Concepts in Research 1

Research Methods
CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH
September 17, 2020
Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 1 / 50

Course Outline
The outline of the course is given as follows.

1 Concepts of Research
2 Research topic Identification
3 Research Proposal writing
4 Processes in Research and Research in Mathematics
5 Thesis (or Report) Writing and Presentation
6 Ethics of Research
7 Writing research reports using LATEX.

Course Outline...References
The reference materials that we shall use for this course are:
1 Alan F. Beardon, (2009), Creative Mathematics, A Get Way to
Research, Cambridge University Press.
2 Marguerite G. Lodico, Dean T. Spaulding, Katherine H. Voegtle
(2006), Methods in Educational Research, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3 Nicholas J. Higham (1998), Handbook of Writing for the
Mathematical Sciences, Society of Industrial and Applied
Mathematics, Philadelphia.
4 John W. Best and James V Kahn (2003). Research in Education.
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
5 Tobias Oetiker Hubert Partl, Irene Hyna and Elisabeth SchleglTobias
Oetiker (2018), LATEX2E in 139 minutes.

CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH
This part is divided into four sections and these are:

1.1 Sources of Knowledge
1.2 Definitions of research
1.3 The need for research
1.4 Types of research.
We shall see these in some details.

What is knowledge?
There are different definitions for knowledge.
Knowledge is facts, information, and skills acquired through
experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of
a subject
awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation
Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness, or understanding of someone or
something, such as facts, information, descriptions, or skills, which is
acquired through experience or education by perceiving, discovering,
or learning.
Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a
subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or
explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be
more or less formal or systematic.
What is knowledge?...
In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology; the

philosopher Plato famously defined knowledge as ”justified true
belief”.
Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes:
perception, communication, and reasoning; while knowledge is also
said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgement in human
beings.

Sources of Knowledge
There are two major approaches of knowing the world: Everyday

experience and Science.
Everyday Experience as Sources of Knowledge
As we live in this world and interact with our surroundings we may be
confronted with new ideas that may have important impact on our
lives.
We get access to this new information through our senses — the
most immediate way of knowing something.
This is what we call sensory knowledge.
Why is the grass green and the sky blue?

Sources of Knowledge ...
We may also use the opinion of others as sources of knowledge.

We might have experienced a stimulus with our senses but we want
to check on the accuracy and authenticity of these sensations.
We often ask:
Does this food taste delicious to you?
Did you hear someone cry for help?

There are also other ways of knowing from our everyday experiences.
The Method of Tenacity
The term tenacity refers to the acceptance of a belief based on the
idea that we have always known it to be this way.
In other words, it represents the automatic acceptance of the
prevailing traditional beliefs and customs in which we have been
socialized.
We accept those beliefs and customs as true without exploring them
and then behave or react accordingly.
Even when we come across evidences that contradict our beliefs, we
still tend to stick to our traditional belief.

As a way of learning about the surrounding world the method of tenacity

has two problems:
The information may gain wide acceptance through its familiarity
alone.
Tenacity offers no means for correcting wrong ideas.

Sources of Knowledge ... The Method of Authority
If we enter into a new culture, we may experience so many things to

which we are not familiar.
If we are naive to most of the practices, what we do is, we ask
someone in that culture who is supposed to have the knowledge an
authority figure.
We are likely to ask others whom we think have a wealth of experience
and knowledge about the cultural practices of the community.
We may, then, accept a new idea or information stated by this
authority figure.
In many cases, referring to an authority, especially in areas about
which we know nothing, is useful and beneficial. We often rely on the
judgment and expertise when we consult, for example, electrician,
civil engineer or chemist.
Sources of Knowledge ... The Method of Authority ...
Remember that authority can be incorrect and at times can lead

people in the wrong directions.
Hence, it is important to examine the basis of the authoritys claims.
We have to raise questions like, are these claims based on opinion,
tradition, or direct experience?
How valid are the sources of this information?

Sources of Knowledge ... The a Priori Method
The idea that underlies the a priori method is that first we develop general
knowledge, opinion, or belief about the world through the aforementioned
methods or personal observation of things around us and then we draw new
and specific conclusion from this general knowledge.
As a result it is also known as a deductive reasoning. Our intellect allows us
to use sensory data to develop a new kind of knowledge.
Reason and logic are the basic tools of an a prior method and often take the
form of a logical syllogism such as All men are tall; Alemu is a man;
therefore, Alemu is tall. However, logical conclusions may not necessarily
lead to correct conclusions.
We all use reason everyday as we try to solve problems and understand
relationships. As useful as it is to be reasonable, however, reason alone will
not always produce the appropriate knowledge.

Sources of Knowledge ... Common Sense
This method of knowing offers an improvement over acceptance based on

tenacity, authority, or reason because it appeals to direct experience.
Common sense is based on our own past experiences and our perceptions of
the world.
It originates from our day-to-day practical experiences and in turn guides our
daily interaction with our surrounding.
Note that our experiences and perceptions of the world may be quite limited.
The concepts that we have about the world may be seriously misleading.
Although common sense may help us deal with the routine aspects of daily
life, it may also form a wall and prevent us from understanding new ideas.

The Scientific Method as a Source of Knowledge
Science is a body of systematized knowledge.

In scientific method ideas are evaluated and corrected through
dispassionately observing by means of our bodily senses or measuring
devices - in this case science can be seen as a systematic and
controlled extension of common sense - and using reason to compare
various theoretical conceptualizations based on experience which
represents a direct application of the principles of logic.
This blend of direct sensory experience (or measurement) and reason
gives science a self-corrective nature.
One of the characteristics of science is a reliance on information that
is verifiable through experience. That is, it must be possible for
different people in different places and at different times using the
same method to obtain comparable results.
Science and common sense differ in terms of:

the use of conceptual schemes and theoretical structures
the notion of control
the explanations of different observed phenomena
The difference between common sense and science revolves around the concepts
systematic and controlled. Scientists systematically build theoretical structure,
test them for internal consistency, and subject aspects of them to empirical test.
The scientific method of knowing is scientific research, and its goal is the
discovery of regularities of nature and their representation in theories from which
predictions can be made.

The steps in the scientific method guide researchers in planning,

conducting, and interpreting research studies. Scientific research follows
logical steps, which include:
defining the problem
making tentative explanations (hypothesis)
gathering information
testing the validity of the hypothesis
making conclusions as to whether the hypothesis can be accepted or
rejected

Scientific methods:
find general rules,
collect objective evidences,
make testable statements,
adopt a skeptical(doubtful) attitude about all claims,
are creative,
are public, and
are productive.

It should be noted that, apart from its importance in knowing the world,
the scientific method of knowing has some limitations.
The scientific method cannot answer all questions
Application of the scientific method can never capture the full
richness of the individual and the environment
The measurement devices always have some degree of error.

Definitions of Research
Research can be defined as follows:

Research is an activity which is undertaken to increase human
knowledge
Research is a critical process of asking and attempting to answer.
Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under
study.
Research is hunting for facts or truth about a subject.
Research is an organized scientific investigation to solve problems,
test hypotheses, develop or invent new products.

Definitions of Research...
Research is systematic, because it follows certain steps that are logical in

order. These steps are:
Understanding the nature of problem to be studied and identifying
the related area of knowledge.
Reviewing literature to understand how others have approached or
dealt with the problem.
Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as to arrive
at valid decisions.
Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.

Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING

ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.
SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of procedures and steps
which you will follow. There are certain things in the
research process which are always done in order to get the
most accurate results.
ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in going about doing
research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one.
It is focused and limited to a specific scope.

FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer

to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is
successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is
no, but it is still an answer.
QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then the
answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful,
and important questions. Without a question, research has
no focus, drive, or purpose.

The general systematic characteristic of research is illustrated by the

following diagram
Problem Identification
↓
Reviewing Information
↓
Data Collection
↓
Analysis
↓
Drawing Conclusions

Characteristics of Research
High Quality Research is characterized by any one of the following:

It is based on the work of others.
It can be replicated (not duplicated).
It is generalizable to other settings.
It is based on some logical rationale and tied to theory.
It is doable!
It generates new questions or is cyclical in nature.
It is incremental.
It is apolitical activity that should be undertaken for the betterment
of society.

Characteristics of Research ...
Research follows a scientific method:

This means that it makes an integrated use of inductive and
deductive reasoning.
This makes it very useful for explaining and/or predicting phenomena.
The basic assumption of the scientific method is that every effect has
a cause.
It starts with the construction of hypotheses from casual observations
and background knowledge (inductive reasoning) to reasoning out
consequences or implications of hypotheses (deductive reasoning)
followed by testing of the implications and confirmation or rejection
of the hypotheses.

Purposes of Research
The purpose of scientific research is problem solving. The problem could

be of an immediate and practical value or it could be of theoretical nature.
That is, research focuses on answering various questions and acquiring
new knowledge. We do research:
To provide solutions to complex problems
To investigate laws of nature
To make new discoveries
To develop new products
To save costs
To improve our life
Human desires

Types of Research
There are different ways of classifying research. Some of these are:

based on approach,
based on purpose,
based on methods;
Based on the approaches researches can be classified into two as
Quantitative Research and
Qualitative Research.

Types of Research: Quantitative Research
It is systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and

phenomenon and their relationships.
The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ
mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural
phenomena.
Quantitative research involves numerical or statistical data. Emphasis
is on the quantifiable observations of the research, i.e. numbers are
involved.
This type of research is mainly objective.

Qualitative Research
Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such

behavior.
In qualitative research data are often in the form of descriptions, not
numbers. But sometimes results of qualitative research are subjected
to relatively less rigorous quantitative treatment.
Often the goal of qualitative research is to look for meaning.
Qualitative research is aimed at gaining a deep understanding of a
specific organization or event, rather a than surface description of a
large sample of a population.
It aims to provide an explicit rendering of the structure, order, and
broad patterns found among a group of participants.

Qualitative Research...
It generates data about human groups in social settings.

Qualitative research does not introduce treatments or manipulate
variables, or impose the researcher’s operational definitions of
variables on the participants. Rather, it lets the meaning emerge from
the participants. It is more flexible in that it can adjust to the setting.
Concepts, data collection tools, and data collection methods can be
adjusted as the research progresses.
Qualitative research aims to get a better understanding through first
hand experience, truthful reporting, and quotations of actual
conversations. It aims to understand how the participants derive
meaning from their surroundings, and how their meaning influences
their behavior.

Qualitative Research...
Qualitative research uses observation as the data collection method.

Observation is the selection and recording of behaviors of people in
their environment. Observation is useful for generating in-depth
descriptions of organizations or events, for obtaining information that
is otherwise inaccessible, and for conducting research when other
methods are inadequate.
A case study, an example of a qualitative research, which is an
in-depth examination of one person.
Qualitative research is much more time consuming, but provides more
richness to the data.

Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research
They are different by the sampling techniques and sample size:

Quantitative research uses random sampling with large sample size.
Qualitative research uses purposive sampling with small sample size.

Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative
Research...
Quantitative and Qualitative researches also different in the data gathering

tools.
Quantitative research uses mostly closed ended questions.
Qualitative research uses fundamentally open ended questions.

Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative
Research...
They also differ in data analyzing instruments.

Quantitative research uses statistical tools in some sense, that is,
T-test, Chi-square, Anova, etc.
Qualitative research uses analyze data in descriptive form.
Quantitative research uses deductive reasoning/ theory verification.
Qualitative research uses uses inductive reasoning.

Types of Research: Based on PURPOSES(Goals)
Researches are also classified based on their PURPOSES(Goals).

The ultimate goal of a research is problem solving, but the degree to
which the research findings are applicable to an educational setting and
the degree to which they are generalizable are different. On the basis of its
purpose research is classified into two: Basic Research and Applied
research.

Basic Research
Basic research is a research to building theory and it is also called

pure or fundamental research.
The primary objective of basic research is the advancement of
knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among
variables.
The motivation behind basic research is to expand human knowledge
and it is mainly carried out in universities.
Basic research lays down the foundation for applied research that
follows.

Basic Research
Basic research may take one of the following forms:

Discovery - a totally new idea emerges.
Invention - a new method or technique is created.
Reflection - an existing theory, technique or groups of ideas are
re-examined.

Applied Research
Applied research is a research designed to solve practical problems of

the modern world.
The primary objective of applied research is to improve human
conditions, that is, its purpose is testing theories that are generated
by pure science.
Applied research is conducted in relation to actual problems under the
conditions in which they are found in practice.
It yields findings that can be evaluated in terms of local applicability,
but not in terms of universal validity.

Types of research: Based on Methods
Another way to classify research is on the basis of the METHOD

employed in the research. Research method is characterized by the
techniques employed in collecting and analyzing data. On the basis of
method, research can be classified as: Experimental and
Non-experimental research.

Methods: Experimental
It is divided into two: Purely Experimental and Quasi-Experimental

Purely Experimental
Purely Experimental research is a research in which the researcher
manipulates a variable under highly controlled conditions to see if this
produces (causes) any changes in a second variable.
It is the research where participants are assigned to groups based on
some selected criterion often called treatment variable.
Experimental researches are used when the researcher is interested in
determining cause-and-effect relationships.

Purely Experimental
This method can be used when it is appropriate, both practically and

ethically, to manipulate the variables.
A major limitation is that this method can only be used when it is
practical and ethical for the researcher to manipulate the antecedent
conditions.
Another limitation to this method is that experimental studies are
usually done in the highly controlled setting of the laboratory. These
conditions are artificial and may not reflect what really happens in the
less controlled and infinitely more complex real world.

Quasi-Experimental Research
Quasi-experimental research is an experimental research where participants

are preassigned to groups based on some characteristic or quality. The
group assignments have already taken place before the experiment begins,
and the researcher has no control as to what the people will belong to
each group.

Non-Experimental Research
Non-experimental research is divided into: Historical, Descriptive,

Correlational, Ex-post facto and again descriptive research is divided
into: Case, Survey, Content Analysis.

Historical Research
Historical research is a research conducted to arrive at conclusions

concerning trends, causes or effects of past occurrences, which can
help in explaining present events and anticipating future events.
The data are not gathered by administering instruments to
individuals, but rather, they are collected from original documents or
by interviewing the eye-witnesses (primary source of information). In
case primary sources are not available, data are collected from those
other than eye-witnesses (secondary sources).

Descriptive Research
Descriptive research studies deal with collecting data and testing

hypotheses or answering questions concerning the current status of
the subject of study.
It deals with the question ”WHAT IS” of a situation.
Descriptive research concerns with determining the current practices,
status or features of situations.

Descriptive Research...
Another aspect of descriptive research is that data collection is either

done through asking questions from individuals in the situation
(through questionnaires or interviews) or by observation.
Descriptive and historical research provide a picture of events that are
currently happening or have occurred in the past.

Correlational Studies
A correlational research aims at determining the degree of relationship

between two or more quantifiable variables.
The relationship thus determined could be used for making
predictions. But a high value of relationship does not signify a cause
and effect relationship which must be verified through experimental
research.

Correlational Studies...
Correlational research are studies that are often conducted to test the
reliability and predictive validity of instruments used for division
making concerning selection of individuals for the likely success in a
course of study or a specific job.
A correlational study describes in quantitative terms the degree to
which the variables are related.

Ex-Post Facto/Causal-Comparative Studies
There is some research where both the effect and the alleged cause
have already occurred and are studied by the researcher in retrospect.
Such research is referred to as Ex-Post Facto(after the fact).
Thus, in ex-post facto research or causal-comparative research the
researcher has no control on the variables or he cannot manipulate
the variables (independent variables) which cause a certain effect
(dependent variables) being measured.
Though it too describes conditions that exist in a situation, it
attempts to determine reasons or causes for the current status of the
phenomena under study.

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Research Methods

September 17, 2020

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 1 / 50

The outline of the course is given as follows.

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 2 / 50

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 3 / 50

This part is divided into four sections and these are:

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 4 / 50

In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology; the

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 6 / 50

There are two major approaches of knowing the world: Everyday

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 7 / 50

We may also use the opinion of others as sources of knowledge.

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 8 / 50

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 9 / 50

As a way of learning about the surrounding world the method of tenacity

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 10 / 50

If we enter into a new culture, we may experience so many things to

Remember that authority can be incorrect and at times can lead

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 12 / 50

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 13 / 50

This method of knowing offers an improvement over acceptance based on

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 14 / 50

Science is a body of systematized knowledge.

Science and common sense differ in terms of:

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 16 / 50

The steps in the scientific method guide researchers in planning,

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 17 / 50

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 18 / 50

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 19 / 50

Research can be defined as follows:

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 20 / 50

Research is systematic, because it follows certain steps that are logical in

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 21 / 50

Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 22 / 50

FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 23 / 50

The general systematic characteristic of research is illustrated by the

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 24 / 50

High Quality Research is characterized by any one of the following:

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 25 / 50

Research follows a scientific method:

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 26 / 50

The purpose of scientific research is problem solving. The problem could

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 27 / 50

There are different ways of classifying research. Some of these are:

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 28 / 50

It is systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 29 / 50

Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 30 / 50

It generates data about human groups in social settings.

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 31 / 50

Qualitative research uses observation as the data collection method.

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 32 / 50

They are different by the sampling techniques and sample size:

Research Methods CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH September 17, 2020 33 / 50

Quantitative and Qualitative researches also different in the data gathering