been heard,

and what has been suspected,this is a rule ........... never

fH ~
to be transgressed. ( Vassam vutthaya bhikkhupiya ubhatosa-

mghe tihi thanehi pavaretabbarn ditthena va suteno-va paris-

ankaya vaayam ki. dhammo ........... ........ anatikkamaniyo).

An almsman who has been guilty of a serious offence is to

undergo the- Manatta discipline .towards both the Sanghas

( Almsmen and Almswomen ). This is a rule ...............

never to be transgressed. ( garudhamma^i ajjhapannaya bhikk-

huQiya ubhatosamghe pakkhaManattam Caritabbatn ; ayam Pi •* •-

anatikkamaniyo.)

When an aimswoman,as novice,has be«n trained for two years

in the six Rules, she is to ask leave for the Up&sampada

 initiation from both Sangha ( Almsjfo&men as well that of the
Almswomen). This is a rule .......................................... never to be
transgressed. ( dve vassani chasu dhammesu sikkhitasikkhaya

sikkhamahaya ubhatosamghe upasampda pariyesitabba,aysm pi

CZjinsOJ&jf*A& *■> O

7. An almswoman is on no pretext to revile or abuse an almsman.

17
This is a rule ................................never to be transgressed.
( na bhikktaupi/a kenaci pariyiyena bhikkhu akkositabbo.)

8. .From henceforth official admonition by almswornerito 1 almsmen

i/i

by almsmen is not forbidden. This is a rule .......................never

/«■
to be transgressed.
( ajjatagge ovato bhikkhupinam bhikkhusu vacanapapatho^nov-

%o bhikkhunagi bhikkhupiup vacanapatho ; ayam Pi.........................

anatikkamanryo ).

Yasodhara was another Sakya woman. She entered the Bhikkhuni Sah-
gha. She was the wife of Sakyaputra Gautama* Apadana mentions
that there was a theri named Yasodhara who was the wife of Sakya
Prince . She was the Chief Bhikkhuni among the 90,000 Bhikkhunis.
Some scholars were of opinion that Yasodhara" was the first woman
who preached the religion to be free from the bondage of the
World.According to this tradition Yasodhara was the founder of
the Bhikkhuni-Sangha. A problem may arise as to who was the fir­
st woman to enter the order of Nuns as a bhikkhuni .1 .B. Horner
holds the opinion " A good deal of uncertainity surrounds the
actual foundation of the Buddhist order of Almswomen and its be­
ginnings are wrapped in mists.lt is possible that Mahapajapati
Gotana came late into the order, after her husband died,and
that the first woman really to make the order open for women was
Yasddhgra possibly the former wife of Gotama,who in her verse in
the Apadana is said to represent many women and herself!7

The name of Gop"a or Yasodhara as in the Apad'ana,is said to

have taken the leading part in formation of the order of nuns,
Bhikkhupi Sangha.
_ __
Again Mahap^pati Gotami as in the Gillavagga of Vin&yapitaka
and in the Amguttaranikaya moved a request for the formation
of the order of nuns' Vinayapitaka is,however, silent about
the account of Yasodhara as the founder of the Bhikkhuni-Sangha
U • _ _ __
Dr. Sukumar Sengupta however observed that Mahiapajapati Gotami
was the initiator of the formation of the order of nuns.

Following Mahapajapati Gotami and

Yasodhara many other women from high and respectable family
and also even from miserable co?£4Jetion, prostitute and dese­
rted by husband namely,Amb£f«Di,Khem'a,PatO‘cara,Bhadda Knn^alk-
^jsa, KisaGot anil, aimed ha", Subha Ambavanika, . " _ :.h_. 1:. . Sama"
Vajir¥,Uppalavanpa,Purir)iki,etc., joined the Sangha as a nun
( therT ),caused for the spread of Biddhism,made spiritual pro­
gress and composed beautiful poems and lyrics of first grade
importance.

Thus th«5- entire Buddhist Sangha con­

sisting of its two branches Bhikkhusangha and Bhikkhuni San-
gha was formed and established.
• -• ' ' r“ : . \Eth t$ie influx
of the converts botfw-male and female to Bu##H£P*s Dharneasit
i
became imperative to frame rules codified in the Vinaya Pitaka
for the well -being and proper guidance of his adherents »,Thus
came into existence the Sang ha which subsequently attained a glo­

rious position in the history of Indian monasticism and educati­

on .

Rules of Admission into^Sangha :

aAa^ pabbahja ( initial ordination ) and

** J ■ — —*
Upasam^padla ( final ordination )-PABBAJJA ( from -J vraj ),■

Buddhist Sk .Pravra^iltneaning leaving the World,adopting tke asc­

etic life,state- of being a Buddhist friar,taking tke yellow and

ordination means admission into the Buddha’s order in particular.

In the Vinaya Pit&ka and the Nilcayas we find the word in the sen­

se of a monk cutting off all family and social ties to live the

pure and holy of a monk in order to realize the goal of final de­

liverance ( virautti ) and attainment of Nibbana pointed out by the

Buddha. Pabbajfa is the name for admission as a sasiera or novice,

K
i.e. initial ordination as a candidate fox the order of monks

(BWikkhu Sangha ) while Upasanpada is the final ordination to bec­

ome a full fledged bhikkhu.

The first step in Buddhist initiat­

ion is called PabbajiS* of » going forth ".It means tViet a person

presents himself for admission into the order by " going out " of

his previous state,wfoetVi@r it be that of a layman and householder

or of a wandering ascetic or monk belonging to a different sect.

The admission in the order was thrown open to all the castes.
 G7

The candidates fox admission mast take leave of all the visible

marks of the life he has left,th4-marks of caste as of clothes .

He ^sts himself out into the Order which has made a short work

of all distinctions of caste on the principle which is deliber­

ately and diametrically its very opposite,tke principle of equa­

lity and fraternity. In the words of the Buddha himself : ” As

the great streams, 0 discipies,however many of tbem may be,the

Ganga,Yannna,AcfvLrava€i,Sarabhu, MaHI,when they reach the great

ocean,lose their old name and their old descent,and bear only one

name. * the great ocean*, so also,my disciples,tltoese four castes,

Nobies,Brahmans,Vai/ya, and Sudra,when they,in accordance with

the laws and doctrine whick-the perfect one Kas preached.,for sake

their home and go into homelessness,lose their old names and old
paternity, and bear only the one designation, & Ascetics*!who fol-

low the son of the Sakya house ( e,4Ullav«WA*lX,l,4 ) .As instance

of persons of low castes being admitted as monks,we may mention

—
Upali the barber and a vul ture-tormentor * ( ©mllavujyd., 32 ) .

But,though in theory the order might

be recruited from all castes, in practice the Emission "to it was

sought by a few,that small and select Class of persons who were

spiritually advanced enough to adopt the life of asceticism,renou­

ncing life of pleasure and * outgoing* activities.

( Skt.Ehi bhiK&V*. ^rabrejya ) i.e.

admission into the Buddhist order by pronouncing ' Gome *,monk.

This is/yoldest form of admission ( Pabbaj^a ) and ordination

( Upasampada ) used by Buddha to ordain some one into the Sangha
pronouncing the formula beginning with the words &hi bhikkhu.

When laymen or a non-Buddhist after

hearing tKe doctrine preached by Buddha and understanding it exp­

ressed his desire to him to leave the house hold-life and become

a homeless monk ( agarsnViiaagariyam pabbajjam ) by saying, " May

• •

I, Lord,remain the ’ going forth *, the Buddha used to pronounce

the formula " Come monk ( ehi bhikkhu ),well taught is the- doctr­

ine, fare 'tW holy life for making an utter end of suffering(sVa-

kkhato dhamma cara brahma car iyarn sam^dukklhassa antakiriyaya ).

The Sanskrit parallel of this formula is l*hi bhiksu cara batKaga­

ns’
ta brahmacaryam).

The first entrant by e hi-bhikkhu-pa-

bbajja formula was Anftata Kondanna who was followed by i&e other

four of the pancatfaggiya group of monks.The next entrants were

Yasa,the son of a banker of Benares and his four companions and

2.6
then fifty friends. According to Dhammapada Atthakatha as soon as
tflis formula was pronounced on them,they assmed,by the magic pow-
/\

er ( iddhi ) of the Buddha the forms of monks,complete with robes

and bowl ( cf .Mahavastu : m pp. . 180, 37^9 ).

When more than one layman were given

ordination the plural form of the formula » et^a bhikk'^^-O » and

a female was given the same, the feminine f orm *ehi bhikkhuni * were

pronounced.

Tissrana Formula :

Buddha then sent his sixty disciples

to different places to propagate his new doctrine.They returned

with a large/c.pf disciples and Buddha ordained them.This gave him

unnecessary trouble.lt was for this reason he modified the rule

of ordination and new rule was issued.Then every bhikkhu could

ordain all his new disciples on behalf of Buddha under the * Tis-
araQa formula ( in the name of Buddha,the Dhamma and the Sangha)

thus :

I take refuge in the Buddha ( Budd-

"Kam Saragam gaccKami ), I take refuge in ifcfe Dhamma ( Dhamma^Sara-

nam gacch.ami)7I take refuge in the^Sringhara Saranam gacchami ).

(Natticatutthakamma ox Formal Act of Admission):

I

After sometime Buddhism was wide-spr­

ead and became larger when the utterance of mere tisarana formula

was found inadequate,the system of natti-catuttha kamma was intro­

duced.The procedure was tihat an entrant,whose age must not b«-less

than fifteen in case of pabbajjaT and twenty in case of Upasampacfa

is to sit on his legs and ask for ordination in a set formulae

___ 'it)
( kamraavaca ) before a chapter of at least ten fully ordained mon­

ks.He must be present that he had complied with the preliminary

conditions like taking his parents1 consent,shaving kis head and

so forth.HLs intention to become a fully ordained monk is.announ­

ced t/ixice ( natticatuttKa ) by the upajjkaya orl'cariya, i.e.

to ordain by a formal act consisting of a motion and a resolution

31
put thre-e-tiraes ( natticatuttakarrimena upasampaditum ). This is

the motion.
" Honoured Sirs, let the order ( San­

gha ) hear me.This ( person ) so and so wishes for ordination from

the venerable so and so. So and so asks the order for ordination
through the preceptor^. so and so,if the preceptor so and so thr­

ough the preceptor so and so is pleasing to the venerable one

{ sanghassa pattakallam ), let them be silent.; ^te to whom it is
not pleasing should speak. And a second time I speak forth this
matter .........................
And a tfoird time I speak forth this matter ..........................After
the announcement,if there is none dissenting the ordination is
conferred.
After initiation ceremony( pabbajja )
a movice ( samanera ) is asked to observe only ten precepts
( dasaila ), or ten abstinences from misconducts,viz. killing a
__ __ Vv
being ( panatipata ),tVteft(adin^dana),uni awful sexual misconduct
_ •

( kamesu mice—Kacara ), speaking false ( nusavada ),taking intoxi­

cating drinks ( sufamerayapamadai:tliana ), eating after midday
( vilcalabhojana, ( naccagltavaditavisukadanana ) attending dance-
music and visiting shows using garland,scents and ointments( Maia-
gandha - vilepana -dheran\a ),sleeping on high beds ( u@casayana-,
mahasayana ) and accepting gold and silver ( jatarupa-raji
patiggahana ).

Nissaya i.e. Supports :

Immediately after Upasampad*a the Bhi-

33
kkhu is enjoined the four ” Nissayas ( Supports 5 upon which he is

to depend,namely,living on alms ( pip^iyalopa-bhojana ),robes made

out of rags ( paipsukulacivara ),sleeping under trees ( rukkhamula-
senasana ) and using urine^ filthy things as medicine ( putimutta-
bhesajjam ). These rules were later on relaxed as detailed below.
 71

Pindiyalopabhojana

Originally the monks were enjoined

to live only on alms,hit,in course of time,the rule was relaxed

and they were allowed to accept invitations when extended to

a Sangha as a body,or to a group of individuals,ox to an indivi­

dual .They could also accept food distributed by tickets ( salaksT)

fortnightly meals, meals on tke uposatha days or meals offered

on every first day ( pratipad ) of a fortnight.

The restrictions regarding food were

further relaxed in the sections on mendicaments.Not only sick but

also healthy monks were allowed to take sugar -water or other sw-

eet drinks,fruits meal and fish under certain conditions.

By the senction of Kappiya-bhumi for

the storage of food,even,if necessary,by cooking.The site of the

kappiyabhumi had to be selected beyond the boundary limits of a

monastery,with the exception that the site if not so found,a cow­

shed or a layman »s building within the boundaries of a monastery

might be used as a kappiyabhumi. A Bhikkhu was entrusted with
the management of the Kappiyabhumi.He was called Kappiyakaraka.

It is said that Bhikkhus undertaking a journey were permitted

even to receive gold through the kappiyakaraka and purchase the

necessities of life .Lastly, the Bhikkhus were given Bill discre­

tion in matters of food and medicaments regarding which there was

no express direction in the Vinaya.

Pamsukulacrvara or Dress of Monks :

For the dress of monks,pamsukulaci-

vara was the rule while linen,cotton,silk,woolen garments,coarse.

cloth, hempen ( khomam kappasikam koseyyam kamblam sanam bhangam)

were extra concessions ( atirekalabha ).It was at the instance

of Jivaka Koifiarabhacca that Euddha permitted his followers to

accept the robes ( Civara ) offered by layman.These could be made

of six kinds of materials mentioned above. A monk was allowed

only three garments ( civara ) had to be made out of cut pieces

of cloth so that wtoen sewn toget)v*r would look like cultivated

fields .‘There were several rules relating to the dyeing of civaras,

drying dyed cloths,division and distribution of tKe civara among

the recipients, and so forth.In division and distribution many

difficulties cropped up,leading to the creation of office-bearers

like clvaranidahaka ( Keeper of robes ),and civarapatiggahaka

( receiver of robes ). Each of these office-bearers were formally

appointed by the Sangha by unanimous consent .The p~atimokha-sutta

takes notice of several irregularities in the distribution and

use of civaras,the Bhikkhus were allowed to accept mantles ( pava-

ra ), blankets ( Kambala ),towels ( nukhapuHchaka colaka ),bags

( pari kiiar a colaka ),bathing cloths ( Udaka-satika ), and bandages

for itches,wounds etc.( kandupaticchadi ).It cannot be definitely

stated when t\e use of shoes by monks came into vogue .According

to the tradition,permission was granted by BuddHa for the use of

shoes when Sagata was the servitor of Buddha .Once of privilege

was given,ther-^. were abuses , and to counteract these several res­

trictions had to be imposed regarding colour,shape and material

of the shoes and the use of these in the cloisters ( cahkamana)

or in the presence of upajjliaya, and so forth.

 73

Rukkhamula Senasana ox Residence and articles of Furniture

It has been mentioned above that for

the residence of monks rukkChapwlasehisanajn ( residence under tr­

ees) was the original rule,while a monastery ( ViKara ),a pinn­

acled house ( addhyayoga ), a big building ( Pasada ), an attic

( hammiya ) and a cave ( guha ) were later on allowed as atireka-

labha. It was at the instance of BLmbisara that Buddha accepted

the Veluvana-vi&ara, and in consequence of which, he sanctioned

afamas for the dwelling of monks.

The monks were still tken dwelling at

foots of trees,on hills,in grottos and caves, in cemeteries,for­

ests, open places or on straw-Keaps .The set this of Raj.agaha were

the first to come forward to provide V3Lhara,adclhayoga,pasada,

hammiya and guha for the monks .They built sixty viharas and ded­

icated the same to the 'Use of members of the order of the four

corn-ers ( satthim viHara agat’ariagatassa catuddis^assa samghassa

patitthapehlti ).These had plastered walls,white-washed or colou­

red,and were provided with doors and windows,verandahas,boundary-

walls etc. The viharas so far constructed were provided with. the

bare requirements of monks as shown above . It was i^riat'kapindika

who built a monastery at £avatthi with all its component parts,

viz., dwelling rooms, cells, ga te-chambers, service-halls,kail s witk

fire-places,store-'hPuse,closets,cloisters,rooms for walking exer­

cises wells,sheds for the wells,bathing places,bath rooms,tanks

pavilions ( viklara,parivena,kottkaka,upat/tKanasalajyV -uda-

p'anasala,jantagkara,jantaghiarasaia,pokkharani,mandapa).The insti­

tution of Cankamasalas and Jantaghara was permitted at the inst­

ance of jTvaka.
 7b
Putimtyttabhesajjam:( Excrement as medicine )

Like the previous n±ssayas,putimutt-

abhesajjam ( Urine and such other medicines) was the original

rule,bat later on sappi ( butter ),navanita { cream ) ,tela(Oil)

madhu ( honey ) pHInita ( molasses ) were allowed to b«_ taken

but only in the afternoon .Later on,however,the time was not only

extended,tut permission was also given for storing the same upto

seven days in supersession of the rule that no food should be st­

ored .In coarse of time these were found inadequate to keep the

Bhikkhus free from ailments,so permission was given for using as

medicines ,animal-fats,medicinal roots,foerbs,leaves,fruits,gums,

salts, and such other drugs prescribed in tftie lyurveda-sastra,

including even raw meat and blood,besides,gruels and dressing of

wounds were recommended in cases of necessity.Receptacles,instru­

ments and other articles required for preparing medicines or app­

lying ointments,letting of blood by lancers,use of surgical appl­

iances and requisites, were sanctioned as a matter of course.Sur­

gical operation was prohibited only in cases of wounds which we­

re within two inches of the anus.The monks,in fact,were allowed

to take almost all medicinal and surgical aids available ,at the

time,the only condition being tVat they in the name of medicines

must not drift to excesses or £njoy the comforts of a house­

holder .
The higher ordination of Upasampada

by whi£h a Samanera completes of probation and enters upon the

full membership of the Sangha for which he is destined and has

been prepared since his Pabbajja or dination, marks an important

point of distinction between the Brahmanical and Buddhist systems

of education .Under the former system,the Brahamacarin,on the comp­
letion of his studentship and coming of age,returns to his house
^ ** ly

and family as a Snataka and presently marries and becomes Gr^ast-

ha or house-holder .His Pravrajya tie , f going out of home, was '
for temporary period while in the case of the Buddhist,the outging
from home into homelessness ( agarasmU anagariyam pabbajja ) is
final or as long as the person wishes.

gars to Admission :

Persons belonging to non-Buddhistic

religious orders could only be admitted into the Sangha after they
had gone through a probationary pe1^-0^ ( parivasa ) of four months
and behaved themselves properly during the period.Exceptions ,
however, were made,in the case of the Jatilas and the Sakyas,the
former being belivers in the effects of past deeds ( Kammavadino
kirx.y'avadino ) and the later being kinsmen of t’b-.g Teacher.
Persons suffering from any of the five
diseases,viz., leprosy ( Kuttham ),boils ( gando ), dry leprosy
( Kifaso ), consumption ( Soso ),and fits ( apamiHro ) were deba­
rred from admission into the Sangha. Other persons who were exclu­
ded from admission into the Sangha were (a) rajabhato ( men in
royal service )> dha-jabaddo coro ( declared thieves ) ,Karabhedako
coro ( jail breaker ), likhitako coro ( proclaimed robber ).Kasa-
foato katadandakammo ( scourged offender ),lakkhanahato ( branded
thief ), infyiko ( debtor ), daso ( slaves ), a matricide,a patri­
cide,an arhantacide.one who has violated a nun,one who has caused
a schism,one who has shed Buddha’s blood,a eunuch, a hermaphrod­
ite,an animal in human form,one whose hand or feet or both have
, 35’
been severed and one who has furtively joined the Sangha.
 7-4

Uposatha and Patimokkha Assemblies :

Following the practices of the non-

Buddhistic sects Buddha introduced ( tradition says at the insta­

nce of king Bimbisara ) the fortnightly sitting of monks eith€r

on the 14th or 15th ( and or 8th ) day to hold discussions about

the Dhamma and Vinaya and to receive the rules of the Patimokkha,

Before the recitation the preliminaries to be attended were :

sweeping of the Uposatha hall provision of seats,lamps and dri­

nking water,formal announcementof Ike day,declaration of parisu-

ddhi of all members,selection of monks to put and answer questi-

t

ons relating the Dhamma find Vinaya,counting of the members to

ascertain the completeness of th£ Sangha.

As the completeness implied a jurisd­

iction of the Sangha,rules were framed for defining the limits

( sima ) of a Sangha,i.e. of a Patimokkha assembly .Formal selec­

tion was made of the spot where the monks were to meet for the

purpose a Patimokkha assembly. Completeness of an assembly impli­

ed also the presence of not only all the existing members of an

"avasa but also of those who might belong to another ~avasa but hap­

pened to be present on the Uposatha day within the sima of that

"aVsTsa. There were occasions when the members of an~avasa hield an

assembly without being assured of the presence of members belon­

ging to anothier av1?sa,fcut dwelling the.'avasa on th-e, Uposatha day.

Rules were prescribed for bonafide mistakes,but , as a rule,if

the members of another avasa were larger in number,the assembly

was held deliberately to avoid or exclude th^-incoming members

of another"avasa, the members joining the assembly became guilty

of either dukkapa or thullaccaya according to the nature of the

 77
intention .The Bhikkhus ,however,were directed not to leave the­

ir residence on the uposatha day except on an urgent business of

. 26
the Sangjaa.

The Bhikkhus were required to attend

the assembly fully dressed ( ticlvarena avippavasa ) with certa­

in exceptions,recite tV\e rules of the Patimokkha in extenso,abri­

dging it only in cases of danger .In cases of necessity Bhikkhus

from other avasa were invited for reciting the Patimokkha.There

were special procedures for the declaration of Parisuddhi by a

sick monk,for obtaining his consent to the- ecclestical acts pass­

ed in the assembly, and for dealing witj^^a monk who had become

insane .The minimum number of members who could hold a Patimokkha

assembly was four ; for declaration of Parisuddhi only,the mini­

mum number of Bhikkhus required was two,and in both the cases

actual attendance of the member was indispensable .If there was

only one Bhikkhu in an'ava"sa,he had to take to adhitthana.The

Parisuddhi of an assembly was obtained by making all the members

declares individually that they had not committed any breach of

the Patimokkha rules during the preceding fortnight,or by making

those who had committed any breach confess their offence.These

were exceptional occasions when collective declaration of Parisu-

37
ddhi was accepted .

The recitation of the Patimokkha could

be made only in an assembly in which- the members had declared

their Parisuddhi and in which- there were no Bhikkhunis, samanere^,

or any Bhikkhu undergoing punishment,or persons not admissible

to the Sangha.In the Qillavagga it is laid down that the recita­

tion of the Patimokkha should be interdirected ( Patlmokkham tHa-

petabbam ) if there were any impure Bhikkhu in the assembly .

The interdiction was required in cases where Bhikkhus were too

obstinate to acknowledge their guilt.

Vassavasa:

The observance of the Vassavasa came

into vogue among the Buddhist monks at an early date.To avoid

the inconvenience of travelling in the rains and the chance of

injuring sprouts and in sects,it was enjoined that the Bhikkhus

should stay at one place ("avasa ) during three months of the ra­

ins, commencing from tHe day next to the full moon of Asadha(June-

July ) or Stavana ( July-August ). In cases of urgent calls only

for the benefit of the Sahgha or of the lay-devotees or sick per­

sons,or for some particular busuness of fW Sahgha,the Bhikkhus

were allowed to leave the 1 "avasa » for seven days only.There,

was,however ,no bar to Bhikkhus leaving the "avass if there be dan­

ger to life through beasts of prey,snakes,robbers,or if the resi­

dence be destroyed by fire or water,or if there be jgreat scarci­

ty of food or medicine,or lack of lay-devotees,or any chance of

Silapatti or Sanghabheda.

The Bhikkhus could take up VassavsTsa

with a moving caravan,ship,or cattle-pen but not in tk© hollow

of a tree,in the open air or under a Sun-shade,

In the selection of the residence dur­

ing vassa thu? monks were recommended to stay in those places whe­

re the number of lay devotees was large but a monk who had given
3°l
previously his word to a lay-devotee nust keep it.
 7H
Pavarana :

^he ceremony of Pavarana was performed

at the end of the vassavasa.The object of the ceremony was to

confess all sins of omission and commission ( seen,heard or app­

rehended ) that might have been committed during the vassavasa .

It was almost the same as the declaration of Parisuddhi in the

Patimokkha assemblies dealt with those of Parisuddhi .Like the

Parisuddhi-tHapanam ( interdiction of Parisuddhi declaration ),

there was also the system of p a va r aria -tAha pan am ( interdiction of

__ __ 40
pavarana ceremony ).

Kathina :

Another ceremony on the termination of

vassavasa was the making of robes of the gifts of cloth made by

the laymen to the Bhikkhu-Sangha within a very short time.Sangha

might decide upon a Kathina ceremony if there were any need for

it.In that case,it must announce its intention formally before

the Sartgha and obtain the unanimous consent of the members,and

then select by another formal announcement the Bhikkhu to be ent­

rusted with the making of the robis.Ihe Bhikkhus so entrusted we­

re allowed a few privileges regarding his food,dress,and rules of

daily life.The ceremony would not be complete unless and until

the clothes ^ad been cut to measurement,sewn,braided or doubled

wbere necessary, washed and dyed distributed among the monks,and

the words of thanks giving uttered .In certain circumstances, "the

ceremony might bev either postponed or abandoned .The Bhikkhus tak­

ing part in the robe-making were allowed the use of knives with

handles,needles^needle-cases, wooden frames and other appliances

Required in tailoring.If necessary,tKey could set up temporary
open halls ox shades with high basement and balustrade and could
l?J
have them plastered and coloured.

The general rule regarding the distri­

bution of robes was that a residing Bhikkhu in an avasa was enti­
tled to a share in the robes,and if among the residing Bhikkhus
any one went away beyibnd limits of the avasa without the intent -
ion of coming back,>518 was excluded from a share in the division.
One, who had the intention of coming back but failed to do so
before the last day of Kathina ceremony,lost his privilege of sha-
, , L/S-
nng robes. '
Origin and Development of Monastery- ( Vitiara ) :

In ancient times the BuddShist Monast­

ery- - knovtfi as ’ Vi her a ; which was abodb of monks and nuns,played

a very important role in Indian life and thought.lt seems proper

to clarify the meaning of the term » Vihara 5,Numerous definiti­
ons of ijare found in the Buddhist literature and in the writi­
ngs of eminent Indologists.

According to Edgerton the » Vihara »

seems based on the meaning dwelling,dwelling piace,especially ,
of a monkish community^? Its Tibetan equivalent is * Gtsuglag

Khan * which means ” Kitagara,Vihara ) a monastery,a temple

1 Vihara f thus,is a ’ place of living, stay,abode " It is more
precisely " a habitation for a Rid&hist mendicant a abode in the
forest ( Araftna ),or a hut ; a dwelling jftiabitation ; lodging for
if 5" ^
a bhikkhu.”
The Suttanipata,on the other hand,
defines Vihara as " a remote shelter for a bhikkhu ( dura )".It
means a place for convention of the bhikkhus ,* meeting place ;
place for rest and recreation in a Garden or Park.
We have used the term » Vihara » in a
wider sense to mean a larger building for housing bhikkhus , an
organised Monastery ^ So, Vihara, when properly rendered,means

a Buddhist Monastery where the Bhikkhus assemble together at le­

ast for a certain period.lt is a convent for Monks and nuns dedi-
Lft —• — sw­

eated to religious life.The words * Arama ’ and * ViWra f are

sometimes synonymous. I.B. Horner translates Arama not « As Park
Hi ~
but as * Monastery ». In Pali ,however, the word * Arama « has
been used largely in connection with a residence for monks ;
 5TO„ _
hence it signifies a monastery. Arama may be defined as a Budd­

hist convent ( Vihara ),rest-house for quiet. people built ’ not

too far from the town and not too near,convenient for going and

for coming,easily accessible for all who wish to visit,by day not

too crowded,by night not exposed to too much noise and alarm.Ara-

mas originally,however, meant places for enjoyment,parks.Bit,in

course of time,numerous wealthy persons handed over these to

th^ Buddhist Sarigha for dwelling pur poses,The term Irama thus

became almost synonymous with Vlh§Ta,monastery and most precisely

came to be known as Sangharama.Thus such terms as Vihara,Arama

and Sangh’arama give an idea of a hermitage or a monastery.Vihara

had also stood for something much like an isolated parivena , or

§ell but actually it came to imply a row of cells or individual

dwelling places,connected by a verandah. It was then known as

Dwelling for monks and consisted mostly of a series of walls to

which access was gained by a verandah.The general plan was quad­

rangular co;rrt around which the cells were disposed.The rock-Viha-

ras,of a later age, had several storey©^, the. cells there were
gir —
arranged-in one suite. Vihara'* originally standing for Monastery

for Buddhist monks and nuns also used during the time of the

Nalanda University, to mean the residential quarters for the Pro­

fessors ; a dwelling, a habitation for gods, for monks ; a temple ,

a covent, a group of apartments for a community of monks, a San-

gharama or Monastery, any monastic establishment, more precisely

a Buddhist Monastery. As already observed,the term Vihara fens

been used in our present discussion to convey only monastery for

Buddhist monks and nuns for leading an organised and disciplined

life.Like the Caity_as , however , the Viharasor Monasteries

 S3

xesemble very closely the corresponding institution among the'

Christians.Vihara is also regarded as one of the five kinds of
Lena which means a ” Monastery proper,not a shifting and seasonal
settlement of monks ", Childers thought that in later time the
word Vihara almost always was used to designate t^e whole of a
building where many Bhikkhus resided ; in older literature the
doling place the private apartments of a single bhikkhu", Buddha
ghosa , on the other hand,took vihara as a dwelling place with a
chamber in it, well protected and containing private lodgings^

It is to be noted that various buildings constituted a Buddhist

Sangharama,such as living and sleeping quarters for the Bhikkhus
a refectory or service-hall { Uppathana - Sala ), a fire«4iall ,
( aggi-sala ), frequently rendered as ’ Kitchen 1, an open pill­
ared pavillion ( mandspa }, a promenade and cloister for walking
exercise ( cankamana - sala ), a Kathina hall for tailoring, a
privy, a well and well-house ( Udapanasa£a a store-room(Kott-
haka ) and provision and drug store ( Kap^kyakutl) .The various

units of a monastery seem to have been,for the most part,detac­

hed and structure and thus the Sangtfaram did not cohlist of one
single and comprehensive building.The Sangha lat^r on attained
the glorious position in the history of India monarchism .But it
is to be noted that although the first Sangha appeared yet there
was,at the period,no Vihara or Monastery to accommodate the
rapidly increasing members of the Biddhist order .It was prescri-
bed that they should use the residences under trees ( rukkharrai'^*
la senisimatn). But later this rigid principle was liberalised to
some extent and tKe monks were allowed to spend their days in tea
ching and preaching,dwelling temporarily in » avas^thagaras *
A*
( Motehalls of villagers ) instead of taking shelter in fixed

of—tatetn^—ghel^ter-- in' fixed residences,the aiikkhus,thus at the

priniitive stage of the Sangha had no dwelling house properly
so called .They took the shelter ’ now there * - in the woods,
at the foot of the trees, on hill-sides, in grottoes, in moun­
tain causes,cemeteries,in forests,in open plains,and in heaps
of Straw " { Te ca bhikkhu taham taham viharanti - aranne.rukk-
' « M

hamule,Pabbate,Kandarayam,giriguhayam,susane, vanapatth&-,ajjho-
£>3
kase, pafalapunje ). But the climatic conditions of this Coun­
try stood,in the following years,not remain indifferent to the
question of a permanent place of abode for his disciples.

Ac already staged above,from the Mah-

avagga we learn that King Bimbisara of Magadha offered his vejLu
vana Vihara to Buddha and his follow—ers,and this was the first
Vihara ever presented to the Sangha .While Eudtfha was sojourning
at Rajagaha,he also introduced following %ie practices prevale­
nt in other religious systems, at the instance of the Bhikkhus,
—
the system of observance of vassa at a fixed place.He prescribed
five kinds of abodes fox the monks,viz., Vihara (Monastery ),
Addhaj^ayoga ( pinnacled house ),pasada ( Big building ),Hammiya
( Attic ) and Guha ( Cave ).The term » VL&axa 1 was generally
used in the sense of Monastery.Dr.T.P.Bhattacharya wrote :
« The old-rock out caves now found in various places of India
may b& divided into two distinctive classes - the Caitya and
ilhe VLHaxa.lhe VLhara to the Pali canon might , therefore .have
been structural Prot^oatypes of thi-se rock-Out Viharas.
They consisted of a large fell Having small cells all round,
most of which were to be entered, from the Central hall. "
The word * Addhayoga * meant a house shaped like the Garucla
bird, 1 the pasada was the many storeyed building of ancient,
India.The meaning of the word ’ Hammiya » had been explained
by Euddhaghosa,the celebrated Pali commentator, as " a p’as’ida
on whose top had been placed a Kitagara ”, and by Kern as !l a
stone house wibth a flat roof " . The ’ Guha* ' was the artific-
ial or the natural cave . In the Cullavagga there runs a verse
highly praising the gift of Viharas for the use of the monks i
To meditate and obtain insight in a refuge and at ease ;
A dwelling - place is praised by -the,Awakened
One as chief gift to an order
Therefore a wise man,looking to his own weal,
should have charming dwelling places built
So that those who have heard much can stay therein
(Lenatthan ca sukhatthan ca jhayitum ca
. -X

vipassitum,Viharadanam, Sanghassa aggajp

-...-.S’,.

hrddhena vanriitam,Tasmahi pandito

poso sampassafh attham attano Vihare

Karaye ramme vasayettha bahussut^).'

From the above it is apparent that

Euddha realising the hardship of the Bhikkhus during the rains
permitted them to reside in the Viharas. During the. Vassavasa
there were '* to look after their Vihara,to provide food and wa­
ter for themselves to fulfil all due ceremonies,such as paying
reverence to sacred shrines,etc. and to say loudly once,or twi-
JS
ce, n I enter upon vassa”.Thus in course of time it had beco-me
customary for the Buddhist monks to take up Vassa-residence on
the day after the full moon of Asadha ( mid-June ) ox a month
C<t
later and continue it for three following months .During the
Vassa-period the monks may go out of residences under special
*70 __ _
circumstances for about a week only .Vassavasa,according to the
Euddhist monks,did not mean to live anywhere and without any
companion.lt was rather to reside in congregation.So a provi­
sion was made for a residence wit^ its own boundary( sima* ),
but several points were considered by the R&kkhus,before "they
would decide to settle down at a selected place.The mo_st-potent
one among rhem was, however, the. possibility of getting alms for
subsistence and that was why they used to select sp.ch places of
residence which were neither too far nor too clo^e to the loca­
lities .We know that gradually people came forward to donate the­
ir own private, parks or pleasure-gardens for use of tVje mon­
ks fox dwelling purposes .Subsequently it was seen that there
appeared two types of residences fox bhikkhus,viz.,the Avlsa
in the country-side,built and organised by the monks themselves,
and the Axama situated in private enclosures in or near towns
and maintained by the donor.ait the Avasas and Aramas., in the-
yi
ir earliest stages , 1 were in the nature of encampments stric­
tly’ limited to the three rainy months.Even though this short
congregation there arose a sense of collective life among the
monks.lt thus,brought about a change in the-monastic way of
life and we find that the temporary residences ( Vass"avasas)
turned into more or less permanent ones fox the Bhikkhus who
gradually settled down at fixed places.But it is striking to
note that primitive ideal fox a free wandering life was not

altogether abandoned by them. They caused to be wanderers only .

Indeed it was Buddha who became,piobabl^v. a pioneer in introdu­

cing a congregational monkish life in the monasteries.There-we­

re previously,no doubt, people who renounced the house-hold li­

fe and adopted the austere lif-e of ascetics.But they did not

dwell at a monastic establishment with other-fellow brethren.

Thus the acceptance of the irams at Rajgaka by Buddha for dwe­

lling of monks,marks a turning point in the-history of early

monasticism.lt may be said that the Buddhist monasteries came

into existence du-e-most probably to bare necessity of living

in dwellings as also to the inner urge felt. by the monks for a

settled life.Liberal royal grants as well as Public donations

helped ^much'to tho. establishment of tha. Bud<&hist monasteries

from as early as tHe_ Sixth Century £.C. We find later on that

they showed a marked advancement - the full manifestation of

which may be mentioned in the- Nalanda monastery .Bit from the

Vinayapitaka we learn that a ViKara meant a dwelling place or

a private apartment for the. Shikkhus .A merchant ( Setthi ) of

Rajagaha is said to have built ” Sixty Viharas for the monks in

one day,which were probably the. cells for individual Bhikkhus.

These cells were, too small in sixe measuring twelve (Buddha's)

spans in length and seven spans in breadth and had open space

around them.Thus with, the unpretentions beginning, th#, vihaxa

subsequently developed into a large dwelling house for a commu­

nity of monks and nuns in place of small individual cell.The

next stage of development of the, monastic building was that a

long verandah with a cfe-11 behind it constituted a ViKara which,

was of a rectangular shape .I’heU'Aahavagga recounts tJ'vis change

from tA^,individual!stic life to the corporate life in the Vihaxa.

The Guha’ ( Cave ) also played an important role in the evolut­
ion of Eudahist Monasteries in India.The Bhikkhus preferred the
caves as the best places for their residences .These caves were
rather artificial structures made of bricks or wood,or hewn

out of solid rock.For instance ,tfc.«. caves excavated by A£oka and

his Grandson Da^aratha, in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills at
Gaya are the earliest specimens of rock-out ones.Of the monas­
tic dwellings, however, Vi Kara ( Storied monastery ) and Guha"
only survived for long.In Northern India tH^storied monaster­
ies, while in Western India the Qrha-^ionastery attained excel­
lent perfection .Thus gradually both vikara and Gu'ha became alm­
ost synonymous and convey the congregational settlements of
the Buddhist monks and nuns.The Gu&a monasteries,particularly ;

occupy an interesting place, with their architectural peculiar-

7 X.
ities in the annals of ancient Indian architecture.

There were several Viharas and

Aramas placed at the disposal of the Samgha in the time of the
Buddha.The specifically Buddhist India was noted for its four
centres or cities at each of which the Samgha owned a number
of monasteries serving as the seats of Buddhist learning .Thus
we read of YasL4ivana and Sitavana at Rajagylha ; Jetavana and
Purbirama at Sravasti ; Mahavana, Kutagara Hall,and Mango-grove
at Vais^ali ; and Nigrodharama at Kapilavastu. We also read of

Ghos^J-tarama at KausambI and the Mango-grove of Chun da the

Smith at Pava, called for a numerous and varied staff of offici
als with a well worked-out differentiation of functions .The Sam
gha staff included the following officers s

(l) the Appointer or Distributor of lodging-places .The usual

 9?
method was first to coant the Bhikkhus tftien to count tfap slee­
ping places available,and ^Ken to apportion accordingly
( CJillavagga ; vi,ll,3 ).

Daily duti^ and education of monks and nuns :

Life in the Buddhist monastery was.

regulated by strict discipline .The resident monk had to obser­
ve - * the basic rules of the Vinaya. From his very ent­
ry into the Sabgha, a person »s life in the Vi liar a was guided by
some principles which were based on religion as well as on eth­
ics.So a look into the Vinayapitaka will largely reveal the var­
ious aspects of the lives of the monks and the nuns in the Bud­
dhist monasteries.

Daily Life of monks :

—— WHWWWWiWfcilW*-

The Vinaypitaka furnishes us with

the information regarding the daily life of bhikkhus and Bhikk-
hunis who dwelt in the Viharas .The monks were enjoined to devo­
te completely to meditation during both the early hours of the
morning and late hours of tHe night .Besides,tJHaey were also enga­
ged in begging alms and training the devotees.After meditation
in early morning the Bhikkhus had to clean their teeth and att­
end to their ecclesiastical duties.They had to perform various
activities e.g. to prepare,wash and dye robes,to make brushes
( Koccha ),ladders ( nisseni ) and to whitewash ( suddhi-
kamma ).the cetiya.Cleanliness of things ( Wbtuvisadakiriya )

was treated as one ofttfhe seven conditions for the fulfilment ’

V~# ^3
of the search after the Dhamma ( dhammayicgyfts-bojjanga }.
 °iO

A monk wouldinot be allowed to keep long hair and nails and sho­
uld not soil his body with sweat and dirt and Viad to clean and
tidy.Buddha himself mentioned five virtues accruing from sweep­
ing.In the evening the Bhikkhus had to sit together "to recite
the suttas,while the nuns and others sat there,listening to the
devotional recitation .After it, a religious sermon was deliver­
ed by the theras to the younger monks,foilowed by a free discu­
ssion on sundry questions about the Dhamraa.The Younger monks
were expected to show proper behaviour and etiquette in the pre­
sence of the theras ( elder bhikkhus ).They should not move
about or sit down knocking the elderly monks ; should sit on
higher seats when the elders were seated on lower ones ; should
not wear sandals when the elders were without them ; should not
even deliver a sermon or answer a question without permission
when the elders were present .When a bhikkhu used to go to a Vih-
ara ss a guest,the resident monks should welcome him warmly ,
take alms-bowl and robe,prepare a seat for him and attend to
his needs .The resident monks also had to look after tKeir mon­
asteries.In the GUllavagga we find that Buddha allowed the Bhi­
kkhus to repair the dilapidated as also new monastic buildings.
Immediately after the demise of Buddha when the monks assembled
at Rajagaha,they also decided to spend the first month in repai­
ring damaged buildings .The construction work of the monastic
buildings was regarded as a way of subduing and controlling the
senses.In the commentaries we notice th-at when a bhikkhu was
engaged in building an UposatHa-house or a refectory, he had to
busy thinking over his duties regarding that work and accordi­

ngly His evil thought ( kilesas ) would have little opportunity

to stir .
We shall see subsequently [fcow a pupil had to work under a tea­

cher in the monastery.Apart from the daily routine of life they

were also asked to take part in the UpasampacTS ceremony wherein

the rules of the Fatimokkha were recited,thereby attaining the

moral purity.We find that when writing came into vogue,they we­

re further Entrusted with the task of copying the religious tex­

ts in addition to those duties already mentioned above.We also

observe that the bhikkhus were forbidden to rub their bodies ag­

ainst wood when they were bathing, •» for in the eye of the laity

this act put them into same category as boxers,wrestlers,shamppo-

ers and people who indulged in physical pleasures at a high deg­

ree.They were,however.allowed to adopt an ordinary mode of sha-

mpooing with the hand,or a rubbing post.eut it is not clear as

it was in the case of the nuns,whether tkey were allowed shamp­

oo one another or not.

We know tkaf the period of vassa occ­

upied an important position in the vi&ara-life.During this per­

iod bhikkhus used to assemble at a select place and stay therein

for three months to pass their vassa .Usually,the Va selvas a ( Ra­

in-retreat ) was followed by two ceremonies,viz., Pavarana,and

Kathina. The Pavarana- was a solemn ceremony in which each bhi-

A f

kkbu had to confess his sins of commission and omission,commi­

tted,if any,during the Vassavasa.lt was almost identical with

the declaration of the Parisuddhi in the Patimokkha ceremony.

The Kathina ceremony,on the other hand,was an occasion for off-

ering tb® robes by the laity to the Sangha. It was generally

held within a month of tHe Pavarana ceremony.The bhikkhus who

were proficient in cutting,sewing,dyeing,etc.of garments were

usually appointed to prepare the robes in course of a single

day and that was why the ceremony was called the Kathina cere­

mony .

Manner of begging food :

We shall now study the regulations

of the Sangha regarding the Primary wants of life.These wants

had to be supplied from the process of begging and the gifts of

the laity .We may recall the ruling in regard to food for the

newly ordained monk. " The religious life has morsels of food

given in alms for its resource .Thus you must endeavour to li­

ve all your life.Meals given to the Sangha,to certain persons,

invitations,food distributed by ticket, meals given each fort­

night,each Uposatha day ( i .e. the last day of each fortnight)

or the first day of each fortnight or the first day of each

77
fortnight are extra allowances”.The mode of the daily begging

is prescribed. " When the time has been called in the Arama,

a Bhikkhu should put on his waist cloth so as to cover himself

all round his waist,fold his upper rob€s and put them on,fasten

the block on,wash his hands,take his alms-bowl,and then slowly

and carefully proceed to the village.He is not to turn aside

from the direct route and push on in front of senior Bhikkhus.

He is to amidst the houses properly clad with his limbs under

control,with dowrceast eye with his robes not tucked up,not

laughing,or speaking loudly,not swaying his body or his arms

or his head about,not with hie arms akimbo, or his robe pulled
over his head,and without walking on his heelsfwhen he enters

a dwelling,^ should not go in nor come out roughly .He should

not stand too far off, nor too near ,nor too long and should not
turn back too easily.When food is being given to him he should
lift up his robe ( Samghati ) vdth his left hand so as to dis­
close his bowl, make the bowl in both his hands and receive^
the food into it without looking at the face of the givei if it
is a woman.After the food has been given he should cover up the
bowl with his robe and turn back slowly and carefullyT^

Begging for food was thus an insti­

tution common to both tb®- Brahmanical and Buddhist systems of
training .There is,however, seen a difference in the manner pres­

cribed for the begging .While the Brahmacljiarin was allowed to ask
for alms by words specially,she Ehddhist Bhikkhu must beg in
silence,so as to give the laity an opportunity of giving him
food and doing a meritorious act .It can Hardly be called
» begging * in the modern sense of the term.
Duty of nursing the sick Bhikkhu ;

The duty of nursing the sick among

them was laid upon all the Bhikkhus .The texts relate an intere­
sting story regarding the origin of this rule .Once a certain
Bhikkhu having a disturbance in his bowels lay fallen in his
own evacuations,unattended by any one because he was of no ser­
vice to the Bhikkhus. The Buddha,going round the sleeping pla­
ces of the Bhikkhus with Ananda,noticed the sick ^hikkhu in fHat
condition and asked Ananda to fetch some water .He himself pour­
ed the water over that Bhikkhu while Ananda wiped him down.
Then " the Blessed one taking hold of him at the head and the
venerable Tnanda at the fee.t,t^ey lifted him up and laid him do­
wn upon his bed.” Afterwards Buddha convened a meeting of
the Sgmgha at which he rebuked the Bhikkhus thus : " Yes.O Bhi-

kkhus,have no mothers and fathers who might wait upon you,if ye

0 Bhikkhus»wait not one upon the other,who is tlhere indeed who
will ss ;wait upon you? Whosoever,0 Bhikkhus,would wait upon me,
he should wait upon the sick1.7 He then prescribed detailed regu­

lations on the whole question of nursing tfeg sick.The duty of

nursing the sick Bhikkhu lay primarily upon the immediate associ­
ates, his Upaj jhaya,Acariya,Saddhiviharika,Antevasika,8 fellow
Sadd^iiviharika or a fellow-Antevasika as the case might be.That
is to say,t'he "teacher and his pupil must first nurse each other
in case of illness .A Bhikkhu who is neither a teacher nor a pup­
il should be, waited upon by the Samgha itself .The patient is adv­
ised to conform to the following requirements to facilitate his
nursing : he must do what is good for him',must know the limit
of the quantity of food t-hat is good for him,must take his medi­
cine^ must take his nurse who desires his good into his complete
confidence and let him know all about his disease and his cond­
ition ,whether &e is getting better or worse or continues in t-he
same condition or when his bodily pain are too much.Similarly,
the nurse is required to have the following qualifications : he
must be able to prescribe medicines,must know what diet is good
and what is not good for his patient and serve it accordingly,
must wait upon the sick out of a feeling of kove and not a des­
ire for gain,must not revolt from removing evacuations,saliva,
or vomit and nust be capable,lastly,from time to time, '» of tea­
ching inciting,arousing,and gladdening the patient with religi-
ous discourse”
Nursing was encouraged by a special
reward .A sick Bhikkhu dying,his bowl and robes were to'be given
to ks nurse by a special Resolution passed in a meeting of the

Samgha .In tke event of two nurses_.waiting upon t&m,the gift

would be divided between them equally,even if one of them was
a mexe Samanera and the othex fully oxdained Bhikkhu.If the
dead Bhikkhu leaves property in excess of the requisites wfcich
his attending EteLkkhus can legitimately claim,if it is to be
first appropriated by the Samgha then present there,and,if the­
re is still an excess,it is to reserved for " the Sangha of the
SI
four directions,those who have come in,and those who hav® not".

The summons of a sick Bhikkhu living

at a distance for aid must be obeyed by the fraternity even if
they axe confined to their retreat in th#- rainy season when per-
erginations axe otherwise prohibited.Such aid must be given on
the mexe report of the illness,even if no summons are received.

Besides nursing and provision for tre­

atment and medicines,tv e necessities of the sick were attended
to in other respects .Sick Bhikkhus taking their meals were not
to be ousted from their seats .They were also allotted suitable
sleeping places of which they had.for the time being, exclusive
g-3
possession.

Duties of Teacher and Pupil ( Upajjhayavatta and Saddbivihafci-

^ «m«H •*«»• Wm+m m*

jjavatta ;

From the Mahavagga we learn that Buddha

noticing the ill-behaviour of his followers introduced two kinds
of instructors for their proper guidance^They were Acariya and
Upajjfiaya ; obe attached to the former was called Antevasika,
while the othe^-r attached to the Upajjhaya was called Saddhivi-
_ Cu-
Karika.The Vinya texts provide us with minutest details about

them.
The Bhikkhu has to make a formal appl­
ication to his proposed preceptor,Upajjhaya,for accepting him
 ■i b
ss his pupils in tHe following manner : Let him who is going to

choose a Upajjhaya adjust his upper robe so as to cover one shou­

lder,salute his feet,sit down squatting,raise his joined hands

and say, * Venerable Sir, be my Upaj jhaya *,three times",The Upa-

jjhaya will then indicate by nodding or words jiis acceptance of

the applicant as his pupil.

Generally his new convert should live

for the first ten years in unquestionable dependence upon his Up-
„ ?r
ajjhaya.But this period could be relaxed in the case of learned

competent monk who had to live only five years in dependence on

his preceptor.An unlearned one,on the ot\er hand,had to live all

his life in such a dependence.Below is given a passage which will

speak of the mutual relation between the Upaj jhaya -and the Sa-

ddhivibarika .Addressing his disciples Buddha said r " The Upajj -

haya,Bhikkhus,ought to consider the SaddhivuKirika as a son ; the

Saddhiviharaika ought to consider the Upaj jhaya as a father

( Upaj j Kayo. saddhivi^arikamhi puttacittam Mpatthapessati saddhi-

vihaxiko Upaj jhayamhi pitucitta-ni ^patthapessali }Thus . tHese two

united by mutual reverence,and Communion of life,will progress,

$7
and reach a high stage in this doctrine and discipline." Apart

from his studies and monastic duties,the Saddhiviharika was to

act as a personal attendant of the Upajjhaya.He would offer him

the teeth-cleanser,water and meal in the morning.He had also to

accompany the teacher in his beg:«^_ing rdund.He should supply him

with drinking water, arrange for his bath, dry his robes,clean

the cells,etc. If the Upajjahaya was to commit an offence, the

Saddhiviharika should refrain him from it .If the Upajjhaya was

to commit an offence,the Saddhiviharika should refrain from it.

If the Upaj jhaya was guilty of any grave offence leading to the

punishments of * Pari visa *,mahatta *

 °i7

the like,tfee SaddhivihSxika s^puld take care that the Sangha

might impose the same on Vim .The Upaj jliaya had also in turn
some duties towards his pupil .The rules prescribed tVat the tea­
cher must be solicitous fox the welfare of his pupils as a fat­
her was for his son.The Upaj j Hay a must look to the spiritual
well-being of the Saddhiviharika.When the Saddhiviharika would
fall ill,it should be the duty of the Upajjhaya to nuxse him up.
His services should continue till the Saddhiviharika would recover
completely from illness and resume his normal activities.There
axe also provisions for punishments for the breach of duties in
the Vinaya code.But if after the teacher Ts serious display of
anger, tiie pupil begged his pardon he should be pardoned .If the
Upajjtfaya did not pardon him,he would be guilty of committing
* dukkata * offence.
We have seen above that there were two
kinds of instructors,Acariya and Up.aj jhaya", Being formally elec­
ted at the ordirefcion Ceremony ( Upasamapada- ) ,the Itcariya was an
instructor in practice.In time Pali-Bnglish Dictionary of the P.T.S.
we find that the term » Acariya » had been defined as " a teach-
°P
er ( almost synonymous with Upajhyaya ), « and the word * Upajj -
Hiya * ( Vedic U pad hyaya, Upa *edhi +1, litF^ * One is gone
close up to * ) was explained as " a spiritual teacher or prece­
ptor, master» who was often combined with * Acariya », a deputy
or substitute of the Upajjhaya.Euddhaghosa , the great Pali Com­
mentator,in his SamantapasSdika, a commentary on the Vinayapit-
aka, also endeavoured to define these two terms.According to him
the Acariya ( Sans .Acariya, a teacher ) was one who would esta­
blish pupil on the teachable matters of Biddha *s doctrines, while
njpajjhaya * was one who would examine the faults and merits of
of his disciple and place him on the right path.Thus according
to this definition the'.&cariya was the teacher ( siksaguru ) and
the Upajjtfaya was the spiritual guide or preceptor ( diksaguru ).
Bit regarding their duties and obligations there was apparently
very little difference between them.The rules regulating tKe rela­
tion between an UpajjKaya and a Sadhiviharika» anUcariya and an
Intevasika remind us of tKe brahmacjkarya rules of the Brahmanic-
al religion .We learn from the accounts of I-t sing that the afore­
said rules governing the relation between the teacher and the tau- »

ght were in vogue in the Euddhist monasteries even towards the

close of the seventh century. I-Slag recorded : ( The pupil )
" goes to his teacher at the first watch and at the last watch,
in the night ......................... The pupil rubs the teacher <s body ,folds
his clothes,or sometimes sweeps* the apartment and the yards .Then
having examined water to see whether inscets be in it,he gives
it to the teacher.This is the manner in which one pays respect
to one*s superior.On the other hand, in case of a pupil's illness
his teacher himself nurses him,supplies all tKe medicine needed,
and pays attention to him as if he were his child. " The traveller
further observed that the teacher would Inspect " his pupil’s mor­
al con duct, and "warn " him of defects and transgression ".Whene­
ver he would find " his pupil faulty ", he would make " him sick-
remedies and repent". From I-tslng we also learn that every morning
the pupil after his salutations to his seniors studied a portion
of the canon and reflected on what he learnt;The instruction imp­
arted in the Euddhist monasteries, comprised both canonical and
secular studies as also moral discipline .The Euddhist monasteries,
according to the observations of I-tsing , included apart from the
novices,also two classes of lay pupils,viz., the Manava ( children^

who read primarily the Biddhist scriptures with the intention

of being ordained at a future date,and the BrahmacSrin ( student )

who studied the secular texts only without the desire of renoun­

cing the household life.These lay-pupils had to bear all their

educational expenses - in case of their personal services they

<?r
were,however, exempted from payments.

This whole-hearted devotion of the

pupil to his teacher had its counterpart in the corresponding

attitude and conduct of the teacher towards his pupil .If the duti­

es of the pupil are exacting,those of the teacher also are plann­

ed on a similar scale.First,he must give the Bhikkhu under his

charge all possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance

" by teaching,by putting questions to him, by exhortation,and by

instruction ".Second,where the pupil lacked his necessary artic­

les such as an alms-bowl or a robe,the teacher was expected to

supply them out of his ovn belongings .Third,if the pupil falls

ill,the teacher must nurse him as long as his life lasts, and wa­
it until he has recovered.During this period of his illness,the

teacher is to minister to his pupil in the same way as the pupil

serves him in health,down to even rising from bed early to give

his pupil * the teeth-cleanser and water to rinse his mouth with

" getting water for the washing of his feet,etc.

The relation between the teacher and

his pupil were expected to be so intimate that the latter even

tried to minister to his teacher's mental troubles.To remove his

teacher's discontent » or "indecision ",the pupil would first

try his own means and beguile him by religious conversation or
get the help of others.The pupil was also to combat by discuss­
ion any false doctrines which the teacher might take to or to
T7
get others to do it.

The relations of the pupil towards his

teacher did not, however, transcend those towards the order as a
whole to which they both owed a common allegiance as members.
Where the teacher offended gravely against the order,the pupil was
to get him duly punished by the order, and,when the penal discip­
line is duly undergone,to get the order to rehabilitate his teac­
her .In the case of the order passing any unduly severe sentence,
the pupil is to do what he can to get it modified,mitigated,or nu­
llified by arguing with the order on the one hand,and seeing that
the teacher " may behave properly,live modestly,and aspire to get
clear of his penance that the order may revoke its sentence."

Expulsion *

There were also rules for the expul dr-

on of pupil by his teacher. » In five cases a Saddhaviharika ou­
ght to be turned away ; when he does not feel great affection Sr
his Upajjhaya,nor get inclination towards him,nor much shame,nor
great reverence,nor great devotion." 10

Termination of Studentship :

There are again enumerated five cases

of cessation of a nissaya between the Upajjhaya and SaddhiviHar-
ika or the Ae-erlya and Antevasika, viz., when the teacher "is
going away,or has returned to the World,or has died or is gone

over to a scljhsaatic faction or when he gives order to the pupil

to separate ” under rules of expulsion,,
n
Qualification of a teacher :

The duties of the teache^r point to

the qualifications required for him .Without these monk was not
entitled " to gLve nissaya " or ” ordain a novice ".They are exhau­
stively enumerated ( Mahavagga,i, 36 ). He nust be well-up ” in
what belongs to moral practices,self-concentration,wisdom,emanci­
pation, and the knowledge and insight thereto ” ; must be able to
help others to full perfection " in these : must be believing (not.
guilty of heresy ),modest,fearful of singing,strnuous,of ready
memory, not guilty of transgressions in morals or con duct1, not une­
ducated or foolish” ; and must be ” able to train a pupil in the
percepts of proper conduct,to educate him in the elements of mor­
ality,to instruct him in what pertains to the Dhamma,to instruct
him in what pertains to the Vinaya, to discuss or to make another
discuss according to the Dhamma a false doctrine that might arise”;
and so forth ( ibi<l) .

Number of Pupils :

Regarding t1^ number of pupils a tea­

cher could entertain, we have the following direction : ” I allow,
Q.Bhikkhus, a learned,competent Bhikkhu to ordain two novices
or to ordain as many novices as he is able to administer exhorta—
J 6t>
tion and instruction to."
Residential School J>r VIharas :

The unit of the Buddhist educational

system was thus this group of young Bhlkkhus ox monks living under
the guardianship of a common teacher,the Upajjhaya or i^ariya.who
was individually responsible for their health and studies,mann­

ers and morals,their spiritual progress.We have already discu­

ssed the methods by which each individual group or kftot of a

teacher and his pupils was organised,and the relations and reg­

ulations which obtained within the limits of each group .But these
groups or Schools were not always existing as isolated and inde­

pendent units ox institutions in the Buddhist World,as they did

so largely in the Brahmanical World of Culture.They federated the­

mselves into a larger unit called the Vi)\ara or monastery .T'us

we have to view them as parts of that larger organisation and in

their relations to its general, collective life which developed

its own code of discipline and regulations binding upon all,whi­

le Brahmanical culture depended upon the system of individual

schools and ideal successions of teachers and disciples,the Bud­

dhist culture was the product of confederations of such schools

in larger monastic institutions comprising numbers of teachers

and students ( sometimes as many as 10,000,as at N aland If ) pro­

moting and parataking of a wider,collective,academic life with

its own advantages as an educational and educative agency and

factor.We shall now describe the rules and regulations govern­

ing this larger academic life of the monastery as a seat of edu­

cation and centre of culture of the times,that collective life

in which the individual life of each educational group was mer­

ged .
Life of women in Vihara :

In the Vlnaya Pitaka we find an inter­

esting account of the nuns ( bhikkhunls ) as regards their life

in Vihara.After their meals at the noon the bhikkhunls would have

to select shady place suitable for meditation .In the TherTgatha"

we find that nearly all the bhikkhunis had overcome Mar a, the per­
sonification of evils .The Saayutta Nilciya also relates hov; the

Alaviya bhikkhuriis and sonte,Uppalavanria,Caf a,Upacaia ,Se|a', and

' " foj
many other succeeded to subdue tKe Mara.The greater portion of

day,in the cases of senior theras,was spent in training and teac­

hing the Dhamma and the Vinaya ( Code of conduct ) to the newcom-
/bo.
ers.Each nun was further expected to brush, end clean )ser own cell.

The seniority of the nuns was determined by the numbers of their

ordained years and spiritual advancement as in the case of the bhi­

kkhus.

Regarding the allotment of seats in

_ vi
the Vihaxas the nuns enjoyed the same pri^eges as those enjoyed

by the monks .But the bhikkhuriis had not to undergo a period of

probation( parivase ) like the bhikkhus^Two years after the pab-

ba4jfiT,they could receive the Upasampada .They had also to observe

the admission ( Pabbajja" ) into the Sangha was open to all women

without any discrimination of caste or position in the society

except in certain unusual circumstances .The nuns were not allowed

to have, their back and other parts of their bodies scubbed or sla-

pped with the bones of oxen.They oust not be massaged by their

JOS'
fellow-sisters.Even in the same way must not be shampooed by pro-
184
bationers,novices or bylay-women.The bhikkhunis were not allowed

to dwell in forests.More restrictions were however, imposed on

the bhikkhunis than the bhikkhus regarding the use of beds,seats,

vehicles, etc. They were ,however .allowed to utilise the vehicles

1*7
when they fell ill .The nuns were not allowed to use any kind of

cosmetics. The Runs had to spend vassa at a place in the vicinity

of the bhikkhus .They were < not any way granted to live alone and
independently,if they violated this rule,they would be guilty
__ M
of committing the pacittiya offence.Buddha was always cautious
regarding women’s safety.like tftje bhikkhus they also were used
to go on alms round everyday to lay-people, taking their alms bowl
and return with the food .In the pali canon are found numerous
references to such daily round .Thus bhikkhunis like Sukka ( ti­
kis' ),Seia,Cala, etc. being well-dressed fit for Buddhist nuns
Vo
used to visit cities nearby for alms.They took dfeily meals in co­
mmunity before noon.The bhikkhunis were also sometimes allowed
to go to shops.lt is found that some of them went there to pro­
cure the equivalent for some money deposited by a layman wLtfo. a
in i. ^
merchant for their benefit.Thalla$nanda,a ther'£ais said to send
titL
a novice to a shop to buy some oil for her .When she became ill.
The robes of a bhikkhuni was the simplest one,without any fringes
and plaits.The manner of putting on the dress was also not attra­
il*/'
ctive and graceful .The bhikkhunis were allowed to use a half-
IIF
divan as bed .But they were forbidden to sleep two together in one
lie
couch.They had also to wear brassiere ( samkacchika ),described
as coming from below the collar-bone to above the naval for the
rp
purpose of hiding the breast". It was an offence For the bhikk­
hunis to house-hold works which might include cooking and washing
cloaks and Turbans in the houses of the laity.
Training of monks and nans :

It was,however^ chiefly for purposes of

their religious education and spiritual culture that the monks

were brought together in the monasteries.As already stated,the

monastery* was a kind of federation of group of teachers and pup­

ils, of junior monks living in dependence upon the seniors.Every

bhikkhu is expected to accept a pupil " to provide himself with

a s'amapera,to give a Nissaya, and to confer the Upasampad"a ordi­

nation n,

Parivasa or Probation :

The vinaya texts distinguish four prin­

cipal kinds of probation for the bhikkhus.The first of these app­

lied when the follower of another of the reforming sects was rec­

eived into the Buddhist order .Upon such a person was imposed a

Parivasa ( a probation time ) of four months.The probationer is

required to submit to a strict course of discipline.He must not

enter the village too early nor come back to the vihara too late.

He mist not frequent the society of objectionable persons such

as harlots .widows, adult girls, eunuchs, or Bhikkhunis.The probati­

oner is to be condemned when he does not s how himself w skill­

ed in the various things his fellow Bhikkhus have to do, is not

diligient9not able to do things himself,and not able to give dir­

ections to others7 .He is also to be condemned when he does not

show keen aeal when the doctrine is preached to him,or when que­

stions are put on the same .He is also expected to be pleased

W-hen the Euddha is praised,and not to be displeased when the

. . u t!3
sect he has deserted is criticized.
k probationer^ Bhikklmffurther, is not entitled to the full pri­
vileges belonging to a regular Ebikkfcsi.His shall be the worst
seat,the worst sleeping place,and the worst room in the hostel.
He oust not live on alms personally received .He is not fit for
a forest life ( for he always needs control and guidance ).
v
w He oust always live with a regular Bhikkhu But he must not
live with Shikklms of communities different from his own .And
while living with a regular Bhikkhu he is to observe various
Ik, o
forms of showing honour to him.

The other three kinds of probation axe

of the nature of penal discipline for a certain period to be sub­
mitted to by Bhikkhus who violated rules by living in lay socie­
ty in unlawful association with the World,for Which he was plac­
ed on probation under an Act of Subordination passed against him.
Latex on he rehabilitated himself by correct conduct .The xact of
subordination would also be padded to punish the offences of sta-\
ying too long in a public rest-house and frequenting a village
■}7~\
on more than ordinary occasions.Numerous,indeed,are the forbid­
den practices of the monks under training.The following practi­
ces among others are forbidden • injuring plants ox vegetables
( whence agriculture is tabooed as an occupation of the Bhikkhu),
strong up property,witnessing public spectacles ( like theatri­
cal representations, recitations,concepts .musters ana reviews
of troops f digaging in games detrimental to
progress in virtueadoining bodies,indulging in mean talk ( inc­
luding fortune-telling ), .wrangling and acting as a go-between
( between kings,ministers, etc. ).
StUS.eS of Monks of 'different grades s .

monk seems to have^exhortatlon.and explaining Dharama " We read

 107
\

of some Bhikkhus specializing in reciting the Dhamma,of some in

propounding the Suttantas,some in the Vlnaya,and of some special-
izing as preachers of the Dhamma.The_Bhikldms as students were
assigned to different classes according to their progress in
studies'.The lowest class seems to have been made up of students”
who were repeaters of the Suttantas The method recommended
for this rote-learning was ” to chant over the Suttantas to one
another The next higher class was of those students " who were
in charge of the Vlnaya ” which they would master by discussing
it with the one another.To a yet higher class belonged to those
Bhikkhus who were training themselves up as teachers of the Dha­
mma.And as part of this training,they were required to talk over
the Dhamma one witjh another before they should preach it to oth­
ers.There were,lastly.Jgiikkhus of the highest classes who were
given to meditation,!.e. the practice of the four Jhanas7or medi­
tations ( for the definition of which see Rhys Davids 5 Buddh-
I

ism, p. 176 ' and Mrs. Rhys Davids’ Buddhism, pp.199?.200).Besi­

des these classes of students,some Bhikkhus were distinguished
and classed as Epicurians, being wise in worldly lore and aboun­
ding it.bodily vigour”. All these different classes ©f students
\2-4
cause disturbance to their different studies.

Subject taught :

The curriculum of the monks included

what are termed Suttanta,Dhamma, and Vinaya,together with Suttas
and 4ittavibhanga .The meanings of these terms as used in tlfce ear­
lier texts axe different from their accepted and later meanings.
Thus there is a passage in the Patlmokkha ( p.50 ) which refers
to the Dhammas as being included in the Suttas,the former compr­
ising the scheme of offences given in the Patmokkha, and the lat­
ter standing for the separate clauses of that Formulary ( cf.
also <5Ulava§$a iv,22,23 ; Mahavagg i,36,14 ). The use of the
word Sutta is not yet confined to the texts of what is afterwar­
ds known as the Suttapitaka. " In the oldest tradition the disco­
urses or conversations now called Suttas seem not to have been
12.T
called by t)rat name,but are referred to as Suttantas.We read of
some well -known Suttantas. We also read of brethren reciting the
Dhamma,those versed in the Suttantas intoning some Suttantas tog­
ether, the custodians of the Vinaya discussing t&e Vinays,and the
purchasers of the Dhamma discoursing about the ijftamma", as rega­
rds the term -Sutta^-vibha'nga,it is used %o indicate from the
Suttas of the Patimokkha. * The Suttas have been handed down to
him,but not the Suttavibhanga ".

Teaching mainly oral :

Education in the age of these earlier

Buddhist texts was not yet depending upon written literature.This
however, does not mean that the art of writing was not developed
then.It is referred to as a source of livelihood or an occupati-
on in the Mahavagga { i,49,i ). The Vibhanga recommends to the
Bhikkhunls t'he art of writing ( SBE., Vol., 13, p. xxxiii ), whi­
le the Sutta-Vibhanga in explaining another passage from the same
refers to the possibility of causing the death of a person by
mischievous and misleading representations in writing( SBE.,op.cit)
ait the evidence available does not point to the use of writing
for the purpose of preserving and transmitting an extensive sac­
red literature.As Doctors Rhys Davids and Oldenberg point out (ib).
 ]

there is not the least trace of any reference to manuscripts in

the detailed accounts which the Vlnaya texts give of the whole
of the personal property of the Buddhist dramas and Vih“aras»of.
which all possible items from the bigger furniture to the smal­
lest needle are enumerated or referred to .Along with manuscripts
there are no inferences to such accessories of writing as ink,pen,
style,leaves9or other materials for writing,nor to the operations
connected with the copying out of manuscripts which must have occ­
upied a large part of the activities of the monks should they have
had to do with written literature for their education.But besides
this negative evidence,there is positive evidence proving ffcte ve­
ry limited use of writing in those days for purposes of education.
The Bhikkhus of a certain place not knowing the PatomokkVia,one of
them is commissioned to learn from a neighbouring fraternity and
import the knowledge ( Mahavagga,ii,i7 ). Similarly, we read of a
lay-devotee or a Upasaka inviting a fraternity of Bhikkhus to hear
him recite an important Suttanta so that they might learn it and
preserve it from oblivion.These passages show that the system of
oral tradition was as nuch the characteristic of Buddhist as of
Brahmanical education,though the causes of its adoption might be
different in the two cases'*It cannot consistently be supposed to
Buddhists that they considered the writing of their sasred texts
as an irreverent treatment of them or a sacrilege when they were
so advanced in their views or so heterodox as to prefer the popu­
lar speech to the refined and sacred Sanskrit and abolish all dis­

tinction of caste within the pale of their fraternity.The disuse

of writing was more probably due to the scarcity of any convenient
practical material on which the known characters might be inscri­
bed as pointed out by Rhys Davids ( 01denberg7 •' SBE.,Bp.GLt.).
 \\o

Medium of Instruction :

The community of Bhikkhus was like a sch­

ool made up of different forms ox classes representing different

grades of talent,maturity,and progress in studies.But the Bhikk­

hus also differed from one another in otKex respects.Hailing from

different parts of the country,they differed in their dialects ,

besides, w differing in name.lineage,birth,and family We are

told of two Bhikkhu brothers who were Brahman a, by birth,excelling

in speech,excelling in pronunciation w trying to reduce this con­

clusion of tongues among Bhikkhus by a proposal to adopt Sanskrit

as their common language.Said they : « The Bhikkhus corrupt the

word of the Buddha* by repeating it in their own dialect. Let us,

Lord,put the word of the Buddhas into Sanskrit verse ( Chanda

But the Buddha did not approve of the proposal,because it would

not conduce to conversions but rather hinder them. Sanskrit would

repel the ordinary people or masses who were to be reached through

their own vernaculars^ The religion of the Buddha meant for the

classes as mil masses thus cultivated,and was preached through,

the popular speech as distinguished from the difficult and refined
language, Sanskrit, especially in its earlier form Chandasa ox
Veda-dialect fox which the two Brihmana brot^rs pleaded .The Bud-

dAa with perfect wisdom ruled : "I allow you, 0 Bhikkhus, to learn

the word of the Buddhas each in his own dialect. n ( C*iullavagga,

33,i ). Thus Buddhism gave an impetus to the study of the vernacu­

lar dialects of the country which so much facilitated its spread

to distant and different countries by means of missionaries as

Organized under the great emperor Asoka for instance.

 in

The above story indicates that Sanskrit was supplanted and super­

seded as a medium of instruction in the Buddhist Schools by the

vernacular dialects.When many Bhikkhus lived together in a monas­

tery in rainy season, EUddha and his disciples gave sermons or made

religious discussions in a common dialect understandable by all

members coming from different parts of India.From a common dialect

Pali language and literature of Theravada school developed.Later

on,other schools like MaKasanghika,Sarvastivada,Mah'ayan^etc. ado­

pted Prakrit,mixed Sanskrit .Pure Sanskrit and other dialect s^medi-
A

urn instruction and developed their literature.

Regular and Special Teachers :

Besides the regular teachers,the Upa-

dhyayas and Acaryas, arrangements were also made for the Imparting

of instruction by distinguished teachers who were acknowledged as

authorities and specialists in their subjects .Thus Upali was such

a specialist in the Vinaya,the VLnayadhara : " and so many Bhikk­

hus,old and middle-aged and young,learnt the Vinaya from the vener-
- 1*7 _
able Upali ".Thus the Vinaya classes that Upali taught were very

popular and largely attended.Up*ali delivered his discourse stand­

ing,out of respect For tH®-senior monks .And the Seniors Heard him

standing,out of respect for the subject of his discourse.The rule

in such cases was for the teacher or lecturer to sit on a seat of

equal height or higher .while his audience ,if his seniors might sit

on seats of equal height or lower ( ib.).

Discussion as Method of Education r

The Buddhist system of education .like

the Brahmanical, lays equal stress upon the efficacy of the method
 I 1 2_

of debate and discussions In Education^ fact,Buddhism,being

more proselytizing than Vedism ox Brahmanism,was more interes­
ted in the cultivation by its leaders and votaries of the powers
of debate by which it could spread and win converts from other
religions.The Buddha’s whole ca^er of forty-five y^ars of mini­
stry was practically a continuous round of debates and discuss­
ions witk exponents of other schools of Thought or answering of
questions put to him at the Assemblies of kls own disciples .The
canonical Buddhist Texts are full of references to the convex si-
ons of the Buddha,foilowing his delivery of a discourse.Indian
religion had already then, as we have seen,split-up into any num­

ber of Schools and Sects whose followers,organized into ascetic

brotherhoods like the Buddhists,were constantly meeting at Asse­
mblies for discussions of their different doctrines.The Sutta Nip-
ata ( 382 ) characterizes these Brahman a ascetics, Parivrajakas,
as Vadasila,disputatious,Vitapdas,and lolcayatas,sophists,casii-
sts,and materialists.There axe many instances recorded in Buddh­
ist iexts of the leaders of Brahmanical ssectic sects meeting
the Buddha at discussions .Similarly, Jainism also had to take its
part in the religious disputations of the day'.We read how the fo­
llowers of Parsva l§d by KesX had a fateful discussion with those
of Mahavira under Gautama in the Park called TLnduka at Sfavasti
as a result of which Jainism divided into two sects. T-he-r-e^were
sitail ax
Geurtaina-ift Park-^cal±ed^indutea<^:t---Srfrvasti-y- a s- a-r-esalt-of
whi^h-Jaindrsa-divided-4nto-~two~ sect’s .There were similar controver­
sies betwe-on the followers of Mahavira and GosSla,followed by a
similar Schism.
The places of such important discuss-
ions which malted cultural and religious Ufa in those days were
public halls which axe called in Pali texts Santtiagaras ox Sama-
yappavadaka-Salas. They also mention some places whexe such dis­

cussions actually took place j,the Hall in Queen Mallika *s Paxk

._
at Sxavasti for '» discussion of different systems of opinion M

the Gabled Pavillion erected by the Liechavis in the Mahavana

outside Vaisali ; the sweet-smelling Campska grove on the lake

of Queen Gaggara at Campa • ox the Moranivapa { Whexe peacocks

w ere fed )at Rajagrha, ParivriTjaka centre under Sakuldayl .

%ddhist literature throws considera­

ble light on the rules, fox the conduct of such discussions and
proceedings of the Sangha .The earliest work describing the. meth­

ods of disputation is the Kathavatthu ( i,l-6o) of Asoka 3s time.

The Qillavagga gives an elaborate account of the working of Samg-

ha as deraocxatic parliamentary assemblies { ib.,pp.209 - 2X6 ).

The Samgha as a body by a Resolution must fix the place of the

meeting,which must b®. duly announced,so that members might be cog­

nizant of it.In the meeting ,the Theras must assemble first.

They must get the young Bhikktms who are residents of that place
to sweep it beforehand .prepare seaks 3-ight ,1-amps, and provide

for drink and food.The meeting aust b^ attended by every member

of the fraternity .If a member is sick,he must send a declarati­

on of hisjlnnocence before he assembled Chapter through ; other

Bhikkhu .Otherwise,he must be carried on his bed or -cihaix to the

Assembly,ox,if he is too ill,the Assembly must go to him and hold

their meeting so as to secure his attendance .The exemption from

attendance was granted only to a member who had turned mad .The
confession was not common or.collective,but individual^The common
offence of the whole Sangha was to be confessed before the guilt-
less Bhikkhu of another diocess.
 ]

Next to these half-monthly confession,meetings was the yearly

recurring ceremony of » Pavazana or Invitation to be initiated

with the following words : M I invite the Samgha to chage me with

any offence they think me guilty of,which they have seen or hea-

rd of,or which they suspect during the pefiod of Vassa."

The Buddha ’s Daily Life gs the Standard for Monks :

The Euddha’s life,which may be taken

as setting the standard to which tjist of all Bhikkhus must app1”

oximate,\las been described in Buddhaghosa»s commentary on the-

first of the Dialogues of Gotama'. " He rose early in the morning

( l.e. about 5 a,.m. ) and out of consideration for his personal

attendant,was wont to wash and dress himself,without calling for

any assistance .Then,till it was time to go on his round for al­

ms,he would retire to a solitary place and meditate.When that

time arrived,he would dress himself completely in the three rob­

es, take his bowl in his hand and,sometimes alone,and sometimes

attended by his followers,would enter the neighbouring village

or town for alms .Then the people understanding that to-day it

is the Blessed one has come for alms 1 would vie with one anoth­

er saying * » To-day, Sir,take your meal with us ; we shall make

a provision for ten and we for twenty,and we for hundred of your

followers’. So saying,tihey would take his bowl,and, sp¥f«fcLng ma-

ts for him,and his attendant followers,would await ttae moment wh­

en the meal was over.Then would the HLessed one,when the meal

was done,discourses to them,with due regard to their capacity for

spiritual things, in such a way that some would take the layman 's

vow,and some would enter on the paths,and some would reach the
 highest fruit there of.This done he would arise from his
seat and depart to the place where he had lodged.And when he had
come there, he would sit in the open verandah,awaiting the time
when the rest of his followers should also have finished their
meal.And when his attendant announced that they had done so,

he would enter his private apartment.Thus was he occupied upto

the midday meal .Then afterwards,standing at the door of his cha­
mber,he would exhort tke congregation of brethren into stxenous
efforts after the higher life.Then would some of them ask him to
suggest a subject for meditation suitable to the spiritual capa­
city of each,and when he had done so,they would retire each to
the solitary place he was wont to frequent,and mediate on the sub­
ject set .Then would the HLessed one retire within the private
chamber for short rest during the heat of the day.Then,when his
3
body was rq£ed,he would arise from the couch,end for a space con­
sider tte circumstances of the people near,that he might do them
good .And, at the fall of the day,the folk from the neighbouring
villages or town would gather at the place where he was lodging,
and to them, seated in tke lecture hall,would he in a manner sui­
table to the occasion and to "fekeir beliefs,discourse on tke trutW
Then,seeing that the proper time had come,km would dismiss the
folk.Thus was the occupied in t^e afternoon.Then,at close of the
day,should h© feel to need the refreshment of a bath,he would ba­
the, the while some brother of the order,attendant on him,would
prepare the divan in the chamber perfumed with flowers.And in the
evening,he would sit a while alone,still in all his robes’,till
the brethren returned from their meditations began to assemble.
Then some would ask him questions on things that puzzle them,some
would speak of their mediations,some would ask for an exposition
of the truth*.Urns would the first watch of the night ; as the
Blessed one satisfied the desire of each and then they would take
their leave .And part of the rest of the night would he spend in
meditation,walking up and down outside his Chamber,and part he
would rest,lying down,calm and self-possessed within » ( Adapted
from translation of Rhys Davds.).

Monks seeking solitude of forests for meditation s

WfcHWW 9m >»»—WWtwfWfc

ppto now we $»ave been considering the

system under which the monks live together in a state of mutual
dependence and relationship for purposes of their self-culture.
But the quest of the Ideal which leads these monks out of home
into homelessness would not make some of them accept the half -
way house of a monastery,but seek the solitude of tike forest for
a life of meditation. " Many of the Order .unfitted for taking part*
even as teachers,in the battle of life,spent all their days in
seclusion .being known as forester Bhikkhus.Others sought the sil­
ence of the upland woods and caves to complete the utter mastery
of detachment, requisite to usher in the cool and peace of Nibb-
_ J3t>

ana, ox to recruit from wearing mission work .It was the elderly
and matured Bhikkhus who were eligible for the forester 's life.
The Buddha himself would sometimes seek in solitude a respite from
the worries caused by 11 litigious,contentious,quarrelsome,and
disputatious Bhikkhus ” and like the tusker would " take delight
13/
in dwelling alone in the forest". We read of the venerable Bha-
ddiya living " in the forest, at the foot of a tree in solitude,
but without fear or anxiety,with mind as peaceful as an'antelope»s*

Another monk, Kassapsgotta.livea alone at vlsabha-gama m Ka'sl,

 ) 17

where he was visited by some Bhikkhus whom he entertained as gue­

sts on proceeds of his begging fox several days till their travel
weariness was over .WUe are also told of the otRer monk keeping
Vassi alone,receiving robes and dividing them among incoming mo­
nks not exceeding four in numbeiCM^fe^v,vili, 24 ) .Life in solitu­

de was sustained by a love of it for its own sake which utters it­
self significantly in Buddhist literature." It is pleasant to see
how largely the joy of life in tke wild gets blended with the spi­
ritual aspirations.

Education of the Laity ;

W__e have already seen how intimately

was the Buddhist Omrch or Sangha concerned and connected with a
laity upon whom it depended for its very support and maintenance.
The . Lai were those who believed IniBihddhism but did not choose
to belong to tKe order and be ruled by its discipline .Now the
order or the monastery educated those who were its members living
under a common roof and did not admit day scholars to its educa­
tion .Thus the Laity had to seek other centres and means of educ­
ation .Nevertheless the young Church was vitally interested in
the growth of a believing and pious laity for the regulation of
whose life rules axe accordingly laid down.The laiti^are sough-t
to be marked out from the general public by applying to them tke
terms Upasaka ( for the males ) and UpasikaT ( for the females )
when they formally declare that they take refuge with the Buddha,
the Dhamma,and the Samgha.But this declaration was not insisted
upon as a rule .We find ordinary people, honouring and entertaining
the monks,being called Upasakas,and also Buddhist Upas&kas being
 Upasakas of another Church.The.re were also laid down certain dut­
ies of temperence and rectitude,but the Church had no part in se­
curing their fulfilment .The only, step that “the Church took to keep
the laity in order was by a declaration of boycott whereby "the
bowl was turned down " in respect of the of fenders, for it met only
the prohibition of giving and receiving .material gifts and spiri­
tual instructions as between the two parties ( Olden berg, Buddha,
pp.383,384 ). Certain business pursuits were also forbidden the
laity,e.g. dealing in arms,intoxicating liquors, in poison,etc..
A Comprehensive list of the duties of the laity is given in the
Sigalavada Sutta which classifies them according to the several
capacities or relationships householders have.The duties,for ins­
tance,of parents and children,of pupils and Teachers,of Laymen and
monks are laid down .It is the duty of parents to have their chil­
dren taught arts or Sciences." The pupil should honour his teach­
ers by (l) rising in their presence ; (2 ) ministering to them ;
(3) obeying them ; (4) supplying their wants ; (5) at tent ion ^ ins­
truction .The teacher should show his affection for the pupils by
(l) training them in all that is good ; (2) teaching them to hold
knowledge fast ; (3) instruction in science and lore ; (4) speaking
well of them to their friends and companions ; (5) guarding them
from danger ". Among the duties pf the monk towards the layman
are to instuct him in religion,to solve his doubts,etc.A specim-
/35^
en of the instruction of the laity by monks is given in the Vinaya
where the emperor. BLmbis*5rafholding his rule and soverignty over
80,000 townships,asks the overseers of those townships to wait
upon the Buddha for " instruction in the things, of eternity ".
The Buddha "held to them discourse in due order", speaking of
" giving Righteousness.heaven,the danger,worthlessness and dep

ravity of lusts,and of the advantage of renunciation."

It is thus clear that the laity dep­

ended for their religious education upon the monasteries which

were the exclusive centres of such education because the monks

alone had the monopoly as specialists and experts in the knowled­

ge of the sacred lore.It is also clear that for their general,

non-religious or secular education the laity and the Public at

large had to depend upon the systems and centres of education

that existed in the country outside the Budthist monasteries.We

shall iffGw’Kproceed to give an account of these on .the basis of the

evidence available in Buddhist literature of which the literatu­

re of the Jataka forms the principal part and will thus claim our

chief attention.

Women 4fn Buddhist Education ;

Let us now discuss in brief the pos­

ition of women in the Buddhist monasteries after their entry into

the Sangha. Women by virtue of their sheer merit could even atta­

in the highest spiritual bliss.There was,however,no difference bet­

ween a monk and a nun in this regard .All were treated with equa­

lity in the Buddhist order .Hence, we find how sister Nan da had " by

the complete destruction of the five bonds that bind people to th­

is world become an interior of the highest heavens,there to pass

entirely away,hence never to return " and how Sujfata was " assur-

ed of final salvation In the Anguttaranikaya also we observe

that if five ways will reap one of two rewards ; either perfect

knowledge ( anna ) in this life,or the state of a non-returner

( ancjanata ) at the end of this life <,This shows that both the
male and female members of the VIharas were of somewhat equal
status. Theoretically,thus,no distinction was made between a monk
\ -

and a nun.Bat in actual practice and treatment the bhikkhunis we­

re not so much honoured as the fohikkhus.Thus a man was enjoined
to treat the monks with humility ; she should not sit on a seat
137
or on the ground in front of a monk without as king leave,unless
she was ill ; she also should not ask questions relating to the
YInaya,Sutta,or the Abhidhamma without asking his leave.

Buddha,as stated already,was relucta­

nt in respect of women*s entry and ordination in the Saftgha.lt was
only after the double pressure of his foster-mother,Mafiapajapati,
and his favourite disciples,Ananda,that the Buddha,with consider­
able reluctance and misgivings,consented to admit women as his
131
disciples on their renouncing the World and householder's state.
But the rules laid down for regulating their life betray at every
step the mental and moral inferiority attributed to the other
sextThey keep the nuns in a condition of complete subordination
to the monk s'. The first of the eight chief Rules ( Atthagurudhamma)
for them ordains that, " a Bhi kkhuni even of a hundred years* sta­
nding •• must look up to a Bbikkhu " if only just initiated .Under
other rules,the order of nuns could not complete any transaction
unless it was confirmed by the Chapter of the monks,while, as
regards the ordination of a nun,the probationary period is made as
long as two years,after which the ordination has to be sanctioned

by both the Samghas of Nuns and Monks.Other rules enjoined strict

separation between monks and nuns.Amonk specially selected by the
brotherhood was to impart instruction and admonition to the nuns
twice every- month in the presence of another monk.The discipl­

ine and duties of daily life were the same for nuns as for

monks except that solitary life was practically forbidden them.

With all these restrictions based on

the estimate of women *s worth,the order of Nuns opened up ave­

nues of culture and sociS. service to the women of Buddhist Ind­

ia for which some of them became very distinguished .The Church

was also able to engage to a remarkable extent the sympathy and

generosity of many a lay lady’. The munificence of the matron Vis-

akha is equalled only by that of the merchant prince Anathapip-

dika .Visaktfa was the head of an illustrious roll which includ-

*
ed many otfuer names,like Ambapalli of VaisalT or Supriyi of

Benares.Whatever might be his opinion on the womanftpod,the Bud­

dha was always generously responsive to the offers of hospita­

lity and financial support proceeding from individual women of

religious zeal.

But besides producing some remaraka-

ble characters among the laity of the other sex , Buddhism pro­

duced numerals remarkable women within its own fold,who played

a prominent part as leaders of thought in that religious refor­

mation.The order of nuns was the training ground of men in the

order of monks .We have unfortunately hardly any information in

the sacred works,giving details of the actual training they had

in the nunneries.

That some of the nuns qualified the­

mselves in the knowledge of the sacred texts so far as to be

accepted the teachers of other junior nuns is evident from a

passage in the Cullavagga ( x,8 ),which mentions that a

 ) 5L 3-

Bhikkhuni was the pupil of the Bhikkhuni Uppalavanna.Regarding

their studies,the same passage informs us that the Bhikkhuni

tt followed the HLessed one for seven years,learning the Vina-

ya,but she,being forgetful,lost it as fast as she received it”,

It was then ordained that Bhikkirns should teach the Vinaya to

Bhikkbunis. '

(CONSTITUTION OF THE BUDDHIST SANGHA :

The Constitution of the Buddhist

Sangha was no doubt of a democratic type and its monks members

enjoyed constitutional rights and privileges which were all on

the same footing.Sukumar Dutt refers to the constitution of

the Buddhist Sangha.He describes, M The idea of the paramount

authority of a person- a organised head,a spiritual dictator,

an abbot or a Gaiiadhaxa was foreign to the Republic Constitu­

tion of an early Buddhist Sangha.The Republican Church Govern­

ment of the early Buddhists seems to be striking in its origin

ality.Yet the fact must not be forgotten that the political Con

stitution of many tribes whence Buddhist Bhikkhus were largely

tut
recruited was of a Republican type.The people were quite fami­

liar and conversant with free institutions like voting,Commi­

ttee,popular tribunals, and collective legislation,and if many

of them were readily transplanted in the Buddhist Sangha,there

is nothing surprising ox unnatural in the process.Dr.K.P.Jaya-

swal has hazarded the conjecture that " the Buddhist brother­

hood,the Sangha,was copied out from the political Sangha,the

Republican this Constitution'. M But this remains a brilliant

conjecture only,though by no means an improbable one,in the

present state of our knowledge.
 *43
N.Eutt gives an acccxint of the Constitution of the Buddhist
Sang ha .He states, " We shall now turn to the Constitution of
the Sahgha that led to the growth of the. se'veral Buddhist insti®
tutions or Sangharamas which trained up the Buddhist monks and
sent them out to the World to preach the religion and alleviate
human sufferings.A glance at the ancient map of India shows what
a large number of such institutions grew up in the different
parts of India and how magnificent were some of them,their rui­
ns striking ms even to-day with awe and wonder.These Sangharamas
wielded at a time a great amount of influence over the people
of India.Some of these institutions were built up by the devo­
tees at an immense expense and were large enought to accommod­
ate thousands of monks.They were mostly located at a distance
from the din and bustle,but not beyond the easy reach,of the
City to whicf^ the inmates looked fortheir daily necessaries of
life.The sites chosen by them were in many cases valleys separa­
ted from the inhabited localities by hills,mountains or forests.
In cases where such sites were not available,they were shut out
from the World by huge walls with gates guarded by competent
gate-keepers. Great discretion was used to keep the site alo­
of from the distractions of the town ox village life, giving
at the same time an opportunity to the townsfolk and villagers
to frequent the "avisas for listening to religious discourses and
making their offerings.An individual monk or a donor was not
allowed to select the site fox a monastery?.It is enjoined in
the Patimokkha-Sutta that it must be done by a group of monks
The Sangharamas offered shelter to all who submitted to the dis­
cipline enforced in them and dedicated their lives to the cause
 1

of Buddhism.There appeared from among them brilliant intellects

who would shed lustre., on any sphere of activities that might be
alloted to them .The training imparted by these*' scholars produ­
ced a number of expositors of Buddhist Philosophy and religion
who Carried far and wide the torch of Buddhism within and outsi­
de India. In short,these institutions radiated the force which
made Buddhism an all-Asiatic faith.

To these institutions flocked from di­

fferent aims and inclinations.They remained there under the str­
ict disciplinary rules for years, receiving instructions from
distinguished monks ; and it was only when they were found thor­
oughly chastened in body and spirit that they wer sent out to
the outside World for carrying on the work of the great teacher.
The fame of the institutions at Taksasila,Nalanda,$arnath,Ajanta
or Amaravatl reached far-off places like China,Central Asia,Siam,
Cambodia and Ceylon,and attracted hundreds of students of India.

Etclesiaticax Acts ( Sanghakamma ) and Punishments :

Buddha and other senior members of

the Sangha introduced certain acts of punishment to prevent off­
ences and stop misbehaviour committed by careless and reluctant
monk with a view to welfare of Buddhist people in general.

Any act which is related to the San­

gha in any way was a Sanghakamma. Several Buddhist texts refer
to various types of Sanghakamma .According to them, some acts
were disciplinary and disputable and some were non-disciplinary
and non-disputable.The Parivasa,the Manatta,the Taj janlya,the

s
Pubbaj aniya, the Patisaxani/a and the Brahmmadanda belonged to
the first group.although it is non-disciplinary and non-disputa­
ble ? bad its importance in the Biddhist Sangha.lts ecclesiastical
acts such as the Upasampada’.the Uposatha,the Pavarans,the Kathina,
the Abbhana etc. played their great roles in the Euddhist Sahgha
for progress and growth of Biddhism.lt is to be noted here that
at the time of the performance of a Sahghakamma all monks who
lived within the sima of an Tvasa were present .Their presence
was compulsory.Bit if someone failed to appear in person,he sent
his consent and then his presence was counted by proxy .The Eudd­
hist Sahgha introduced several rules for the various Sahghakammas.
The number of monks which constituted an assembly was necessary
for these purposes.The Mahavagga refers to four monks for all ecc­
lesiastical a«ts except the Upasamapada,PavIrana end Abbhana,five
monks for all ecclesiastical acts except the Upasamapada in bor­
der countries and Abbhana,ten monks for all ecclesiastical acts
except Abbhana,and twenty monks and upwards for Abbhana and all
other ecclesiastical acts. It Is interesting to note here that
every member of an assembly had the right to express his opinion
$
in an assembly meeting of an ecclesia^ical act.

Every act was performed with the res­

olution which was presented before the Assembly thrice and when
all the members gave their consent,then it was passed by the ass­
embly meeting.lt not only shows that all ecclesiastical acts we­
re based on democratic ideals,but also indicates t^iat every opi­
nion had some fcalue in the Buddhist Sahgha.

Sukumar Dutt gives an account of the

Sahgha kamma s. From his account we get an idea of these ecclesias­
tical acts.
 )

He describes, " A primitive avasa was a Republican colony of

Buddhist Bhikkhus as directly democratic in its Constitution as
any City-state of ancient Greece'. The Government was based on
universal suffrage,and every duty qualified member had an equal
right of participation in it .Any transaction which might affect
t^e Sahgha in any way was called a Sahghakamma. There were vario­
us forms Sanghakammat^CT*^ 'Bt**uw**?
Dr.N.Dutt also gives a brief account
of these acts and punishments :

The Sahgha grew up into an out and out

corporate inst’/t^ion and performed every ecclesiastical act of
any importance in an assembly in which the presence in person or
by proxy of all monks dwelling within the sima of an livasa was
compulsory .Every act had to be performed by putting the resolut­
ion in formal words before the assembly once or twice,usually th­
rice and could be passed only on the unanimous con scent of all
the members.There were "avasas in unwanted places in which the
numbers of bhikkhus was so small that no assembly in its proper
sense could be held, so a minimum number was fixed for the vali>~
dity of certain ecclesiastical acts.

Among the ecclesiastical acts figured

largely disciplinary measures taken fox the breach of any rule
for any moral delinquency .procedure for finding out the guilt
of a monk and inflicting punishment therefore,conduct of the mon­
ks while undergoing disciplinary punishment, and the Sangha.The
disciplinary measures as enunciated in the Cullavagga-are ;-
Tajjaniyakamma :

A monk who is quarrelsome and pick -up

quarrels within the Sangha , or one who is foolish and given to
commission of offences ( apatti ),or one who comes into frequent

contact with householders ^deserves censure ( tajjaniyakamma ) .A

monk who is not scrupulous about his moral conduct and doctrinal

views,or one who speaks ill of Buddha and Sangha also deserves

censure ( tajjaniyakamma ).

The procedure for inflicting the taj j -

aniyakamma is as follows r-

The guilty bhikkhn should be first

warned,then reminded of the rule of Patimokkha which he is infri­

nging,and then charged with the offence alleged to Kave been com­

mitted Ki/m- •
 .A qualified bhikkhu is to move thrice before the Sangha
which mast be complete the^tti that so and so is guilty of

such and such an of fence, and request the Sangha,if it thinks fit,
to pronounce the taj janiyakamma against him.The guilty bhikku
also oust be present at the meeting and given an opportunity
to defend himself,or to confess his guilt .Any deviation from the
procedure described above made thse act invalid.

The monk,against whom taj janiyakamma is

pronounced,is denied the following privilages % He cannot
(1 ) Confer upasampada,
(II) give nissaya(instruction) to a samana,
(III) take a sarnagera,
(IV) exhort the nuns even if he had been comm-
anted for the purpose beforehand.
(v) object to the presence of a particular bhi­
kkhu in Uposatha or Pavarana ceremony .
(vl) guide the movements of a younger monk.
(vll) move any resolution for censuring a bhikkhu,
(vill) Warn a monk or remind him of his offence.

If the monk so censured observes the above

restrictions without any demux against any member of the asserdbly
inflicting the punishment, the taj janiyakamma will be revoked .The
revocation will have to be effected by a competent bhikkhu by pla­
cing the case before Sahgha with the request to revoke the punish­
ment^ he guilty bhikkhu also must appear before the Sangha and
respecfully request for its revocation .A competent bhikkhu then
announces the resolution thrice before the Sangha and if there
be no obj ection,the taj janiyakamma is revoked.
Nissayakammas : If a monk,though indiscrete and indiscriminate
in his association with the householders and prone to commit minor

offences, takes part in ecclesiastical matters like giving pari-

\Tasa(probation),rrulaya patikassana (renewal of probatiorp,manatta
^ _ w
(suspension for sanghadi&eSa offences) and abbana (recall of monks

to the Sangha),the Sahgha should pronounce against him nissayakamw

i.e.compel him to take a teacher,abide by his instruct ions, and

study with him the pitakas.The procedure for pronouncing the niss-
*

ayakamma),the disabilities prescribed,and the manner of revoca-

ion are all similar to those of tajjaniyakarrma dealt with above.

pabbajaniyakamma : If a monk becomes a defiler of good families

(kuladijak^) and gives himself up to unholy conducts (papa sama-

cara) like garlanding,and encouraging playing,singing and dancing

deserves pabbljaniyakamma(temporary removal from the monastrery).

The same may also be pronounced ggainst one who is quarrelsome,

unscrupulous about moral conduct and doctrinal views,picks up

quarrels in the Sangha,or speaks ill of Buddha.,Dhamma and Sang-

ha,or one who is frivolous(dava ),or lacks in manner s( ana car a),

or earns his food by @-vil means,or harms others either by spee­

ch or action or both.
A monk punished with pabbajaniyakamma
is required to leave the monastery,behave properly in his new res­

idence',and observe all the restrictions imposed upon him.The res­

trictions imposed upon him.The restrictions imposed and the pro­

cedure for inflicting and revoking the disciplinary measure is

similar to that of taj janiyakaojna.

 130

%atisarapiy akarnma : The patisaraniy akamrna (act one asks for par­
don) is pronounced against a monk who tries to cause loss to a
house-holder,or reviles him,or speaks ill of Buddha, Dhamma and
Sangha in his presence or runs him down.A bhikkhu so punished
should have properly as indicated in the case of tajjanly a karnma,
and the procedure for inflicting and revoking the disciplinary
measures is the same as in tajjania^.Before the Patisaraniyak*^/wva_
can be revoked,the guilty bhikklm is required to approach the
offended house-holder and ask his pardon,or he -; nay take an
attendant (anudata) formally selected by the Sangha to ask for
him pardon of the householder.

Ukkhepaniyakamma : A monk who declines to acknowledge or confess

the offc-zv^ committed by him,or upholds an un-Buddhistic doctrine

is spite of being asked to give it up is liable to Ukkhepaniy akamma
(act of suspension),i.e • he is not allowed to dweLl,or take food
with other monks,or associate himself in any way with them.The
procedure for fixing the guilt upon the offending monk and also
the ultimate revocation of the punishments is the same as that
of tajjaniyakarnma .Besides,the disabilities prescribed for tajjan-
iyak.the monk is prohibited from repeating the offence for which
he is punished,receiving salutations,courtesies,or services from
other monk springing any charge against another bhikkhu, taking
the dress of a householder or a tittbiya,or
1
performing any eccles- »

iastical ceremony in company of other monks.

 J 3!

s,%patikkossana, Missarana ana Osarana •

Three other disciplinary measures are

mentioned in the Mahavagga(ix,4).,viz;., pa t iko sa ncl, ni s sir a na and
Osarana.
Patikkosana (reproving) is a mild form
of disciplinary measure applied for minor derections.A nun,a fem­
ale novice or an insane monk,or a monk against whom ukkhepaniyak-
amma has already been pronounced are not to be reproved .Those
who commit heinous crimes,or joins a titthiya ordersor pass the
sima are also beyond reproval.
^ a.
Niss’arana is^general term for expulsion of
bikkhus from the sang ha while Osarana is the act of revocation
of a disciplinary measure,including parivasa.All the exceptions
mentioned as above in the case of Patikkosancl are applicable to
these two disciplinary measures also.

— Vv
Parlvasa.Nfelay a patikassari^Manatta and Abfyana •

There are four kinds of Parivasa.One of

which is the probationary period of four months prescribed for
persons belonging to Mon-Buddhistic sects and desiring to enter
the Buddhist order .The other three are prescribed for Sanghadi-
sesa of fences. A Parivasika cannot dwell with a regular monk under
the same roof or at the same spot,but he cannot also dwell alone
in a mon^tery in which three is no regular bhikkhu.While under­
going parivasa,a monk is debarred from enjoying the usual pivir
leges of a bbikkhi,some of which are mentioned above ’ in
connection with tajjaniya and ukkhepaniya kammas.
 \3 2
> -

There are several other minor re strict ions, among which one is
that a parivasika monk has got to tell every incoming bhikkhu,
that he is a. parivasika^and the other is that he is to announce
the same personally in every patimokkha or Pavarana assen±>ly.In

short,a parivasika bhikkhu has to behave like an unclean person

and keep himself aloof from the generality of monks.If a monk
fails to observe three of these restrictions viz., sahavasa',vipp-
avasa,and anarocana,he is regarded as having broken the vow of
probation. A parivasika can terminate temporarily his probation­
ary period,and resume it with the permission of the Sangha.

Manatta and parivasa axe prescribed for

Sangha disesa of fences.The former is limited to six days during
which period a monk is debarred from enjoying the usual privileges
of the membership of a Sangha,The latter is of tbree kinds,
(i) paticchanna; (ii) aiddhanta and (iii) Samodhana,If a guilty
monk conceals(paticchadeti) his gaHt for a certain period,his
period of probation extends to the ru fiber of days he had concea­
led it plus the six days for manatta,while for one who has not
concealed his guilt,no parivasa is prescribed,he is to observe
oriy manatta .For persons who cannot remefifcer the nunrber of days
he has concealed the offences committed by him, 9uddhantaparivasa
is prescribed,the parivasa in that ca^e is to extend over as many
days as have passed between the day of his ordlbation and commen­
cement of his parivasa .When an offence is committed during the
period probat ion, the guilty per sort is required to go through the
probation a new and the period of parivasa already obsdyvwd by
him is not taken into account .This is called samodhaha parivasa .
In both fehe cases’,maftatta% also has to be observed after the pari­

vasa period .
 I 3$

It is after the manatta which lasts for six days,that the monk
is recalled (abbhSna) to the Sangha provided he has observed pro­
perly the restrictions imposed upon'him for parivasa and manatta.
If he has failed to do so,he is given mulaya-^atikassana,i.e.
he is to undergo parivasa or manatta anew for the offence commi­
tted by him during the period of parivasa or manatta.

THE PATIMOKKHA CODE .♦ There axe two patimokkha codes,one for the
monks and the other for the nuns.In the 13hikkhu-pati mo kkha there
axeS^p sections,and in the Bhikkhini-patmokkha /w^*>.The eccles-
astical offences are arranged in them in a gradual order from the
more serious to the lighter ones.

kKxik V^tX.'>>-\_crKKKa-
SICTION~ i mentions four offences under the heading Paraj iki=(
litfthose immoral actions by which a bhikkhu is over come (paraj ita),
i.e. make him unfit to remain within the order -)« -Commission of
any of these entails expulsion from the order .These four relate
OjvvS'wxI—
to misconduct with women or anfmsfcfeM^aam dharrmam patisev^rya),
i
•A^ ^
/V
1
1 J

theft (acAilnnam theyyass^khatarn*adiyeyy^murder or abetment of

nurder (manussa viggahain jivita vejfopeyya) and exaggeration of one’s

power of performing miracles (uttar iman^s sad ha mmam attupayi-
kam),

SECT ION-11 deals with thirteen offences under the heading Sa ngha-
disesa( sangha + adi +sesah).It is so called because infliction of
punishment and absolution from the offences mast have the sanction
\

of the Sangha at the beginning and end .A monk is first taken be­
fore the Sangha for the punishment to be undergone by him,i.e*.,
temporary exclusion from the Sangha and so forth,and then after
having undergone the punishment,he is to appear again before the
Sangha (composed of atleast 20 monks) to obtain permission for rej­
oining the order .Of th-^e thirteen offences,tKe fist five relate ~
to sex matters,* the next two( 6 -7 ) to the construction of cott­
ages by monks; nos, 8-9 to false accusations; nos.10-11 to dis­
sensions in the sangha; and the last two(nos. 12-13) to obstina­
cy of monks and their refusal to have admonitions.

SECIIONS-lli speaks of two kinds of offences concerning the con­

duct of a monk with a woman .The guilt of the monk may or may not
be of a serious nature,so the punishment may range from that inf­
licted for Pafajika to that fear Pacittiya .on account of this rea­
son,this section is entitled Aniyata(i.e.,to be decided).
SECTION -IV is called Nissaggiya-picittiyi(naihsargikaprayscitti-
kah). It contains . %& restrictions to be observed by mon­
ks while accepting gifts of robes(civara ) }wooUen mat s( santhatam),
bowl and medicinal requisites- and four miscellaneous rules,one
of which is about the acceptance of gold and silver,two are about
the engagement of monks in buying and selling,and the fourth(no.
30) is a general direction that a monk nust not appropriate to
himself anything given to the Sangha in general-.The punishment
prescribed for the offences falling within this section is that

the things, received by a monk in contravention of the conditioon

imposed,must be given up (nissaggiya) and then he must express
regret for it (pacittiya) formally.
SECTION -V is entitled Pacittiya and contains ninety-two rules1,
which ,it seems,have been drawn up as circumstances have arisen
and hence lack a stem.There are in it restrictions prohibiting
the monks from lying and aLandering, -digging earth or cutting trees
or drinking water careOLessLy and thereby committing insecticide,
 J3r

giving food to the Parivrajakas or Acelakas,-showing disrespect

to the teaching of Buddha,Vinaya teachers dr the rules of the
Patimokkha.' 'instructing unordained persons ox giving ordination
to persons below twenty -not complying with the conditions down
for imparting instructions to nuns,-visiting soldiers or entering
king 's chamber, Removing valuables from a monastery,-giving unne­
cessarily mental pain to comrades?? bringing a false charge of Sah-
ghadisea-a against any monk,-associating with unordained women,-
and disobeying the orders of the Sangha .Besides these prohibitions
there are some general directions regarding bed1, seat,robes,bath
and such other things of daily life of a monk while living in a
monastery .The offences included in this section are regarded not
serious and hence expiation from them is attained by simple con­
fession before a monk or by saLf-imposition of parivasa.
.JCS* _

SECT ION-VL contains four rules and is entitled Patidesaniya ,i.eV,

absolution from the offences included in this section is obtained
by formal confession;ALl the rules relate to the taking of food by
a monk without it being offered by any person';

SECTI0N-VL1 entitled Sekhiya contains 75 instructions,in eight

sub-sections,for the good conduct of monks,By the first twenty-six
rules,bhikkhus axe directed how to enter into the houses of laymen
by the subsequent 35 rules(26-60),they are instructed how to take
food inoffensively and how to behave while eating,and after fini­
shing meals.Rules nos. 6l and 62 prohibit monks from entering into
a sick-room with shoes on,and the rule nos.63-72 point out the pla­
ces and circumstances,in which instructions are not to be imparted
to laymen and the last two (nos. 74 and 75) forbid monks from comm­
itting nuisance on green grass or in water.
 134

As this section deals with more ox less general advices fox good
conduct,no punishment is prescribed for a person deviating from
the rules.

SS3TI0N - VL11 is entitled Adhikarana-

samatha or the ways of settling disputed mat ter s .Observance of the
patimokkha rules occasioned differences of opinion among the mem­
bers of the Sangha and hence,some rules became necessary for their
settlementhe rules are as follows
(1) Samrmkbavinaya (Mvyijt. sarrmakha-vinayah) = the method of settl­
ing disputes . either in the presence of the Sangha,or by
a reference to the Pitakas,or by the disputing per sons, co­
ming ;§ace to face and making up the differ dice.

(2) sativinaya (Muymt.smrtivinayah)=: the method of settling dis­

pute s, arising out of a charge that may have been brought
against a monk who denies it,by requesting him to appear bef­
ore the Sangha and to declare that he is innocent as far as
his memory goes.The members who form such a sangha must be
distinguished in the power of recollection.

(3) Anulhavinaya (Mvyut. amudhavinayah)= the method of settling

disputes,arising out of un-Vinayic acts done by a monk while
he was not in a sane mood in spite of the repeated remonstr­
ance made by other monks against such actions,by requesting
the former to appear before the Sangha and declare that for
some time he lost sanity and regrets for the improper deeds
done by him during that time.
i

(4) fcatinna (Mvyut. pratijna-karakah)= formal ( and not indirect)

confession of a wrong committed by a monk in the presence of
 \37

of another monk who oust be senior to him,Strictly speaking

it should not be included in the Adhikarapa samathas,but

perhaps the questioning of the formality and informality
of a patinna occasioned frequent disputes and that led to
its inclusion in this ok section.
(5) Ye^bhuyyasika (Mvyut.Yad-bhuyasikiyah) = settlement of dis­
putes by votes(salaka) in a large assembly of monks.

Literally the word means that (yad) .

which is to b« settled by a fxesh(bhuyas) appeal to a
large assembly .From the illustration given in the Cullavagg-a
it is apparent that yd)huyyasika method was taken recourse
to only on the failure of the ubbBhika. method( i.e., decision
by a committee formed out of the whole assembly of monks)!

Both the ubbhahika and yebhuyyasika methods of settling dis­

putes axe carried out by means of salaka"(votes),the distri­
butor and scrutiniser of which trust be a well-qualified
monk formally chosed by the Sangha for the occasion as the
sal ate ga Hapa ka .

(6) Tassapapiyya sika(Mvyut.'tat-svabhavaisiyah? ) .This method is

adopted when a monk prevaricates,i.e.,first confesses his

guilt and then denies it or vice-versa .The Majjhima Nikaya.
says that in trying to exculpate himself ,he~,in fact(tindirec­
tly implicates himself in the commission of an offence.
Its procedure is a_s follows : The gui­
lty monk is brought before the Sangha and is reminded of his
guilt .Though he vacillates,he is charged with an offence and
 then after the formal three proclamations the due punishment
is inflicted upon him.
(7) Tinavattlmra^£a(Mvyut. t^naprastaraka }. This method is adopt­
ed when there is the likelihood that the matter of dispute
if discussed in an open assembly will give rise to questions
which may impair the well-being of the Sangha .The Majjhima
Nikaya offers a better interpretation.Ac cor ding to it,this
method is to be adopted only when a group of monks breaks
some laws and they in a body regret for it .The procedure to
be adopted in such cases is to shut up any discussion relat­
ing to the matter .As filth,which,if disturbed,becomes a grea­
ter nuisance,and the safest way is to cover it up by grass,
4

so also some matters relating to the Sangha should be shelved

in the interest of the Sangha.

B hikkhuni-Patimokkha

SECTION - i mentiond eight offences under the heading Patajilea as

against four of the Bhikkbu-patimokkha.of the additional four of
the additional four,the fifth and eighth speak of offences having
a tinge of sexuality (ubbhayajahumandalika, and atthavatthika )whH e
the sixth relates to the suppression of the praj ika” offence comm­
itted by a nun(vaj japaticchadika*) .The seventh prohibits, at nun from
siding with a monk who is under suspension (ukkhittanuvattaka).
SECTION -11 contains 17 r jiles under the heading Sangfia_disesa as
against 13 of the Bhikkhu-patimokkha.,of which 7 are common to both
(nos.7-9,14-17= nos.5,8-9,10,13 of the Bikkhu-p^.Of the remaining
ten,the first deals with quarrelsome nuns,the second with those
who admit into the Sangha a guilty woman .Rules 3,5 and 6 relate to
actions which may occasion moral lapses while rules 4,10 and 11
refer to cases when a nun does not observe the Patimokkha. restric­
tions, viz ., readmitting a suspended .nun without the sanction of
the Sai(gha, showing disrespects to the teaching imparted by a
nun, and resenting a decision of the Sahgha*.The remaining two, 12-13
forbid nuns to associate closely with house-holders and conceal
one another *s lapses.
There is no section corresponding to the
Aniyata section of the Bhikkhu-patimokkha.
SECT ION-111 called the Nissaggiya-pacitt-
iya contains 30 rules like the Bhikkhu-patimokkha.lt is divided
into three sub-sectionss patta.cTvara and Jatarupa, (bowl,robe,and
gold and silver).Eighteen of these rules contained in the last two
sub-sections are identical with those of the Bhikkhu-patimokkha.
Of the remaining twelve,the first prohibits runs from collecting
bowls and the second from appropriating civara untimely .The third
condemns indecision regarding the exchange of robes".Rules 4-10 pro­
hibit nuns from trying to obtain something which the donee did not
intend to give .Rules 11 and 12 limit the price of a nun ?s warm
civara to four kamsas and that of a cotton civara to two and a
half kamsas.
SECTION - IV contains 166 rules underthe
heading pa'cittlya as against only 92 of the Bhikkhu-patimokkha .It
is similar in contents to the Bhikkhi-pa, and does not admit of a
clear dLassfication .The rules deal with the following : warnings
against self-abuse,- prohibitions relating to food,-decorum to
be observed at the house of a host,-keeping away as far as possible
from monks .house-holders and fearful places,-mutual obligations of
nuns,-shirking responsibilities once undertaken,-abiding by the
vassavasa re strict ions,-reverting to householder ’s habits,-size
and making of clvaras as also their distribution,-several restric­
tions to be observed in giving or refusing ordination to females,-
avoidance of articles of lujury,dress and manners not befitting
a nun.

SECT I ON-V contains 8 riCLes under the

heading Patidesaniya as against four of the Bhikkhu-patimokkha .

All the rules are new and have nothing in common with those of
the Bhikkhu-oa .These rules only prohibit nuns who are not sick
A
from begging and partaking of (1) butter,(ii) oil,(iii)honey,
(iv)molasses,(v) meat(vi, (vli) sweet milk and (viii)curds .
SECTION-VL. contain sounder the heading Sekhiya,75 rules which are
identical with those of the Bhikkhu-patimokkha.

SECT I ON-VI1 contains four rules under

the heading Adhikarana samatha and are the same as those in the
Bhikkhu-patimokkha.
Buddhist Monasteries as Centres of Learning -

The history of the Buddhist system

of education is practically that of the Buddhist order or Sangha
Biddhist education and learning centered round monasteries.The
Buddhist world did not offer any educational opportunities apart
from or independently of its monasteries. All education,religi­
ous as well as secular,was in the hands of the monks.They ted
the monopoly of learning and of the leisure to impart it .They
were the only custodians and bearers of the Buddhist culture.

With the beginning as resorts during

the rainy season,the Buddhist monasteries at the next stage tu­
rned into great centres of learning .The account of such a tran­
sition from residences to seats of learning is a remarkable one
in the history of Buddhism in India .Undoubtedly, such a process
of transformation was rather slow,but it was steady.The growth oV
Viharas as educational institutions may also be noticed in the
following passage from the Manorathapurani,the commentary of
the Anguttara Nikaya " Even if there be a hundred or a thousand
bhikkhus practising Vipassana ( meditation ),there will be no
realization of the Noble Path if there is not learning ( Aradd-
ha Vipa^akanam bhikkhunam sat£pi sahassepi sagivijjamine 'mya-

ttiya asati ariyamaggerpativedh© nahoti) .t-}rort:aar^i-bhi^dthtt^p^a’“

ti^sin^-vi^€^«sal^-(-me^£it-at±orr-^-irhe-re_u«ill__tJe''-n0--xeaiiration of
the-no^e-path~4^&he^e-irs-no-learning ( doctrine, pariyatti )".
The same idea is also reflected in other text : " There may or
may not be realization ( Pativedho ) and practice ( Patipatti )
learning enough for the preparation of the Sasana.The vd.se one,
having heard the three Pi takas* vd.ll
 fu­

lfil even both .Therefore, the Sasana (BaLigion) is stabilized when

arning endures". Trie value of learning was,thus,gxeativ felt.
Hence,all able and intellectual monks took to learning, and the
ea thatlearning was of greater importance than practice and
•alization was more firmly established”. Thus a new term,viz.,
mtha.-dhura or the vocation of ” book ”,was added to the Pali ter-
'f ^
nolocy .As a result ,bhikkhus engaged themselves chiefly to study,
ig&pally ,however ,Gantha-dhira implied the learning and teaching
the P4£akas.But gradually its connotation was widened to inc-
3e languages,grammar ,history,logic,medicine and other branches
learning .Thus, in course of time,the Buddhist monasteries hadto
,ce room for secular learning in addition to mere ecclesiastical
aching and religious preaching .The Bhikkhis also became Psycho-
gically prepared to study the doctrines of other faiths as well

some secular subjects.By virtue of such liberable learning the

lastic students became able to oppose the heretics as they would^
ive beasts...................explain away disputations as boiling water
ts frost”. This broadened outlook brought monastic learning into
arger frame-work.The study of a student in the Buddhist monas-
y no longer confined only to the Navanga(Nine '.) i.e.
of Prose and,
9utta (Prose sermons),2.Geyya(sermons in a mixture/verse),
'e^Jyakarana (Veyakararia ), explanations commentaries, 4.Gatha,

nzas,5 .Udana,Pithy say ings,Itivutt.aka,short speeches beginning

h the words, 'This spake the Buddha '*,7. Jataka,stories of for-
bir.ths ofBuddha.,8. Abbhutadhamma ,reports of mirades,9.Vedalfe ,
chings in the forms of questions and answers^ -bat included other
tras and Vidyas which comprised the Four Vedas, Six Angas,Ten
 — / ^
Granthas,Fourteen . Vidyas, Eighteen Silpas and Sixty-four Kala£ .

The Monasteries had also become educational seminaries where admi­

ssion was thrown open ,at a nuch later date,not only to monks but
also W-ttre^later dat~Byftot~nonly—^tmnonfes-bat also to the laity-
irrespective of caste,creed or colour .The accounts of the Chinese
Pilgrims confirm to this effect .Most of the ViK3ras gradually- tur-
ned into great "*Univer sities1 in the early centuries of the Chris­
tian era .This was possible due to keen intellect and enthusiasm of
the monks who were not engrossed in rituals only .The Anguttaran-
ikaya offers us a long list of names of Theras. who were weLl-
r-

versed and experts not only in Buddhist lore,but also in other sub-
j ects.

i&guttara Nikaya^I. pp . 23 - 26)

List of expert monks and nuns

1. One thera excells all in having long experience(rattannf?,jem)

is Anna^Koanna .

2. ............................. in great wisdom (mahapanrianam is siriputta j

3. ......... in having Psychic powers(iddhimantanam) is Maha—
EoggaM"a|na ;

4........................... ‘.in leading life of rogorous practices (dhutavada-

nap) is Maha_Jka ssapa ;
5 ...................................in having divine eyes (Psychic power, dibbaca kk-
hu—hap) is Anurudha;
6 ........................in coming from a high family ^ccakulikanam) is Bha-
ddiya^ the son of Kaligo^&ha,
+S
7 ........................in having a sweet voice(manjussara ) is Lakundaka
Bhaddiva .
8. ......... in making pr.oclamation(sihanadilcanam)
is Pin<|®labharat3vaja;
 (w

9. ........ in delivering sermons is Punna the son of Mantfani.

10 ..................... who is skilled in creating forms by mindpower(manoma-

yam Kayam akhinimmitantanarh) is CuJLapanthaka .

11 ..........................Vre“eminent among those skilled in 'the evolution

of consciousness (sannavivat takusaftanagn) is Mahapanijhaka .

12 ..........................who is declared chief of those who lived in remote

forest and in peace (aianaviharinam agg©) and also of those

who were worthy of gifts(dakkhinef yyanam) . is SubVuti.
13........................... Who was declared by the Buddha foremos—t among forest
dwellers (aranna kanam) is Revietisa called Khadiravaniya .
14. ———among meditator s(JhayTnam) is Kan’kha Revata .
15. . .V......... .. among those who had endeavoured (araddhaviriyanam^>
is Sopa KoliVf-so...
16. .....................declared chief of those possessing clear utterance
(Kalyanavakkarapa ) is SoQ.a Kufikaiapa .
17 ................... .. declared pre-eminent among recipients of gifts
(^abhinam) is Sivaii.
18 ................... .... declared foremost among those liberated by implicit
faith (saddhadhirmttanaiji) is vakkaii
19 ............................ .. declared foremost among the monks who are anxious
for training( SikkRakimena^-) is Rahula.
20 ......................Chief of those who had left Vforld through faith
■ ( saddhapabbaj itanam) is Rat£hap”ala .
21 ............................ Proclaimed the ■ftfe st among those who received food

tickets {pat ha mifiam sa&a kaJft-ganhantanam) is Knp^adhana .

22. .................. .. declared foremost among those pre-eminent in ready
expression (pat ibhamavantanam) is Vanglsa .
23. .......... Considered Chief among expounders in full of the
brief saying of Buddha (sahkhittona bhasitassa vittharena
 attham Vib^osjantanam) is MajieL-Kaccana .

24.................. .... declared to be chief among such monks who were

dear to devas(deva£§ham
V
piyamanapam)
*
is Pilindav'aecha.
\ ,

25- .................. declared to chief among those who instantly com­

prehended the truth (Khi^plbhJjmanam) is Bahiya Daruciriya.
26........................... declared foremost among those who had the gift of
varied ana versatile discouxse(Cittakathikanam) is Kumar a ka-
ssapa.
2 7............................. ranked foremost among masters of Logical analysis
(Patisanbhidappattanasm) is MahaKotthlla.
26........................... ranked by Buddha the foremost bhikkhu in five res­
pects; erudition(bahussuta ), good behaviour (Gatimantanam)
power of walking),retentive memory (satimantanarn),resolutenes
(dhitimontanam ) and personal attention(TJpatthakanam) is
Anand.
27........................... declared to be the chief of those who had large
followings (aggam mabiaparisanajn) is Uruvela Kassapa.
28. .................... declared pre-efiiinent among those who gladdened
the clans(Kuloppasadakanam) is Kaludayi.
29- declared foremost among those who could remember
past births(Pubbeniva’sanussantanam) is Sobhita .
30. ........, declared to be foremost in good health(appabadha-
nam) is Bakula( or,Bakkula).
31. .....«.• Foremost among those who were proficient learned in
vinayadharanajp) is Upali.
32. ............ declared*foremost among exhorters nuns(bhikkhuno
vadaSanapi) is Nandaka.
33 .V.«V.V. declared foremost among those who restrained in sen
ses(indriy esu gutta^jjnam) is Nanda .
34. ..................... .. declared foremost among those who regularly
admonished the monks(bhikkhaovadaKanam) is Maha Kappina-

35. .^.Vv.V. declared foremost among those skilled in the contem­

plation of the heat-aLement(tejodhatukusal’anam) is Sagata.

36.............................. declared foremost among those who could inspire

speech in other s(Pati-~bhanakeyyanam) is Radha .
/

37. ................ declared foremost among wearers of rough^/

clothing(JSukkacivaradfenam) isMogharija.

38. ......................... declared by Buddha foremost among women disc­

iples who had '-experience (rattalnfisnam'} is Haliapajapati Got a ml.
____V___ *

39. ............. ranked by Buddha foremost among women disciples

who had great insight (mahapanrianam) is KHe^S .

40. V.;v. .V.7 declared foremost among those who possessed super­
normal powers (iddh£man€inagi) is Uppaiavanna ).
41.........................declared foremost among women disciples who were pro­
ficient in Vinaya rules(Vinayadharanam) is patacafl,.

From the accounts of monasteries left by

the noted Shinese P3J.grims,Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsanq,we learn that
many distinguished monk-scholars adorned those Viharas which usedto
hold often conventions of learned Scholars for discussions .Naturally
thus,the monasteries lost gradually their inbred and cloistered na-
ture.The Buddhist monks could no longer confine themselves to the
study of their sacred scriptures only .They endeavoured to equip them­
selves with other branches of knowledge aiso,e.g. doctrines of the
rival sects,different systems of Philosophy ,even agriculture,archi­
tecture and the like.
 ! 147

Literary of Contributions of the Buddhist monks and nuns :

\ ___ ____
' ,

There were many Buddhist (pftn and

women saints who were profound Scholar s,highly Educated,wise and

trained in all the arts of learning and acquired high status in

the-society .Many of them were poets and poetesses of high stan­

dard and created a Kavya literature in Pali which rentes*''the high

by the merit of poetic excellence and diction .The literary contri­

butions of the ^uddhist Theras or Bhikkhus < - and Theris or Bhi-

kkhuiris are represented in the TheragatCa, i.e., songs of the Eld­

ers’ and Theri.^atha

V
,i. e. »» Songs of the Lady Elders” and both are

canonical texts included in the Khuddakanikay a and contain "reli­

gious poems which, in force and beauty,are fit to rank with the

best productions of Indian Lyric poetry,from the hymns of the Rig-

-
veda to the lyrical poems of Kalidasa and Aaaaru ".
- he

The Thera gat ha contains 107 poems with

1279 stanzas ( gathas) and the Therigatha contains 73 poems with

522 stanzas,which are ascribed by tradition to certain Theras and

Therms mentioned by name. ” This Tradition ”, in words of M. Winter-
^7 a
nitze, is guar an ted to us both by the manuscripts and by the

commentary of Ehammapala,probably composed in the 5th century A.D.,

which also contains narratives in which a kind of life-history of

each of these TKerac and Theris is told.These narratives,however ,

are either merely adapted from the verses,or they are pure inven­

tions,or have been borrowed from various narrative worksIEfoey are

entirely unau then tic ; neither is the tradition of the names of

the Thera s and Theris as the authors of the verses on the whole,

trustworthy. However,the tradition is right in assuming for these

poems,not one author,but many authors,and certainly in ascribing

the authorship of the songs partly to monks and partly to nuns.
Some of the songs which are ascribed to various authors may, of
course,in reality be the work of only one poet,and conversely , some
stanzas ascribed to one and the same poet,might have been composed
by various authors ; there may also be a few songs among the
" Songs of the Lad/ E-leders" , composed by monks,and possibly a
few songs among the " Songs of the Elders ", composed by nuns but
in no case can these poems be the product of one brain.If the same
phrases frequently recur and tone of the poems is,in many respects,
uniform it only proves that they all bear stamp of the Buddhist
mind. n,H>D ■

Common to both collections are the

religion ideals where are set up and the moral doctrines which
are proclaimed by these monks and nuns know of nothing higher than
the profound calmness of mind for which even the gods envy the
saint,which is won by the extinction of passion,hatred and illus­
ion and by the renunciation of all sensual inclinations and tende-
ncies,ancj gives a foretaste of that highest bliss,Nirvapa,the
end of all suffering in tke consciousness of release from rebirth.
Blessed is the monk who is equally insensible to joy and sorrow,
who feels neither hunger nor cold : blessed the nun who can say of
herself ( Therig"q^76) :

" Now all the evil bonds that fetter gods

And men are wholly rent and cut away.
Purg’d are the Ursa vas that drugg’d my heart,
Calm and content I know Nibbana’s Peace.
These ideals,like tWe ethical doctrines,the noble

fourfold path,gentleness and kindness towards all beings(metta ),

n on-viol ence(ahimsa ), self-control,and so on,are common to these
songs as well as to the sayings of the Dhammapada and the poems
of the monks and the nuns is,however,.that they are personal confe­
ssions, or describe personal experiences.Proudly a monk relates how
wife and child in vain endeavoured to disturb his peace - " Then
my heart wag set at liberty "(Therag.299 ff.).Another one recalls
to mind the courtesan whose blandishments he....

The songs of the Elders abound in attacks

on the wpman, temptregs - this snare,this bondMwho never ceases to
threaten and divert the monk from his holy living. However ^merous
may be the women who come,boastr one monk,they will not seduce me
(Therag.738 ff. )'.A monk describes in a most gruesome manner,how he
was led to the truth by the sight of the decaying corpse of a wo­
man (Thera g, 315 ff.,393 f f.). In contrast to these ugly pictures
there are many more beautiful ones.We hear of a monk whose own mot­
her led him to the truth, for which he thanks her in beautiful
words.In another song a monk consoles his mother by telling her
that,after all,he has not died (Therag.44) .Another one relates how
he ..eked out a miserable existence by picking up dead flowers,how
he came to the Buddha and found liberation (Therag.620 ff.J.Yet
another,aCcording to tradition the son of a king's chaplain,tells
how,proud of his noble birth,his wealth and his beauty,he lived a
life of infatuation,until he saw the Buddha,and was converted
(Therag.423 ff.).A king,who has become a monk,compares his present
life as a beggar with his erstwhile splendid court life (Therag.
842 ff. ).Yet,in the Songs of the Eiders,references to external exp-
erinces ar^ comparatively rare.As a rule th^r only describe the
inner life of the monks,mostly in short poems of a few verses each.
However,in the verses ascribed to the Thera Talaputa,we have also
 \V'&

a long and splendid poem,the soliloquy of a monk striving after ho­

liness. aire enough,in the songs of the ELders(TheragatH§),the cha­
rging descriptions of nature ar«t largely instrumental in making
many of these religious poems real gems of Indian lyric poetry;.The
love of nature which we have already met with in the Ratnayana as a
prominent feature of Indian poetry,which we admire in the ornate
epics and in the love lyrics,and even in the didactic gnomic poe­
try, was not foreign to these monks in spite of all their renuncia­

tion of the world.More poet than monk',they delight in lingering

over the description of the forest and mountain scenery,in the midst
of which the solitary sage pursues his meditations,When the thunder
rolls and the torrential rain pours down out of the dark clouds,
the liberated monk sits in bliss in his rock cavef.Even the saint who
is indifferent to pleasure and pain does not refrain from descri­
bing the spring.
The love of nature is also shown in many
beautiful similes.The sage is compared to a rock,which stands firm,
or to an elephant.The monk who is proud of his monk’s robe is like
the monkey in a lion's skin.The self-restrained monk sits like a
lion in his den.We find an elaborate accumulation of similes in one
of the " Son§s of the Lady Elders" (Therig.112 ff.).As the peasant
ploughs the field,sows the seed and reaps,so the nun desires to
attain Nirvana ; while washing her feet she sees the water trick­
ling down the rock,and, stimulat ed to reflection by this sight, she
curbs her heart as one tames a noble steed;then she goes into the
convent5,takes the lamp,and with a needle,draws down the wick,and
as the light of the lamp goes out,she attains Nirvana?.This artistic
intertwining of similes already recalls the embellishments (alarnka-
ras) of ornate poetry,and so do some very artificial word-plays
which occasionally occur ♦

IV*
In the TherigatHas each of Theris is said
to have uttered the gathac generally to express her joy at the
attainment of arhathood(arahatta) or perfect emancipation(vimutti),
but in sane cases we find the Buddha himself,car a disciple is utt­
ering the verse to advise the Theri to lead a virtuous life.The
gathas of Mutta(verse 2) PunriS (3),two Tisias (4-5),two Efa1raTs
(5-7),Mittif (8),Bttdd^, (9:),Upasama, (10), 3imaria (14)‘tAbhirupa-Nand^.
(19-20),Abhaya (35-36) Ubbirl ( half of the poem 51), gundari Nan da*
(82-83) and Gutta* (163-168) are put to month of the Buddha and

some are started by him and completed by the Theri’.Ther efar e,it is
not certain that Theris to whom verses are allotted are real compo­
sers of those particular verses.lt Is done by the compilers who gave
the final shape to the IherXq'atha.
It is certain that the most of poems or
songs were composed by the Tter1s.M Winter nit z opines, It is beyond
any doubt,that a great majority of the nun^ songs have been compo­
sed by women.In particular,the monks would never have shown so much
sympathy for the female members of the comnsinity that we could exp­
ect of them that they would have composed the songs which come dir­
ectly from hearts of woman-folk ;We need recall to cur minds the
difficulty which according to tradition,Gotama created for foster
mother when she wanted to found a nun’s Order,and the ^roaches
which were made against Ananda in several places of canon on account
of his attitude favouring women?.For the same reason it would have
never occured to the monks to ascribe songs to women,if an incon­
testable tradition had not pointed in this directions.Mrs.Rhys
Davids{ Ref .Psalms of Sisters, p.xxiii ff.) has pointed cut the di­
fference in language, feeling on tone between monks’ and nuns’songs.
We need only read two collections (Thera gat hi and Therlgatha) one
after another to believe that in the nuns* songs often %ven a pers­
onal note is struck which is unknown to the monk's song,that in
the nun^» songs we'bear more often external experiences that in the
monks* songs nature descriptions dominated wherueas in the nuns'
songs life-picture prevail/

The Buddhist women saints or Theris who led

holy life,had mastered aOLso the literary art of eKpression,have de­

scribed successfully under what circumstances they took shelter and

achieved their high religious ideals by observance of moral teach­
ings proclaimed by the Buddha.The Theris have revealed their pre­
vious domestic life,so also the position of women in the Society
as well as profound doctrine of Buddhism.TJbb)-ri.- mau3 with grief at
the loss of her JIva everyday goes to cemetery and wanders about
restlessly until consoled and enlightened by Gotama Buddha that
previously thousands and thousands of daughters like Jlva were cre­
mated in the cemetery and she is admitted to the Buddhist Order
of nuns (Bhikkfaujii-Safngha ) .Under same circumstances Vasitthi at the
loss of her son entered the order of nuns by the sympathy of the
Buddha.The poor girl Kiia Got ami gave birth to a son who died in
iftts childhood.Mad with sorrow she asked medicine from people but
in vain.At last one "man suggests to her to go to Buddha who tells
her to bring mustard seed from a house where none died before .She
roames from door to door but did not find any such a house .At la-st
she realises that the death is universal and she was admitted to
Order .Pafacara was born in a respectable family of Srava-stl but
falling in love with’the servant left the house and lived in a cott-
age of a village.While she was lying in pains on tfoe road,her hus­
band died,tf£terwacds she lost her two sons and also parents.
Mad with grief she took shelter in the Qrder#Many disciples of
Patacara and other women are led to nun’s Order through the ..loss
of children.In one poem we find a poor widow Canda lost her all
relatives and went begging from house to house and suffered for want
of food and cloth for seven /ears and by chance came to nuns,by whom
she was received sympathetically .admitted to the Order and through1:
her kind teacher Patacara found out the path of Nirvana .Uttama ,

who is the daughter of Brahmin priest of SravQ-sti hears the discou­

rses of the Buddha and being pleased took admission into the Order
and says; ’'These seven constituents of enlightenment to the ways
to the obtaining of quenching,have all been developed by me as tau­
ght by the. Buddha.I am attainer of the empty (or) the singless (asp­
ect of nibKana ).whichever is wanted';( I am) the true daughter of the
Buddha , alway s delighting in quenching'. All sensual pieasur es, those
which are diving and those which are humane, have been cut out.Jour­
neying on from rebiith to rebirth had been completely annihilated,
0here is no renewed existence. ”
Many other women like Sela who is a princess
of Al®svl (57 - 59 }, Siha,niece of tke general Siha of Veis’ali( 77-81),
9un4ari Nan da, a Sakyan girl and the closed relative of Gotami( 82-86 ).
Bhadda ftin^aiakesi( 107-111),MahIpajapati Gotami, stepmother and
mother’s sister of Buddha,RohinT who is born in rich Brahmin family
(271-290) and SundarT (312-337) and so on have received admission
/

to the Order of Nuns by %He Bud4ha. * Anop<&ma,the extraordinarily

beautiful daughter of rhe Banker of Saketa,who was reluctant towa­
rds worldly life and her mind always engaged in hig'Ker thought,
appro&ches~the Buddha and hearing kiLs discourses hac been attrac­
ted -to celHxJite life.Xhe sons of riclvmen,^v€n tfa? princas
interested in her and arse of them sent message to fc\er f&tKer .
" Sight times as much ac she weighs.will I give gold for her &nd
treasures of precious mor eover ,give her to me. But 4nopama has
heard the Buddha and prefers the life of a Bhikkhupl.Many women
such as Simana~(l6) sister of the King Pasenodi of Kosala, Dhamma (17)
who is born in a respectable family ^ddhak^sl (25-26 ) daughter
of a famous rich. man of KasX ^bhaya (35-36) who is born in a
respectable family of Uj jay ini, say s i
” Deligting in vigilance because of many
painful objects the annihilation of craving has been obtained by
me.The Buddha's teaching has been done by me, ” Gitta (163-68) who
is born of ^respectable family,Cali* (182-195),and Sisupac&la
(195-203) both the sisters of Sariputta, Vaddhama fa^^O^ -212) who
is born in a. respectable family of Bhflruk&ech®- ;Uppalava£r}S-(224-
235),a beautiful daughter of a merchant of Ifavasti and Capa(295-
311),a daughter of the chief of hunters all disgusted and disinter­
ested in domestic life embrace the mendicant life.In a poem Sona
(102-106) who has distributed all her properties to her sons and
daughters-in-law after her husband has left the house but being
dishonoured and disgusted in household life entered the Order of
nun s'. Bhamma dinna (12),wife of a richman named Vi sakha, taking permi­
ssion of her husband embraced the life of a celfcbate.Two women
both holding the same name Sama.(37-40)being unable to bear the
sorrow for death of their friend Samavati have become Buddhist nuns.
Hearing the admonition of TherT, Dhammadinna, 3ikfca"(54-56 )who is born
in a respectable family of Rajaqrha and Vaddhesi(67-71) wh© is a
nurse of Mahapajapati Gotami have become bhikkhuni and like all
other attaining emancipation(arahatta). So, also Vijaya (169-174)
under TherT Khema and Mutt*iT(2), Dantika^48-50),Bhaddakapilani(63-66)
Gutta ( 163-168),3ubha (338-365),Punna~ (3),9ibha Jivaka-ambavanika
(366-399)and many others under Mahapajapati Gotami have received
admission into the Carder of nuns.Vima^, (72-76) being grown up ta­
kes up mother «s profession as har!ot,has seen the elder Mahamogga-
ll"ana,one of the chief disciples of the Buddha and falling in love
with him has tried to allure him .But Mogg-'-allana has rebuked her
and delivered religious discourse.Being ashamed and repented Vimala
has become a Bhikkhani.Punpika(236-251 )born as a slave-girl of Ana-
thapin^ika at Sravasti has been so much successful to convert a
brahmin to her opinion that her master has gladly released her from
bondage.At last she enters the Order of nuns .
Isidasi (400-447), the daughter of a wealthy
merchant of Ujjeni has been undesirable wife for one husband after
another,renounces from domestic life and has entered the order of
nuns under thefl Jinadatta.Besides these tragic circumstances under
which women of various grades in the society are compelled to renou­
nce the world and getting admission into Order of nuns have scope
for self-culture and relief in the blissful Nirvana,there are also
some humourous causes for renunciation.For Example,Mutta.(ll),dau­
ghter of a poor Brahmin and married to a hunchback husband,is glad,
through her admission into Order of nuns,to be free from the thra­
shing of rice and unwanted husband,she expresses humerously ,saying
that she is now free from " three crooked things " - mortar, pestle
and and the hunchback husband.Mutta has attained emancipation being
released from birth and death (muttamhi jati-maraga) »» that which
leads to renewed existence has been rooted out” (bhavanetti sanHiha-
ta).
- The Buddhist Theris have acquired so much
skill in poetics and mastery over the language that one or mere asp­
ects of the profound doctrines,religicus ideals and moral teachings
of Buddha are extolled properly in each poem of the TherXgatha cf
which some have been mentioned above. Vijaya says : " Four or five
times I went forth my cell,not having obtained peace of mind(ala-
ddha cetaso santiig),being without self mastery over the mind(citte
avasavattini).Having approached a bhikkhuni,I have honoured her, I
questioned(her ).She taught me the doctrine,and the elements(dhatu)
and sense-bases (ayatanani),the four noble truths (Cat tar i ariya
saccani),the faculties(indriyani) and the powers(balani),the consti­
tuents of enlightenment (bojjhanga) and the eightfold way fgr the
attainment of supreme goal (atthangikap magga|n uttamatthassa patt-
iya).
Uttar a Therl in her song (15) after attain­
ment of emancipation tells us that being restrained in body, speech
and thought and having plucked out craving root,she has become cool
and quenched. Sang ha theri in almost same language expresses : 'Giv­
ing up my house,having gone forth,giving son,cattle,and what was so
dear,giving up desire and hatred,and having discarded ignorance,
pluc&ing out craving root and ail,i have stilled,quenched.The main
p\l®pose of the poems of Abhirupa-Nanda ,Khema and SundarT Nanda is
to establish the Buddhist view that the human boe^r is diseased
(atturam),impure (asuci) and rotten(pUti) and one should devote the
mind,intent and well concentrated,to(contemplation of) the unplea-
sant(asubha) .This boty gives forth a rotten evil smell (dugandham
putikam vati) which is the delight of fools(ba4aMam abhinanditam ).
Pa^acafa expresses in languages embellished with appropriate simile:
" Ploughing the field with ploughs, showing seeds in grounds,nour­
ishing wives and children,young brabmanas find wealth.Why do I,
possessed of virtuous conduct,complying with the teaching of tea­
cher, not obtain quenching? ( I am) not slack and puffed- up.
 IS7

Having washed feet,I paid attention to the waters ; and seeing

the foot-water come to the low land from the high,I concentrated

my mind,like a noble thoroughbred horse.

The transited in ess of worldly phenomena

such as aggregates of exist ence(Khandba ), the sense-bases fay atana }

and elements(dhatu) is expounded in the verses of Vaddhesc,Ut tama

and Mit taka'll. Thetis particularly in the gat hi s of Ambapali it is

explained nicely. Ambapali,the famous courtesan of Vesali is an ado­

pted child of nature and is grownup amidst natural beauty and s>has

drawn some similes from nature and fits them well in proper cont-

ext'.To expound the transitoriness,she has used her p^rsical beauty

as example and described like expert poetess how that beauty of

younth decayed in old age. ®ys : "My hair was black, like bark-

fibres of hemp ( kaia bhamaravapna sadisa ,vellitagga mama muddhaja

ahum,te jaraya sanavaka sadisa )r.FUll of (covered with) flowers my

head was fragrant like a perfumed box,now because of old age it sme­

lls like dog’s (fur )!,possessing fine pins, decorated with gold, ador­

ned with plaits,it looked beautiful,because of old age that head has

been made bald,formerly my eye-brows looked beautiful,like cresc­

ents well-painted by artists; because of old age they droop down wi-
. O’ J-—I

tfc wrinkles(Cittakarasukala va lekhita, sob hate su bhamuka pure mama,

ta jara~ valihipalambi€a ^formerly try teeth looked beautiful,like

the colour of the bud of plantain ; because of old age they axe

broken-indeed yellow (pattalimakulavanpa sadisa, sobha'ce sudanta

pure mama,te jaraya khapeia y ava pi taka ;;) sweet was my warbling ,

like a cuckoo wandering in the grove in a jungle thicket,because of

old age,it has flattered here and there (Kananamhi vanasande carini,

Kokila va madhairam nikujitam ,tam jaraya khalitam tahim tahim)

formerly both my breasts looked beautiful,swelled,rcund,

close together,lofty, (now) they hang down like waterless waterbags
(pinava tt a - sa hitugga ta ,ub ho sob ha t e sa thanaka pure mama, te rindi
va lambante n o da lea ^formerly both ray thirds looked beautiful like
an elephantfs trunk j because of old age they are like stalks of
bamboo ( nagabhogasadisopama ubho,sobhate suli.ru pure mama.te jaraya
yatS veluna^iyo) ; formerly both my feet looked beautiful,like
(shoes) full of cotton-wool ; because of old age they are cracked
and wrinkled ( Tiilapunnasadisopama ubho,sobhate su pada pure mama5,
tu jaraya phutitaT valimata). 9uch was this body,(now)it is decrepit,
the abode of many pains.an old house , with its plaster fallen off
(ediso ahu ayam samussayo ,jajjaro bahudukkhanamalyo sopalepatito
jaragharo ) ". Subha,the goldspith's daughter,who has become a slave
in household life and being disgusted in domestic life joins the
order of nuns,has composed her poem in twenty-four verses or namen-
ted with poetic cloak preaches Buddhistic teachings in her lyric,
Ma'hapajapati Gotami,the step-mother of Gotama Buddha,by whose ini­
tiative the Order of nuns(bhikkhupi samgha) was established,pay s
homage to the Buddha,who saved many from suffering, in her poem.The
Bhikkbqni Jlubha JTvakambavanika,composer of a poem consisting of
thirty-three verses, tells us that one day a certain rogue, dint tako
of Rajagaha, blocks her way while passing through the mango-grove,
pleaded her to sensual pleasures in his company repeatedly praidng
the beauty of bee eyes.Then Subha extracts one of her eyes and hands
it to him and at this rogue,full of shame and repentence begged
excuse.
The poetess Therl 9imedtia,the composer of
the longest poem of the TherTg'atha and the daughter of the King of
Kon©9 of MantavatT and bethroned to Anikaratto,king of Varanavatl

is virtuous (siljL a va^ti), brilliant speaker (cittakatha),having great

learning(bahussu'ta ) and trained in Buddha's t eachings( Buddha sasa-

sane vinita) .being disgusted in household life she joins the Or d££r
of nuns»attians as usual the arhathood and composes verses to expr­
ess her views on war Idly things and religious outlook : " I delight
in quenching,existence non-eternal,e£en if it is as deva ; how much
mor e(non-et ernal are empty sensual plea sure, giving little enjoyment,
and distress). Sensual pleasures ,in which fools are bemused,like
a snake’s poison consigned to hell for a long time,they are beaten
and pained.Wty should I cling to this foul; body ,impure, smelling
of urine,a frightful wafc-er-bag of carpses,always flowing,full of
impure things?; i-; I 3 . .~ o’

Sensual plea sires are like swards and stakes

a disease, a tumour evil destruction,like a pit of coals,the root

of evil ,fear .slaughter .Those who a re intent upon the teaching of
the ten-powered one(Bu<4Uia dasabala) have nirvana ; having little
greed they strive far the elemination of birth and death. ,f
The Buddhist women are credited with the con­
tribution of writing the dramatic literature in Pali in very early
time of Bud4hism .There are twelve dialogue git has in the Therigatha
which may be taken as the earliest specimens of drama that survive
in ancient Pali literature and that a few of them can be satisfact­
orily explained by the dramaturgy .As no emphasis has been laid upon
action,all tfeose types of writings judged by modern standar ds.^ave
come to be regarded as dramatic poems,rather than as plays proper!
These dialogue gathas written in ballad style are composed,accord­
ing to tradition,by Seia, Sonia,Cala,Upacal*a, Sisupacala, Vaddhamata,
Uppalavanpa, Punnika, Rohipi, capa, SindafT and SibHa J^vakam-bavanika.
The git£as adcxibed to Sindafl and SUbHa J^rakambavanilca earn sup­
reme perfection as gat ha dialogue. The gath-s of Sela~,Ca Ia,U p a eala *

-Sisupacali and UppalavannI contain dialogue of each of these Theris

with Mara and remind us those of the Bhikkhunis and Mara in the
m

Bhikktiifil Samputta of SapjyuttaniklTyar.Her e also Mara tries to diss­

uade the nuns from the path of Nirvana but in" vain .The Gat has of
Punnika prove the non-efficacy of so-called holy water of a river
to purify- sins of a man and other dialogues discuss the views on
Buddhist Doctrine.
-w. _
The language of the Therigatha is on the
whole much simpler and ©notional that of the Thera gat ha. Simi­
les and metaphors used in this work have a beauty of their own and
not traceable in other Pali textsVAn intimate acquaintance with the
Indian natural scenery and detailed knowledge of the habits,modes
of thoughts and traditions of the Indians are essential elements
of Pali similes and metaphors.The bulk of them are also culled from
the domestic life.The language is throughout chaste,refined and
■M-

ornamented with alakars.

f\

Simplicity of style and clarity of thought

are the chief characteristic of the poetry in the Therigatha .The
nuns are skilled in the use of upama and rupaka‘,the other figures
of speech which they employ with success are yamaka and pun .They
are also skilled in the use of metres,frequently employ sloka Gana-
— „ \y<& ____ -
cchandas,Rathoddhata ,Vaitali^a Tristubha,etc. Indeed the Therigatha
is the unique contribution of the Buddhist women in the history of
Indian poetic literature.
 HI

References :

1. Ana kill Chandra Banerji, Buddhism in India and Abroad,p.160

- 2. N.Dutt,Early Monastic Buddhism 1,p.274

3. Bela Bhattacharya,Buddhist Women Saints of India p .48.

4. Mah$_vagga,p-22 » Gokul Dey, Democracy in the Early BUddhist
Sangha,p-20.
5. N.IXitt, Early Monastic Buddhism,i,p,279.
6. Matiavagga ,p.40
7. Oillavagga,i,Nalanda edition.
8. There are four stages on the path of attainment of arhathood
namely (1) S<3bapatti magga ,i .e. the stream-winner ; (2) Saka-

dagami,i,e. Once-returner ; (3) Anagarni-magga and.i^e. Never-

Returner; (4) Arahantamagga,i.e., One who % has attained arh-/
athood ; tfuje summum bonum of Buddhist religious aspiration
( Nibbana }- Bela Bhattacharya,Buddhist Women Saints of India,
P.56.
9. Bhabbo Anando matugamo Tathagatappavedite-dhamma-vinaya -
agarasma anagariyagi Pabbajitve sotapattiphalagi pi. sakadagami-
phabam pi .anagamijl^alam pi arahattaphalam pisacchikatunti -
Anguitaranikaya ,1V,276 ; Vinayapitaka, n, 254.
10. Cullavagga ( P.T.5),X,1,4.

• I.B.Horner, Women under Primitive Bu4dhism,p.H9.

12. ibid.
13. ibid. Hp .119 - 120
14. ibid, p .120
15. ibid, p .120
16. ibid' -

17. ibid-
i&d.
03
•
 I

19. Apadana,vor.ii, p.584

-■4

20. Women under Primitive Buddhism,p.102

211 Bani Chatterji,Pali Sahitya Mari, p.42
22. Bela Bhattacharya,Buddhist Women ,saints of India
23. Cullavagga,lX,l,4.
24. ibid, 1,32
25. Vinaya Pitaka,i,p.i2 ; MaHavastu,iii,p.i80
26. ibid ,p .12
27. Dhammapada AtthakstMT,ip .95
28. Vinaya Pitaka,iv,p.214
29. Vinaya Pitaka,1 ,pp .21-22*.
30. MaKavagga - 1,29,1 ; 49,6,51,1.
31. Vinaya Pitaka, l. pp. 55-66.
32. Msfoavagga,l,pp55-56.
32. Mahavagga,l,pp, 55-56
33. 7? BuldLhist Jurisprudence,pp.68-71.

34. Mahavagga,vi,31,l4
3 5. ibid, J-.641, 741
3 6. ibid,ii,35.
37. ibid. ii,27,8
38. Cullavagga,ii
3 9. MaHavagga,iii,l3
40. ibid. 14/6; Cullavagga,lx
41. cullavagga,v,11.
42. MaHaVagga,viii,
43. Edgei ton .Franklin, Bi«$4ki.st Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and
Dictionary ,Vol.,ii, p.505.
44. ~ Das,Sarat Chandra,! Tibetan-English Dictionary with Sans­
krit Synonyms,p.1002
 1&S

45. Vinayapitaka,ii, p.207, DLgheniksya ii, p.7,( P.T.S.);

Anguttara nikaya iii, pp .51,SI,249. ( P.T.S.)
46. Suttanipata, p. 220
47. Vinayapitaka i, p.58 ; Samyuttanikaya, i, p.i85 ; Jataka
i, p .126 ; Mllin<La_Penha, p,212 ; . Visuddhimagga, p.292.
48. Everyman’s Encyclopaedia ( 4th. ed. ), Vol. vii ; p.625
49. Horner, i,B, tr. The Book of the Discipline, Vol .iii, p.
325'. fn.

50. Rhys - Davids, T.W.and Stede,William,,

The Pali Text Society’s Pali English Dictionary ,pt., viii
( 1925 ed. ) p.101.
51. Qillavagga, vi, 1,8,3,10.
52. Law,B.C. Early Indian Monasteries, p.i.
53. MaHavagga, vi,23,l.

54. Horner, I.B.tr. the Book of the Discipline, Vol .ii,pp .Xlix,2
55. Zimmer,Heinrich. The art of Indian Asia,'vol.i, p.246.
56. Geiger. W^Mahivamsa, p.297.
57. Ferguson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture,
( 1910 ed ). i,p.l70.)
58. Acharya,Basanna Kumar, An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architec­
ture . P^ 466.
59. Dutt, Buddhist monks and Monasteries of India, p .93,
60. Childers, Dictionary of the Pali language. ( See under
* Vihara 5•
Samantap'asadika' ( Simon Hewavitarne Bequest
61. Serico,Colombo ) PP, 568-569 ( Viharo ti an-iogabbho va
annam va Sabhaparicehannam gutta - Senltjsanam .4.

62. Marshall John and Foucher Alfred, The Monuments of San chi,

Vol.i. p. 61.
63. CUllavagga,i ti
64. Gokul Das De, Democracy in Early Buddhism, p. 19
65. The Canons of Indian Art ( Firms K.L.Mukhopadhyay,
Calcutta ), pp. 64-65.
66. Dipak Barua,Viharas in Ancient India,p.10.
67. CUllavagga,vi,1.5.
68. Sacred Book of the East,Xlli, P.299
69. MahSvagga.iii, 2,2.
70. Sukumar Datta, Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India,
P.54:.
71. CUllavagga, vi ,ii, 3i
72. Dipak KUmar Barua,Viharas in Ancient India
73. Rakila Walpola,Hi story of Bud hism in Ceylon pp.180 - 181
74. CUllavagga, v, 1,1,1.5.
75. Mahivegga,iV.
76. Nlinaksha Dutt, Early Monastic Budd_-hism, vol,1, p.293.

77. Mahavagga,1,30,4
78. eullavagga,Vlll, 4, 3.
79. ibid, vill,5.2.
80. Mahavagga, Vi 11,26.
81. ibid, vlll,27
82. ibid, 111,6,1-2.
83. Cullavagga,vi,lO
84. MaViavagga,l,25,7.
35. ibid,1,32,1
86. ibid,1,53,4.
87. ibid, 1,2,6.
88. R.C.Majumdar, corporate Life in Ancient India, p.29
Vi

89. Mahavagga,1,26.
 90. Rhys Davids I.W.and Stede W, Pali -English' Dictionary (P.T.S.)
P.96.
91. Sama_ntapSsadika~ ( P.T .S.),vol .l,pp .47-48.
92. Vinaya Texts 1, p.178.
93. S.Dutta,Early Buddhist Monarchism,p.181.
94. Takakusu J.A, Record of the Buddhist Religion as practised
in India and Malay Archipelago by It~sing,p.l20.
95. ibid,pp .105-106.
96. Mahavagga, 1,26
97. ibid,1,25.
98. ibid,1,27
99. ibid,1,36.
100. ibid,1,55
101. Samyutta Dikaya,1,128-33
102. Cullavagga,x,8,l.

103. Vinaya Pitaka,lV,pp.333; 336-337.

* 1
104. CUllavagga - X,102
105. Vinaya Pitaka,lV, p. 342J
106. ibid,lV, pp.342-343.
107. Cullavagga,X,2l
108. ibid ,X, 1.2.
109. Vinaya Pitaka,iV, p.313 ; Bhikkhunl Pacittiya, p.56.
110. I .B.Hoiner,Women under Primitive Buddhism, p.218
111. Vinaya Pitaka,IV, p.252.
112. ibid ,1V,P.250.
113. ul &vagga,X,iO,l.
114. ibid,X,10
115. ibid,X,27,2,note-2

116. Vinaya Pi;taka,iV,P.288.

117. ibid,iv,p.345.

118* I.B.Horner,Women under Primitive Buddhism,p-222 ; Dipak

Krmar Benia, Vitiaras in Ancient India,pp.36-38.

119. Mahavagga,i,38.
120. Qillavagga,ii, 1,2.

121. ibid., 1,9,13

122. ibid ,vm ,7.

123. Mahavagga,iX,i5,4.

124. Oullavagga.iV, 4.

125. Sacred Books of East ( S & E ),Vol.i3, XXVLi.xxx.

126. Mahiavsgga,iii, 5,9.

127. CUllavagga.ii

128. Mahavagga.ii.

129. ibid,iv,2,1,

130. Mrs.Rhys’ Davids,Buddhism, p. 204.

131. Mahavagga,X,4,7.
132. Qillavagga,Vii,i,6.

133. Mahavagga, ix,l

134. Cullavagga,v,293 ; H.Oldenberg, Buddha,pp.162,383.

135. Mahavagga, v,i,*9

136. Anguttara Nikaya,ill, 81,143

137. Vinayapitaka, lv, p.343

138. ibid, lv, p.344.

139. Cullavagga,X,i.

140. Sukumar Dutt, Early Buddhist Monachism,pp.145-146.

141. Rhys Davids says, " The earliest Buddhist records reveal

tke survival side by side with more or less powerful monar­

chies, of Republics with either complete or modified inde­
pendence 1 - Buddhist India,pp.2 - 22 .
142. Modern Review, Jbne,i9l3 pp.
143. Early Monastic Buddhism,l,pp. 313- 323.
144. ibid, 1, pp.298-312.
145. Rahulo Walpola,History of Buddhism in Ceylon, pp .158-159.

146. M'.Winternitz, History of Indian Literature pt,n, p. 99

147. ibid, p.lCX)
148. Bgla Bhattacbarya, Buddhist Women Saints of India, pp.142
150.
149. Asha Das, A Literary Appxisal of^detical Works, p-146.
150. ibid, p-149.