CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Energy is one of the most fundamental elements of our universe. It is inevitability for
survival and indispensable for development activities to promote education, health,
transportation and infrastructure for attaining a reasonable standard of living and is also a
critical factor for economic development and employment.

In the last decade, problems related to energy crisis such as oil crisis, climatic change,
electrical demand and restrictions of whole sale markets have risen world-wide. These
difficulties are continuously increasing, which suggest the need of technological
alternatives to assure their solution. One of these technological alternatives is generating
electricity as near as possible of the consumption site, using the renewable energy
sources, that do not cause environmental pollutions, such as wind, solar, tidal and hydro-
electric power plants. Hydro-electric power is a form of renewable energy resource,
which comes from the flowing water. To generate electricity, water must be in motion.
When the water is falling by the force of gravity, its potential energy converts into kinetic
energy. This kinetic energy of the flowing water turns blades or vanes in a hydraulic
turbine, the form of energy is changed to mechanical energy. The turbine turns the
generator rotor which then converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy and the
system is called hydro-electric power station.

The first hydro-electric power systems were developed in the 1880's. According to the
international energy agency (IEA), large-scale hydro-electric plants currently supply 16%
of the world's electricity. However, such kind of projects requires tremendous amounts of
land impoundment, dams and flood control, and often they produce environmental
impacts. Micro-hydro-electric power plants are one of an alternative source of energy
generation. The water flowing along natural and man-made canals, conducted by low and
high-pressure pipes, spilling over weir crests and moving the turbines involves the
application of fundamental engineering principles in fluid mechanics.

1
 They are the smallest type of hydro-electric energy systems. They generate between (5)
and (100) Kilowatt of power when they are installed across rivers and streams.

Hydro-electric power, electricity produced from generators driven by turbines that

convert the potential energy of falling or fast-flowing water into mechanical energy. In
the early 21st century, hydroelectric power was the most widely utilized form of
renewable energy; in 2019 it accounted for more than 18 percent of the world’s total
power generation capacity.

In the generation of hydroelectric power, water is collected or stored at a higher elevation

and led downward through large pipes or tunnels (penstocks) to a lower elevation; the
difference in these two elevations is known as the head. At the end of its passage down
the pipes, the falling water causes turbines to rotate. The turbines in turn drive generators,
which convert the turbines’ mechanical energy into electricity. Transformers are then
used to convert the alternating voltage suitable for the generators to a higher voltage
suitable for long-distance transmission. The structure that houses the turbines and
generators, and into which the pipes or penstocks feed, is called the powerhouse.
Hydroelectric power plants are usually located in dams that impound rivers, thereby
raising the level of the water behind the dam and creating as high a head as is feasible.
The potential power that can be derived from a volume of water is directly proportional
to the working head, so that a high-head installation requires a smaller volume of water
than a low-head installation to produce an equal amount of power. In some dams, the
powerhouse is constructed on one flank of the dam, part of the dam being used as a
spillway over which excess water is discharged in times of flood. Where the river flows
in a narrow steep gorge, the powerhouse may be located within the dam itself.

Hydropower is a very clean source

of energy, which
does not consume but only used
the water and again
2
make it available for other uses. It
involves the
conversion of the potential energy
of water into
mechanical energy, which is a
technology with higher
efficiency, in most cases double
that of other
conventional electric power plants
(Energy saving trust,
2003). Hydroelectric power plants
already supplies over
6% of the world energy needs and
over the next decades
much of the growth in renewable
energy source will result
from large-scale hydroelectric power
project particularly
3
in the developing world. The basic
principle of
hydropower follows that; if water
can be piped from a
certain level to a lower level, then
the resulting water
pressure can be used to do work.
This means that
hydropower involves the use of
potential energy released
by the weight of the falling water
through a vertical
distance to generate energy. If the
water pressure is
allowed to move a mechanical
component, then that
movement involves the conversion of
the potential energy
4
of water to mechanical energy which
can be used to drive
an electric generator, a grinding or
some other useful
devices
Hydropower is a very clean source
of energy, which
does not consume but only used
the water and again
make it available for other uses. It
involves the
conversion of the potential energy
of water into
mechanical energy, which is a
technology with higher
efficiency, in most cases double
that of other

5
conventional electric power plants
(Energy saving trust,
2003). Hydroelectric power plants
already supplies over
6% of the world energy needs and
over the next decades
much of the growth in renewable
energy source will result
from large-scale hydroelectric power
project particularly
in the developing world. The basic
principle of
hydropower follows that; if water
can be piped from a
certain level to a lower level, then
the resulting water
pressure can be used to do work.
This means that
6
hydropower involves the use of
potential energy released
by the weight of the falling water
through a vertical
distance to generate energy. If the
water pressure is
allowed to move a mechanical
component, then that
movement involves the conversion of
the potential energy
of water to mechanical energy which
can be used to drive
an electric generator, a grinding or
some other useful
devices
Hydro-power is a very clean source of energy, which does not consume but only used the
water and again make it available for other uses. It involves the conversion of the
potential energy of water into mechanical energy, which is a technology with higher
efficiency, in most cases double that of other conventional electric power plants
(Energy saving trust, 2003). Hydro-electric power plants already supplies over 6% of
the world energy needs and over the next decades much of the growth in renewable

7
energy source will result from large-scale hydroelectric power project particularly in the
developing world. The basic principle of hydropower follows that; if water can be
piped from a certain level to a lower level, then the resulting water pressure can
be used to do work. This means that hydropower involves the use of potential energy
released by the weight of the falling water through a vertical distance to generate energy.
If the water pressure is allowed to move a mechanical component, then that movement
involves the conversion of the potential energy of water to mechanical energy which can
be used to drive an electric generator, a grinding or some other useful devices

8
 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 WHAT IS SMALL HYDRO-POWER

Small hydropower is a well-developed small-scale renewable energy technology that can

provide safe and clean electricity to rural and urban areas. Untapped small hydropower
potential exists worldwide and could deliver upwards of 173 gigawatts (GW) of new
energy. To put this in context, the current US small hydropower capacity is 21.6 GW,
where the average residential home consumes around 901 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per
month. Hydropower is created by the flow of water over a turbine or water wheel that is
connected to an alternator or generator, which in turn generates electricity. The electricity
can be used onsite, directed into the transmission grid for utility-scale distribution, or
stored in batteries for later use. While there is no international definition of small
hydropower, most concur that small hydropower generators are those that produce up to
10 megawatts (MW); however, this threshold is by no means a universal consensus. For
example, for regulatory purposes, India draws the line at 25MW, China at 50MW, and
the United States at 30MW. A facility producing less than 1MW is generally labeled
mini-hydropower; less than 100 kilowatts (kW) is generally labeled micro-hydropower;
and less than 5kW is generally labeled pico-hydropower. Small and mini facilities usually
contribute electricity to the regional or national grid, while Pico and micro facilities are
generally used for isolated individuals and villages. This article will focus on mini, small,
and medium hydropower up to 30MW, referring generally to them as “small
hydropower.” Small hydropower is flexible and can be located on rivers, in canals, locks,
pipes, lakes, or just about any running waterway without the need to install elaborate or
expensive dams. It can also be placed on existing infrastructure, such as an existing dam
or other flood-control mechanism. This specific placement maximizes efficiency and
minimizes environmental harm. Planning a small hydropower scheme The definitive
project or scheme comes as the result of a complex and iterative process, where
consideration is given to the environmental impact and different technological options.

9
 These are then costed and an economic evaluation carried out. Although it is not easy to
provide a detailed guide on how to evaluate a scheme, it is possible to describe the
fundamental steps to be followed, before deciding if one should proceed to a detailed
feasibility study or not.

2.2 MICRO HYDRO-POWER

Micro hydro-power can be one of the easiest and consistent forms of renewable energy
on your property. If you have water flowing through your property, you might consider
building a small hydropower system to generate electricity. Micro hydro-power systems
usually generate up to 100 kilowatts of electricity. Most of the hydropower systems used
by homeowners and small business owners, including farmers and ranchers, would
qualify as micro hydro-power systems. But a 10-kilowatt micro hydro-power system
generally can provide enough power for a large home, a small resort, or a hobby farm. A
micro hydro-power system needs a turbine, pump, or waterwheel to transform the energy
of flowing water into rotational energy, which is converted into electricity.

2.3 PICO HYDRO-POWER

Pico hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power generation of under 5 kW. These
generators have proven to be useful in small, remote communities that require only a
small amount of electricity – for example, to power one or two fluorescent light bulbs and
a TV or radio in 50 or less homes. Even smaller turbines of 200–300 W may power a
single home in a developing country with a drop of only one meter. Pico-hydro setups
typically are run-of-stream, meaning that a reservoir of water is not created, only a small
weir is common, pipes divert some of the flow, drop this down a gradient, and through
the turbine before being exhausted back to the stream.

10
 Like other hydroelectric and renewable source power generation, pollution and
consumption of fossil fuels is reduced, though there is still typically an environmental
cost to the manufacture of the generator and distribution methods. Manufacturers have
sold pico-power plants at prices as low as $20–70 for a power plant of 300–500W.
However, the devices sold are said to be low in quality and may damage connected
equipment if connected improperly.

Table 1: Classification of small hydro-power by size [kW (kilowatt) =1000 Watts;

MW(Megawatt) = 1000000 Watts or 1000 kW]

Small-hydro 1-15 usually feeding into a grid

Mini-hydro From 100kW up to 1MW;either stand alone scheme or more often
feeding into the grid
Micro- From 6kW up to 100kW; usually provide power for a small community
hydro or rural industry in remote areas away from the grid
Pico-hydro From a few hundred watts up to 5kW

A list of the studies that should be undertaken:-

 Topography and geomorphology of the site.
 Evaluation of the water resource and its generating potential
 Site selection and basic layout • Hydraulic turbines and generators and their
control
 Environmental impact assessment and mitigation measures
 Economic evaluation of the project and financing potential
 Institutional framework and administrative procedures to attain the necessary
consents.

2.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HYDRO- ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

11
In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water due to its high location is
converted into electrical energy. The total power generation capacity of the hydroelectric
power plants depends on the head of water and volume of water flowing towards the
water turbine. The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy• The kinetic
energy due to flow of water and • Potential energy due to the height of water. In
hydroelectric power and potential energy of water is utilized to generate electricity. The
formula for total power that can be generated from water in hydroelectric power plant
due to its height is given P= q*h*g Where “p” is the power produced in “watt” “Q” is the
rate of flow of water which in cubic meter/second Hydro Power Principle “h”= height of
water which is measured in “meter” It’s also head of water. The difference between
source of water (from where water is taken) and the water’s outflow (where the water is
used to generate electricity, it is the place near the turbines). “g” is the gravity constant
9.81 m/second square The formula clearly shows that the total power that can be
generated from the hydroelectric power plants depends on two major factors

a. The flow rate of water or volume of flow of water

b. Height or head of water

More the volume of water more the head of water more is the power produced in the
hydroelectric power plant.

To obtain the high head of water the reservoir of water should as high as possible and
power generation unit should be as low as possible. The maximum height of reservoir of
water is fixed by natural factors like the height of river bed, the amount of water and
other environmental factors. The location of the power generation unit can be adjusted as
per the total amount of power that is to be generated. Usually the power generation unit
is constructed at levels lower than ground level so as to get the maximum head of water.
The total flow rate of water can be adjusted through the penstock as per the
requirements. If more power is to be generated more water can be allowed to flow
through it.

12
2.5 The advantages that small hydro-electric power plant has over the same size
wind, wave and solar power plants are:

 High efficiency (70-90%), by far the best of all energy technologies.

 High capacity factors (> 50%) compared with 10% for solar and 30% for wind power
plant.
 Slow rate of change; the output power varies only gradually from day to day not from
minute to minute.
 The output power is maximum in winter.

13
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 MAJOR ELECTRICAL COMPONENT FOR CONSTRUCTING A SMALL

HYDRO-POWER PLANT

There are seven major component for constructing a small hydro-power plant:

 Forebay and Intake Structures

 Head Race or Intake Conduits
 Surge Tank
 Turbines and Generators
 Power House
 Transformers
 Trail Race and Draft Tube.

 Forebay and Intake Structures:

A forebay is a basin area of hydropower plant where water is temporarily stored before
going into intake chamber. The storage of water in forebay is decided based on required
water demand in that area. This is also used when the load requirement in intake is less. We
know that reservoirs are built across the rivers to store the water, the water stored on
upstream side of dam can be carried by penstocks to the power house. As the name suggests
forebay is an enlarged body of water in front of intake. The reservoir acts as forebay when
penstock takes water directly from it. When canal leads water to the turbines the section of
the canal in front of turbines is enlarged to create forebay. The forebay temporarily stores
water for supplying the same to the turbines. The water cannot be allowed to pass as it comes
in the reservoir or the canal. At intake gates are provided with hoist to control the entry of

14
water. In front of the gates trash racks are provided to prevent debris, trees, etc., from
entering into the penstock. Rakes are also provided to clean the trash racks at intervals.

Intake structure is a structure which collects the water from the forebay and directs it into
the penstocks. There are different types of intake structures are available and selection of
type of intake structure depends on various local conditions. Intake structure contain some
important components of which trash racks plays vital role. Trash racks are provided at the
entrance of penstock to trap the debris in the water. If debris along with water flows into the
penstock it will cause severe damage to the wicket gates, turbine runners, nozzles of turbines
etc. these trash racks are made of steel in rod shape. These rods are arranged with a gap of 10
to 30 cm apart and these racks will separate the debris form the flowing water whose
permissible velocity is limited 0.6 m/sec to 1.6 m/sec. In cold weather regions, there is
chance of formation of ice in water, to prevent the entrance of ice into the penstocks trash
racks heated with electricity and hence ice melts when it touches the trash racks. Other than
trash racks, rakes and trolley arrangement which is used to clean the trash racks and penstock
closing gates are also provided in intake structure.

 Head Race or Intake Conduits:

They carry water to the turbines from the reservoir. The choice of open channel or a pressure
conduit (Penstock) depends upon site conditions. The pressure conduit may be in the form of
a flared intake passage in the body of the dam or it may be a long conduit of steel or concrete
or sometimes a tunnel extending for few kilometers between the reservoir and the power
house. The pressure conduit does not follow the ground contours and any gradient is given to
suit the site conditions. The velocity of water in the power conduit is also higher than in the
open channel. Up to about 60 metres head the velocity may range between 2.5 to 3 0 m/sec.

For higher heads the velocity may be still higher. Sometimes it is convenient or economical
to adopt open channel partly or wholly as the main conduit. The head race canal may lead
water to the turbines or to the penstocks and is usually adopted in low-head installations
where head losses are relatively important. The advantage of an open channel is that it could
be used for irrigation or navigation purposes.

15
 Surge Tank

A surge tank is a storage reservoir fitted at some opening made on a long pipe line or
penstock to receive the rejected flow when the pipe line is suddenly closed by a valve fitted
at its steep end. A surge tank, therefore, relieves the pipe line of excessive pressure produced
due to its closing, thus eliminating the positive water hammer effect.

Surge Tank in Hydro Power Plant

It is done by admitting in the surge tank a large mass of water which otherwise would have
flown out of the pipe line, but returns to the tank due to closure of pipe end. It also serves the
purpose of supplying suddenly an additional flow whenever required by the hydraulic prime
movers at any instant. The surge tank is mostly employed in a water power plant or in a large
pumping plant to control the pressure variations resulting from rapid changes in the flow.

In the case of water power plant, when there is sudden reduction of load on the turbine it
becomes necessary for the governor to close the turbine gates for adjusting the flow of water
in order to keep the speed of the turbine constant. However, the water is already on its way to
the turbine. When the turbine gates are closed, the moving water has to go back. A surge tank
would then act as a receptacle to store the rejected water and thus avoids water hammer On
the other hand when there is an immediate demand on the turbine tor more power the
governor re-opens the gates in proportion to the increased load, thus, making it necessary to
supply more water. For a long pipe it takes a considerable time before the entire mass of
water can be accelerated. The surge tank which is generally located near the turbine will meet
the suddenly increased demand of water till such time the velocity in the upper portion of the
line acquires a new value. Similarly for a large pumping plant with a long delivery pipe, a
surge tank can also be employed to control the pressure variations on the delivery side, which
result due to sudden shut down or starting up of a pump. When the pump is started, most of
the initial flow from the pump enters the surge tank thus reducing the water hammer effect m
the delivery pipe. On the other hand when the pump is shut down suddenly, the surge tank
provides extra space to accommodate water which would come back, thus relieving water
hammer pressure.

Functions of Surge Tank:

16
The surge tank serves the following purposes:

i. Control of pressure variations resulting from rapid changes in pipe line flow, thus
eliminating water hammer effect.
ii. ii. Regulation of flow in power and pumping plants by providing necessary
accelerating or retarding head.

Location of Surge Tank:

Theoretically a surge tank should be located as close to a power or pumping plant as

possible. The ideal place in case of power plant is at the turbine inlet, but it is seldom
possible in case of medium and high head installations because it will have to be made very
high. In order to reduce its height, it is generally located at a junction of pressure tunnel and a
penstock (see Fig. 20.5) or on the mountain side.

 Turbines and Generators:

Turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. The mechanical
energy developed by a turbine is used in running an electric generator. It is directly
coupled to the shaft of the turbine. The generator develops electric power. A turbine
consists of a wheel called runner. The runner is provided with specially designed blades
or buckets. The water possessing large hydraulic energy strikes the blades and the runner
rotates.

Water turbines may be classified under two types, namely:

i. Impulse or velocity turbines, and

ii. Reaction or pressure turbines.

Impulse Turbine:

In the impulse turbine, all the available potential energy or head is converted into
kinetic energy or velocity head by passing the water through a contracting nozzle or by
guide vanes before it strikes the buckets. The wheel revolves free in air and water is in

17
contact with only a part of wheel at a time. The pressure of water all along is
atmospheric.

In order to prevent splashing and to guide the water discharged from the buckets
to the tail race, a casing is provided. An impulse turbine is essentially a low-speed wheel
and is used for relatively high heads. Pelton wheel, Turgo impulse wheel and Girard
turbine, are some types of impulse turbine. In the Pelton wheel water strikes the runner
tangentially.

Reaction Turbine:

In a reaction turbine, only part of the available potential energy is converted into
velocity head, at the entrance to the runner. The balance portion remains as a pressure
head. The pressure at the inlet of the turbine is much higher than the pressure at the
outlet.
It varies throughout the passage of water through the turbine. Mostly the power is
developed by the difference in pressure acting on front and back of runner blades. Only
small part of power comes from the dynamic action of velocity. Since the water is under
pressure, the entire flow from head race to tail race takes place in a closed system.

Francis and Kaplan turbines are two important types of reaction turbines. In
Francis turbine there is inward radial flow of water. In modern Francis turbine the flow
enters radially inward but leaves in parallel direction to shaft at centre. It is called mixed
flow.
In Girard, propeller and Kaplan turbines the flow is axial or parallel to the axis of
the turbine shaft. Selection of a suitable type of turbine depends primarily upon the
available head and the quantity of waste required.

The turbines may be classified as follows with reference to type of power plant:

Low head turbine (less than 30 m);

Medium head turbine (30 to 160 m);
High head turbine (up to and over 1000 m);

18
 Low head turbines are Propeller turbine and Kaplan turbine. These turbines use
large quantity of water. Medium head turbines are modern Francis turbines. Impulse
turbines are high head turbines. These turbines require relatively less quantity of water.

Generator

It is in the generator where the electricity is produced. The shaft of the water
turbine rotates in the generator, which produces alternating current in the coils of the
generator. Itis the rotation of the shaft inside the generator that produces magnetic field
which is converted into electricity by electromagnetic field induction. Hence the rotation
of the shaft of the turbine is crucial for the production of electricity and this is achieved
by the kinetic and potential energy of water. Thus in hydroelectricity power plants
potential energy of water is converted into electricity.

 Power House:
The purpose of the power house is to support and house the hydraulic and electrical
equipment.

The power house is readily divided into two parts as follows:

i. The substructure to support the equipment and to provide the necessary water-ways.

ii. The superstructure or building to house and protect the equipment.

Substructure:

The substructure may form an integral part of the dam and intake structure. In
other cases the substructure may be remote from the dam, the dam intake and power
house being entirely separate structures. The substructure is built exclusively of concrete
and is enforced with steel where necessary.

Super-Structure:

19
 The generating room, the main portion of the power house, contains the main
units and their accessories, and usually there is a power or hand operated overhead crane
which spans the width of the power house. The switch board and operating stand are
usually near the middle of the station, either at floor level or, for better visibility, on the
second floor or at a level above the main floor.
Usually an auxiliary bay or section of the power house will be required upstream from
the main units for the switches, bus connections, and outgoing lines. If transformers are
located inside the station, these will also be in the auxiliary bay, commonly at floor level
and shut off the main floor by steel doors or shutters. A travelling crane is an important
part of the power house equipment. In fixing the elevation of the crane rail above the
floor, it is essential that sufficient headroom is provided for lifting and carrying along any
of the various machine parts.

 Power Transformers
A transformer is an electrical device that trades voltage for current in a circuit, while not
affecting the total electrical power. ... Transformers can be used either to increase the
voltage also known as stepping up the voltage, or they can decrease the voltage also
known as stepping down the voltage. The high voltage transmission is more efficient
because it allows transmitting a larger portion of the generated power to the substations
which also translates to operational cost savings. Hence in the power transmitting station
of the power plant, a step up transformer is used. Generator step-up transformers and grid
access transformers are the critical link between the power station and the transmission
network. They increase the voltage from generator level to the transmission voltage level
(HV). Often operated day and night at full load, they offer the highest level of reliability.

 Tail Race and Draft Tube

The channel into which the turbine discharges in case of impulse wheel and through draft
tube in case of reaction turbine is called a tail race. The suction pipe or draft tube is
nothing but an airtight tube fitted to all reaction turbines on the outlet side. It extends

20
 from the discharge end of the turbine runner to about 0.5 meters below the surface of the
tail water level. The straight draft tube is generally given a flare of 4 to 6 degrees to
gradually reduce the velocity of water. The suction action of the water in this tube has
same effect on the runner as an equivalent head so that the turbine develops the same
power as if it were placed at the surface of the tail water. The tail race of the impulse
wheel is commonly an approximately rectangular passage, running from a point under the
wheel to a point outside the power house foundations where it enters the exit channel or
the river. Because of the small discharge of the impulse wheel, as well as higher
allowable velocity, the tail race passage is much smaller than that of the reaction turbine.
In case of the reaction turbine the width of the tail race channel under the power house
depends upon the unit spacing and thickness of piers and walls between the unit bays.
The depth of the tail race channel depends upon the velocity which is generally taken to
be about 1 meter per second. Where the power house is close to the river, the tail race
may be the river itself. In other case a tail race channel of some length may be provided
to join the turbine pit with the river.

3.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF SMALL-HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER

PLANTS

To design a small-hydro-electric power plant, there are many considerations to be

prepared and taken into account in the design procedure. These considerations are:
 Flow duration curve (FDC):
The choice of turbine type, size and speed is based on the net head and maximum
water flow rate, which must be determined by the river or stream where the turbine shall
be installed. Because of micro-hydro-electric power plants are normally built as run of
the river plants, the maximum water flow capacity of the turbine must be determined by
mean of the flow duration curve for the river or stream. A way for organizing discharge
data is by plotting a flow duration curve, that shows for a particular point on a river the
proportion of time during which the discharge there equal or exceeds certain values. It
can be obtained from the hydro-graph by organizing the data by magnitude instead of

21
 chronologically. The mean annual flow gives an idea of a stream's power potential. FDC
can be produced for particular periods of time as well as for particular years.
 Flow rate measurement
To measure the water flow rate (discharge) several methods are available. The
velocity-area method is a conventional method for medium to large rivers, involving the
measurement of the cross-sectional area of the river and the mean velocity of the water
through it. It is a useful approach for determining the stream flow with a minimum effort.
The river should have a uniform width and the area well defined.
i. Measuring the cross sectional area (Ar): To compute the cross-sectional area of a natural
water course, it should be divided into a series of trapezoids. Measuring the trapezoid
sides, marked rules, the cross-section would be given by:
Ar = (a+b)/2 * h1 + h2 + h3 +…hk/ k (m2)
Where a = width of top river (m)
B = width of bottom river (m)
ii. Measuring the velocity (Vr):
Since the velocity both across the flow and vertically through it is not constant, it is
necessary to measure the water velocity at a number of points to obtain a main value.
The velocity can be measured by a floating object, which is located in the center of
stream flow. The time (t) in seconds elapsed to traverse a certain length (L) in meter is
recorded. The surface speed (m/s) is given as:
Vrs = L / t (m / s)
To estimate the average flow speed (Vr), the above value must be multiplied by a
correction factor, that may vary between (0.6) and (0.85), depending on the water course
depth and their bottom and river bank roughness (0.75 is a
well-accepted value).
Vr = 0.75 * Vrs (m/s)
Then, the flow rate can be calculated as:
Q = Ar * Vr (m3 / s)
Where Q = water flow rate (discharge) of the river or stream.
Penstock design:

22
The penstock (pipes) has to be properly designed because the friction in the pipe
(penstock) or open channel that carries water to the generator is one cause of power loss.
Most small hydroelectric sites have a small or moderate head, so it is very important to
use large penstocks to reduce losses. For higher efficiency, if one is diverting a water
source far up the hill, plastic or aluminum irrigation pipe and the heavier-walled,
pressure-rated PVC plastic pipe make good penstocks. Penstock length The penstock
pipes are arranged down to cover the distance from the intake to hydropower house. The
penstock pipe connected between the two points is not only conveying water to the
turbine, but is also creating head pressure with increasing vertical drop. The length of a
penstock depends upon the topography and the distance of hydropower house and intake
point. The gradient of river is determined by measuring a section of a river and dividing
the distance into the vertical difference between the two points of contour lines. Penstock
length depends on the vertical angle (α), head (Z), horizontal distance (Hr) . Both,
horizontal distance and elevation difference were measured by using section methods.
Also, the distance between the intake and hydropower house is reduced by making the
longer channel or canal with shorter enclosed plastic, timber or iron pipe to reach the
hydropower house

Penstocks (pipes) are used to conveying water from the intake to the power house. They
can be installed over or under the ground, depending on factors such as the nature of the
ground itself, the penstock materials, the ambient
temperature and the environmental requirements. The internal penstock diameter (Dp)
can be estimated from the
flow rate, pipe length and gross head as:
Dp = 2.69 * (np2 * Q2 * Lp/Hg) 0.1875 (m)
Where np = Manning's coefficient .
Q = water flow rate (m3/s).
Lp = penstock length in (m).
Hg = gross head in (m).
The wall thickness of the penstock depends on the pipe materials, its tensile strength,
pipe diameter and the operating pressure. The minimum wall thickness is recommended
as:

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Tp = Dp + 508 + 1.2 (mm)
400
Where Dp = penstock diameter in (mm).
tp = minimum penstock thickness in (mm).
The pipe should be rigid enough to be handled without danger of deformation in the field

Floods

The stream flow is the fuel of the plant, but stream flow in the form of floods is also a
potential threat to all structures built in rivers. Therefore, the hydrological investigation
must address not only water availability for production, but also frequency and severity
of floods so as to design flood protection and control into the scheme. The design flood is
not only characterized by its peak value of flow, but a hydrograph flood flows should
show the distribution of the flow over time.

Flood Control Design

It is important to distinguish between inflow floodwater and required spillway capacity,

since considerable routing effects take place in reservoirs. For reservoirs with dams that
are at risk from high floodwaters it is usual to consider two differing criteria:

1. Maximum Inflow Design Flood - that the facilities should be able to accommodate
the floodwater, without unacceptable risk of dam failure or other serious damages to
the structures. This flood is normally defined as the PMF, (Probable Maximum
Flood) or similar.
2. Normal Operation Design Flood - that the facilities should be able to accommodate
floodwater without exceeding normal conditions of operation. This flood is usually
defined as a flood with a specific return period.

Whereas for medium and low hazard dams, the requirements often discard the routing
effects of the reservoir, and specify that the spillway capacity shall exceed the peak flow
of a flood with a specific return period, typically between 100 and 1000 years. The

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requirements regarding the design flood are usually specified in national legislation or
industry guidelines, and distinguish between high, medium and low hazard structure

Dams

Dams are barriers constructed to contain the flow of water. Dams are constructed in
order to increase the head; therefore, the higher the dam, the higher the head. These are
also constructed in order to regulate stream flow, thereby increasing the power potential.
Effective construction of a dam would require a high level of experience and a lot of data
to be collected. It should be constructed with safety, preventing it from flooding the area
and making sure that it is well-constructed so that it is effective without the fear of
damage at any time.

Diversion

Diversions are developments made in water to increase the power generated. In some
places, concrete boxes are made to divert the flow direction, in order to direct the flow of
stream through a pipe to a downstream turbine. These concrete boxes are made of
cement and are made in the waterways, but differ from dams because the water flows
steadily past the concrete boxes and through the pipe as well, so there is no total
blockage. Economically, and in concert with the Nigerian waterways, diversion is the
best option to be used in generating hydro-power. Since there is no backup for periods of
low storage, the water potential is known to drop through the year; therefore, provisions
had to be made to provide steady power generation throughout the year.

Trash Racks and Head Gates or Control Gates

Even small streams can become torrents, carrying large trees and other debris. It is
appropriate to plan to protect the generator and water passages from debris by installing
a trash rack at the head of the penstock. Steel bars should be set on edge to the flow of
water and spaced about 1” apart. Normally, trash racks are set on an incline to increase
area so water velocity is less than 1.5 feet per second through the rack. An inclined rack
is easier to clean with a rake. This feature is particularly important in the fall, because
leaves may blanket a rack in an hour or two. A head gate or valve should be installed

25
below the trash rack to control flow and to allow the turbine to be inspected and
repaired.

Turbines Mechanical design

Turbines Mechanical design responsibilities in connection with turbines and pump

turbines include selection of type of unit, power rating, operating characteristics and
number of units, preparing contract specifications, checking contractors drawings, and
coordinating related powerhouse facilities including generator, governor, air, water, and
oil systems, handling provisions, and structural requirements.

Generators and Motor Generators Mechanical design

Generators and Motor Generators Mechanical design includes the following

responsibilities: coordination of turbine and generator mechanical characteristics;
required generator handling facilities; and oil, air, carbon dioxide (CO2 ), and water
service connections to the generator. The type of facility one wishes to provide with
electrical service will largely determine whether one uses an alternating or direct-current
generator. Lights and the universal motors that operate small appliances and tools will
operate on DC. Larger motors, TVs and many appliances require AC to operate. 10
Building a Mini Hydropower Plant Harnessing a stream for hydroelectric power is a
major undertaking; therefore, careful planning is necessary if a successful and economic
power plant is to result. State water laws and environmental concerns must be
determined. Precise field data must be gathered to compare the amount of power that can
be expected from a hydroelectric installation to the electrical requirements of the home
or farm. Then, detailed plans that consider both construction and maintenance can be
drawn up. One of the first steps in planning of a small power plant on a given stream of
water is to measure the power potential of the stream. The amount of power that can be
obtained from a stream depends on:

• the amount of water flow;

• the height which the water falls (head); and

• the efficiency of the plant to convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Factors Affecting Hydro-Electric Power Generation

The factors affecting hydro-electric power generaton are:

 Physical factors
 Economic factors

The growth, development and generation of hydro-power are determined by physical and
economic factors.

1. Physical Factors:

The following physical conditions are necessary for the construction and success of
hydro-electric plants:

(i) Regular and abundant supply of water or quantity of water;

(ii) Rugged topography or degree of slope;

(iii) Existence of rapids and waterfalls;

27
(iv) Solid rock structure or geological stability for construction of dams;

(v) Suitable climate, i.e., temperature above freezing point;

(vi) Presence of lakes; and

(vii) Silt-free water, etc.

Among physical factors two prime factors are quantity of water and degree of slope. The
greater the quantity of water available, and steeper or longer the slope, the greater is the
energy generated.

These two factors, water and slope, are compensatory; that is to say, if a small quantity
of water falls from a great height it will yet be able to generate large amount of power or
a great amount of water can do the same thing on a slight slope. The power-producing
streams may thus be divided into two categories:

(a) streams of high fall and small discharge, and

(b) streams of low fall and considerable discharge.

However, in the matter of cost the high fall has an advantage over the low fall as it can
be maintained at less expense. The advantage thus rests with slope over volume. It is
clear from the above statement; water-power can be developed only

(i) Where there are falls, such falls generally occur in rugged mountainous regions
or glaciated areas, whether morainal or ice-scoured;
(ii) (ii) where the volume of water in the stream is more or less uniform as floods are
likely to injure the plant, while the low water flow may cause their stoppage due
to insufficiency.

Although with the technological developments condition of natural waterfalls has been
overpowered by construction of dams, for which solid rock structure and geological
stability is a prime necessity?

2. Economic Factors:

Economic factors play an important role in the development of hydro-electric power.

28
These factors are as follows:

(i) Demand of power:

In order to compensate the high construction cost of the hydel projects demand for
power is necessary. So that the generated electricity should be easily utilised in the
nearby area. A densely-populated area is more suitable, where demand for power is
more.

(ii) Lack of other energy sources:

The hydel-power projects are more successful where other sources of power are not
available. In countries where coal and petroleum are available in abundance, electricity
is also generated with them. Coal and oil deficient countries like Japan, Norway,
Sweden, etc., are more dependent on hydro-electricity.

(iii) Capital investment:

Modern large-scale hydro-projects are expensive involving dam erection, power plant
construction, costs of transmission and round-the-year maintenance as well as incidental
costs of compensation, etc.

The delivery of the power supply from the point of generation to consumers, sometimes
hundreds of kilometers away, involves the construction and servicing of pylons, high-
tension cables, even undersea cables in some cases, and transmission lines often cross
very difficult terrain.

Permission has to be sought from the owners and authorities concerned when the
transmission lines are laid across private ground, and rental is paid for the land used. A
team of engineers, wiremen and administrative staff has to be maintained to run the
entire operation. Thus not only initial costs, but also maintenance costs are very high. It
is a common misconception, because hydro-electric power is derived from water which

29
is free, that it is always cheap. Once initial costs have been recouped it may indeed be
relatively cheap but this will necessarily take some time.

(iv) Other factors:

Among other economic factors:

(a) Location of industrial and commercial centers,

(b) Improved modern technology, and

(c) Transport and communication are important.

4.2 Advantages of hydroelectric energy

1. It’s Good for the Environment

Although hydroelectric energy does have some disadvantages, it is one of the most
environmentally friendly forms of energy production available to us today. It does not use
any fossil fuels, nor does it produce any harmful emissions, and it also provides a steady
supply of clean energy. So, what’s not to love? While dams can have a heavy impact on
the environment, the only pollution these dams create is from the initial construction. The
actual production of energy produces no carbon emissions.

2. It’s a Renewable Resource

“Water, water everywhere but not a drop to drink.” While you won’t be drinking directly
from a river (or ocean) anytime soon, one of the main advantages of hydro energy is that
water is nearly everywhere and can be used to produce hydroelectric energy. Because of
the water cycle, it is a renewable resource that doesn’t run out—allowing us to conserve
limited and non-renewable resources for other uses.

Hydroelectric energy is also a great resource because it creates greater energy

independence for countries. A reduced demand for external fuel sources may help lessen
conflict and improve economic issues for countries that struggle to get fuel from
international sources. Instead, they can provide clean, domestic power with hydro energy.

30
3. It’s Reliable and Highly Efficient
One of the biggest pros of hydroelectric energy is that it is one of the most efficient
energy resources in the world. Consider that solar power is only a maximum of 30-36%
efficient, wind power only 25-45% efficient, and coal power is only 33-40% efficient. All
of these methods pale in comparison to hydro energy, which is up to 90% efficient at
converting water into electricity.

Hydroelectric energy also has the advantage of little to no downtime because the flow of
water is only stopped for general repairs, maintenance, and upgrades. Solar power, on the
other hand, decreases in production every night when the sun goes down, and wind power
is only good as long as there is a steady breeze.

4. It’s Flexible
Unlike other forms of power like solar, wind, or coal, hydroelectric energy is constant.
The flow of water to produce energy can easily be altered to meet supply demands. This
means that electricity can be made available when it’s needed, which reduces energy
waste.

5. It’s Safe
Compared to many other forms of energy production, dams that produce hydro energy
have been fairly safe over the years. Most issues or problems that have occurred are the
result of poor construction and low safety standards in older dams. Another advantage of
hydroelectric energy in this situation is that there is no combustible fuel involved,
lowering the risks associated with fossil fuels or nuclear energy.

6. It’s Economical
Although the initial expense can be hefty, once a hydroelectric dam is up and running, the
cost of maintenance and employee wages is relatively low. Plus, water doesn’t fluctuate
in cost the way that traditional fossil fuels and imported fuels do. Countries that use
hydroelectric power can save a lot of money, and some countries, like Paraguay, are able
to get nearly all of their energy from hydroelectric dams.

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7. It’s Great for Recreational Use
Finally, dams typically create reservoirs. If you live near a reservoir or have ever visited
one, you know that it’s essentially a man-made lake where people enjoy fishing, boating,
swimming, windsurfing, and more. There are even some famous reservoirs you may have
heard of like Lake Mead, created by the Hoover Dam.

There are many great advantages of hydroelectric energy including energy independence
and a sustainable source of energy for the future.

8. It’s a Fundamental Vehicle for Development

In addition to being an abundant source of energy, one of the advantages of hydroelectric
energy is that it serves as an efficient and fundamental vehicle for the development of
both new and established communities.

Hydroelectric power plants can do this in a number of ways, the first being that they can
supply a large amount of energy to communities, even to those that are remote. They can
also supply cause for highway construction, attract various industries, and give an overall
boost in commerce. All of these benefits serve to improve the overall quality of life of
residents who utilize this source of power.

In addition, hydroelectric energy creates sustainable development, meaning that it won’t

affect the capability of future generations when it comes to tackling their own unique
needs in the future.

4.3 The disadvantages of hydroelectric energy

1. It Has an Environmental Impact

Perhaps the largest disadvantage of hydroelectric energy is the impact it can have on the
environment. Dams can damage or otherwise impact the environment both upstream and
downstream through their construction process during the formation of the dam. To build
a dam, new roads and power lines must be installed that disrupt the environment. Dams
also often form reservoirs that flood large areas and displace natural habitats. When dams

32
flood areas, it creates sections of still or stagnant water that kills vegetation which emits
greenhouse gasses as it rots. This is especially true in humid and tropical environments.

Blocking the flow of water can also seriously impact fish migration, especially for
species like salmon that rely on rivers to spawn. Dams can even impact biological
triggers that tell fish where to go when it’s time to migrate. Some dams have sought to
solve this disadvantage of hydroelectric energy by creating fish ladders or fish elevators
to help migratory fish make it to their spawning grounds.

The final environmental disadvantage of hydroelectric energy on our list is water quality.
When dams are created, they limit the flow of water, which affects the oxygen levels in
the water. Lower oxygen levels behind the dam can result in lower oxygen levels
downstream as well. When there is not as much oxygen in the water, it is more difficult
for some species of fish to survive, which affects river habitats.

The increase in carbon dioxide and methane emissions from a hydroelectric plant can
also harm all forms of aquatic plant life. The increased pollution of these greenhouse
gases can cause plant life beneath the water to rot, which can severely impact the
surrounding ecosystem.

2. It Displaces People
Reservoirs not only displace animals from their habitats, but they also displace people.
This disadvantage of hydroelectric energy can have quite a large impact on communities.
People who have lived in an area their whole lives may be forced to move, and although
they are typically compensated for moving, it can’t make up for what they have lost.

Cities, towns, and villages have been eliminated by dams, and local cultures displaced. If
people refuse to move due to construction, they have sometimes been forced out of their
homes with the threat of violence. Over the years, dams have displaced millions of
people, forcing them to relocate their lives and families elsewhere.

33
The construction of a hydroelectric plant also increases the risk of flooding in lower
elevations. Should strong water currents be released from the dam, those living in lower
elevations can have their lives significantly altered, perhaps permanently.

3. It’s Expensive
Another disadvantage of hydroelectric energy is the expense required to build a dam in
the first place. Although they don’t cost much to operate, the time it takes for a dam to
pay for itself can vary widely. Overspending and delays make it more difficult to get a
return on the money invested in the construction of the dam.

4. There are Limited Reservoirs

Although water is an unlimited resource, the conditions necessary to build a dam are
limited. This is a disadvantage of hydroelectric energy because it means you cannot
simply build a dam anywhere you please. In fact, most locations that are suitable for
building hydroelectric dams have already been used for this purpose. Another factor to
consider is that even if a location could support a hydroelectric dam, it may not generate
enough profit to make the project worthwhile.

5. There are Droughts

When weighing the advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric energy, it’s important
to take into consideration the fact that water can and does go through cycles of abundance
and drought. Lower than normal water levels can heavily impact energy production and is
a disadvantage of hydroelectric energy.

Aside from being affected by drought, hydro energy production can cause drought
conditions downstream if they don’t allow sufficient water to pass through. This can be
especially detrimental if a dam is located along a river or reservoir that allows water
passage into another country. The country upstream could potentially cause a drought for
their neighboring country either intentionally or inadvertently.

6. It’s Not Always Safe

Despite a lack of combustible fuel, dams still offer dangers of their own. Construction
accidents, as well as dam failure, can result in injury or loss of life.
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35
 CONCLUSION

In the generation of hydroelectric power, water is collected or stored at a higher

elevation and led downward through large pipes or tunnels (penstocks) to a lower
elevation; the difference in these two elevations is known as the head. At the end of its
passage down the pipes, the falling water causes turbines to rotate. The turbines in turn
drive generators, which convert the turbines’ mechanical energy into electricity.
Transformers are then used to convert the alternating voltage suitable for the generators
to a higher voltage suitable for long-distance transmission. The structure that houses the
turbines and generators, and into which the pipes or penstocks feed, is called the
powerhouse. In the natural sense, the best place for the construction of a mini
hydropower plant is where there are steep rivers either naturally or artificially
constructed. There are a few of these locations in Nigeria that would be capable of
generating the amount of lighting required from a mini hydro power plant. The objective
of a hydropower scheme is to convert the potential energy of a mass of water, flowing in
a stream with a certain fall to the turbine (termed the “head”), into electric energy at the
lower end of the scheme, where the powerhouse is located.

36
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