Grammar Rules

tenses
The form of the verb that indicates the time and manner of the action is known as Tense.
Kinds of Tenses

Present Tense Past Tense  Future Tense

Tenses, Sub Types, Verb Forms and their Usage

Simple Present Tense/Present Indefinite Tense
General Usage:
`` To express an event taking place at present moment.   `` To express a universal truth.
`` To express daily routine or habit. `` To express a command, request or advice.

Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule: subject + verb I form + subject + does not + verb I (use a question word, if (use a question word, if
When subject is (es/s)+object form + object needed) does + subject + needed) does + subject
singular verb I form + object +not + verb I form + object
Example She helps her mother in She does not help her mother Does she help her mother in Does she not help her
household work. in household work. household work? mother in household work?
When subject is subject + verb I form + subject + do not + verb I form do + subject + verb I form do + subject +not + verb I
plural object + object + object form + object
Example The students reach school The students do not reach Do the students reach Do the students not reach
in time. school in time. school in time? school in time?

Present Continuous Tense/Present Progressive Tense

General Usage:
`` To express an action which is going on at the time of speaking.
`` To express an action taking place at the present time but not necessarily at the present moment.
`` To denote an action which is likely to happen in near future.

Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule subject + is/are/am + subject + is/are/am + not + (use a question word, if (use a question word, if
verb I form + -ing + verb I form + -ing + object needed) is/are/am + subject + needed) is/are/am + subject
object verb I form + -ing + object + not + verb I form + -ing
+ object
Examples She is living in Noida She is not living in Noida Is she living in Noida these Is she not living in Noida
these days. these days. days? these days?
I am baking a cake. I am not baking a cake. Am I baking a cake? Am I not baking a cake?

You are drawing You are not drawing Are you drawing beautifully? Are you not drawing
beautifully. beautifully. beautifully?
They are going to Goa. They are not going to Goa. Are they going to Goa? Are they not going to Goa?

Present Perfect Tense

General Usage:
`` To denote an action which has just been completed.
`` To express an action which began in the past and just finishes at that moment.
`` To indicate an action which occurred in the past but whose effect can be felt at the moment of speaking.
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Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule subject + has/have + verb III subject + has/have + not + verb (use a question word, if (use a question word, if
form + object III form + object needed) has/have + subject needed) has/have + subject +
+ verb III form + object not + verb III form + object
Examples My friend has invited Shikha My friend has not invited Shikha Has my friend invited Shikha Has my friend not invited
to her birthday party. to her birthday party. to her birthday party? Shikha to her birthday party?
They have planned a grand They have not planned a grand Have they planned a grand Have they not planned a grand
Diwali celebration this year. Diwali celebration this year. Diwali celebration this year? Diwali celebration this year?

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

General Usage:
`` To express an action which began in the past, is in progress at the time of speaking and will extend into the future.
`` To express an action which is complete but whose effect is continuing.
`` ‘Since’ or ‘for’ is used to give the reference of time.

Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule subject + has/have + been + subject + has/have + not + (use a question word, (use a question word, if
verb I form + -ing + object been + verb I form + -ing + if needed) has/have + needed) has/have + subject +
object subject + been + verb I not + been + verb I form + -ing
form + -ing + object + object
Examples They have been practising Maths They have not been practising Have they been practising Have they not been practising
since evening. Maths since evening. Maths since evening? Maths since evening?
She has been cleaning her room She has not been cleaning her Has she been cleaning her Has she not been cleaning her
for 2 hours. room for 2 hours. room for 2 hours? room for 2 hours?

Simple Past Tense/Past Indefinite Tense

General Usage:
`` To express an action that took place at some point of time in the past.
`` To express an action that took place over a period of time in the past.
`` For past habit.
`` In conditional sentences that convey an unlikely situation.

Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative

Rule subject + verb II form + object subject + did not + verb I (use a question word, if (use a question word, if needed)
form + object needed) did + subject + verb did + subject + not + verb I form
I form + object + object
Examples They completed the project They did not complete the Did they complete the Did they not complete the project
on time. project on time. project on time? on time?

He went to school on He did not go to school on Did he go to school on Did he not go to school on
Saturday. Saturday. Saturday? Saturday?

Past Continuous Tense/Past Progressive Tense

General Usage:
`` To express an action which was in progress at a particular time in the past.
`` To express a frequently repeated past action.
`` To express gradual development of an action in the past.
`` To express two or more actions in progress at the same time in the past.
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Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule subject + was/were + verb I subject + was/were + not + (use a question word, if needed) (use a question word, if needed)
form + -ing + object verb I form + -ing + object was/were + subject + verb I was/were + subject + not + verb
form + -ing + object I form + -ing + object
Examples He was washing his car. He was not washing his car. Was he washing his car? Was he not washing his car?
They were playing cricket. They were not playing cricket. Were they playing cricket? Were they not playing cricket?

Past Perfect Tense

General Usage:
`` To denote an action which had been completed at some point in the past before another action took place.
`` To express an unfulfilled wish or condition in the past.
`` To express an event that took place earlier at a specific time in the past.

Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule subject + had + verb III form subject + had + not + (use a question word, if needed) (use a question word, if needed) had
+ object verb III form + object had + subject + verb III form + + subject + not + verb III form +
object object
Example They had sold their ox to a They had not sold their Had they sold their ox to a farmer? Had they not sold their ox to a
farmer. ox to a farmer. farmer?

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

General Usage:
`` To express an action that began before a certain time in the past and continued up to that time or stopped just before it.
`` ‘Since/for’ is used to give the reference of time.

Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative

Rule subject + had + been + verb subject + had + not + been + verb (use a question word, (use a question word, if needed) had
I form + -ing + object I form + -ing + object if needed) had + +subject + not + been + verb I form +
subject + been + verb -ing + object
I form + -ing + object
Example Dev had been looking for his Dev had not been looking for his Had Dev been Had Dev not been looking for his keys
keys for 30 minutes. keys for 30 minutes. looking for his keys for 30 minutes?
for 30 minutes?

Simple Future/Future Indefinite Tense

General Usage:
`` To express an action or event that is yet to take place (with or without a time expression).
`` To express the speaker’s opinion or assumption about future.
Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule subject + will/shall + verb I subject + will/shall + not (use a question word, if (use a question word, if needed) will/
form + object + verb I form + object needed) will/shall + subject shall + subject + not + verb I form +
+ verb I form + object object
Sheena will go to market for Sheena will not go to Will Sheena go to market Will Sheena not go to market for
shopping. market for shopping. for shopping? shopping?
Examples
We shall move to our mansion We shall not move to our Shall we move to our Shall we not move to our mansion
next month. mansion next month. mansion next month? next month?

Future Continuous/Future Progressive Tense

General Usage:
`` To express an action that will be in progress at a given time in the future.
`` To express an action that is fairly certain to happen in the near future.
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Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule subject + will be/shall be + subject + will not/shall not (use a question word, if needed) (use a question word, if needed)
verb I form + -ing + object + be + verb I form + -ing + will/shall + subject + be + verb will/shall + subject + not + be
object I form + -ing + object + verb I form + -ing + object
Example He will be sleeping when you He will not be sleeping Will he be sleeping when you Will he not be sleeping when
return from office. when you return from office. return from office? you return from office?

Future Perfect Tense

General Usage:
`` To express an action which is expected to be completed by a certain time in the future or which will have been completed before a given time
in the future.
Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule subject + will/shall + have + subject + will/shall + not (use a question word, (use a question word, if needed)
verb III form + object + have + verb III form + if needed) will/shall + will/shall + subject + not + have
object subject + have + verb III + verb III form + object
form + object
Example By the end of this year, you will By the end of this year, you Will you have completed Will you not have completed
have completed your research. will not have completed your research by the end your research by the end of this
your research. of this year? year?

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

General Usage:
`` To express an action that will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue upto that moment and will be in progress even at that
moment.
`` ‘For’ is used to give reference of time.

Structure
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative
Rule subject + will/shall+have subject + will/shall + not + (use a question word, if needed) (use a question word, if needed)
+ been + verb I form + have + been+ verb I form will/shall + subject + have + been will/shall + subject + not + have +
-ing + object + -ing + object + verb I form + -ing + object been + verb I form + -ing + object
Example I shall have been playing I shall not have been Shall I have been playing for two Shall I not have been playing for
for two hours at this time playing for two hours at hours at this time tomorrow? two hours at this time tomorrow?
tomorrow. this time tomorrow.

MODALS
Modals or modal auxiliaries are usually used along with the main verbs (b) to express a threat.
and not alone. Together with the main verbs that follow, the modal Examples: • You shall pay for your mistakes.
auxiliaries convey the mode or manner of actions indicated by the verbs.  • He shall be fined for this carelessness.
They express such ideas as possibility, ability, probability, permission, (c) to express a promise.
obligation or duty, etc. Modal auxiliaries are shall, should, will, would, Examples: • You shall get rewarded for good work.
can, could, may, might, must, dare, need, ought to and used to. Their  • He shall get a promotion for sincere work.
usage has been explained below: (iii) In interrogative sentences, shall is used with the first person to
express an offer or a suggestion.
1. Shall Examples: • Shall we go for a walk?
    • Shall I carry the books for you?
(i) Shall is used with the first person to express the simple future.
2. Should
Example: We shall go to the supermarket in the evening.

Should is the past tense of shall.
Shall is also used with the second and third persons
(ii) (i) It is used to denote the past tense of shall in indirect speech.
(a) to express a command. Examples: • He said that I should leave early.
Examples: • You shall complete it on time.     • She said that we should be well prepared for the
 • He shall attend the meeting tomorrow. singing contest.
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(ii) It is used to express duty or advice. Examples: • I can lift this carton.
Examples: • We should respect our teachers.     • S  udha can knit.
    • You should practise the song well for the contest.     • K  iran can paint well.
(iii) It is used to express purpose. (ii) Can is used to express permission.
Examples: • The lady shouted for help lest the chain snatcher
Examples: • You can take rest tomorrow.
should run away scot-free.
    • The security guards blocked the gate lest the thief     • You cannot walk on the grass.
should escape. (iii) Can is used to express possibility.
(iv) It is used to show an assumption or inference. Examples: • Any child can grow up to be the President.
Examples: • He should have left by now.     • Winters in Shimla can be very cold.
    • She should have called you by now. 6. Could
3. Will Could is used for all persons in the past tense.
(i) Will is used with the first person (i) Could is used to express ability, permission and possibility when
(a) to express willingness or offer. the main verb is in the past tense.
Examples: • I will go with you to the hospital.
Examples: • I could jog for many kilometres when I was young.
 • I will carry those cartons for you.
    • S  he could watch a film on television whenever she
(b) to express a resolution.
Examples: • I will lose weight in a month. desired.
 • We will win this election. (ii) Could is used to express a polite request.
(c) to express an intention or promise. Examples: • Could you show me the way to the canteen?
Examples: • We will get a nice gift for you.     • Could you lend me your geometry box, please?
 • I will travel to Goa to meet my cousins. 7. May
(d) to express a threat.
May is used for all persons in present tense and in future tense.
Examples: • I will take you to task.
(i) May is used to express possibility.
 • I will expel you for this behaviour.
(ii) Will is used with the second and third persons to express simple Examples: • He may be absent today as he is not keeping well.
future.     • The bag may belong to Renu. She was sitting next to it.
Examples: • You will discover new places on your next visit to (ii) May is used to express or to seek permission.
Delhi. Examples: • You may come in.
    • She will join the school next month.
    • May I read your book?
(iii) In interrogative sentences, we use will with the second and third
persons. (iii) May is used to express a wish.
Examples: • Will you bring a glass of water, please? Examples: • May you enjoy good health!
    • Will you lend me your binoculars for a week?     • May countless blessings come your way!
    • Will he reach the venue on time?
8. Might
4. Would Might is used for all persons in past tense.
Would is the past tense of will. (i) Might is used to express permission.
(i) It is used to denote the past tense of will or shall in indirect Examples: • The principal said that the sick teacher might go
speech.
home early.
Examples: • She informed us that she would buy a new car.
    • Raman said that I might borrow his cricket bat.
    • He said that he would take care of the injured puppy.
(ii) It is used to express a habitual activity in the past. (ii) Might is used to express possibility.
Examples: • She would sit in the sun and knit scarves in winter. Examples: • She guessed that he might be in the auditorium for
    • He would play cricket in school for hours. rehearsal.
(iii) It is used to make polite requests.     • Veena said that she might join a new company next year.
Examples: • Would you have some lemon juice? (iii) Might is used to express speculation about past actions.
    • Would you carry this bag for me, please? Examples: • She might have managed to get a ticket for the new
(iv) It is used to express a wish. play.
Examples: • I wish I would win a lottery.     • The new advertisement might have given a boost to
    • I always have to get home early. I wish my parents the sale of this snack item.
would let me stay out later. (iv) Both may and might are used to convey that there is a good
(v) It is used to express a preference. reason.
Examples: • I would rather play tennis. Examples: • You may as well join them.
    • She would rather be quiet than answer back rudely.     • Y  ou might just as well join them or not.
(vi) It is used to express improbable or unreal condition.
Examples: • If I got a magic pot, I would prepare food for many.
9. Must
Must refers to the present or the future tense.
    • Had you known the film star, you would have spent
(i) Must is used to say that it is necessary to do something sometimes
more time with him?
involving a rule or a law.
5. Can Examples: • All visitors must report to reception.
Can is used for all persons in the present tense.     • Y  ou must show your ticket.
(i) Can is used to express ability resulting from physical power or (ii) It is used to denote certainty or strong belief.
capacity, or from knowledge or skill. Example: All that exists in the world must perish one day.
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(iii) It is used in deductions when we realise that something is certainly Examples: • You ought to be considerate towards your
true, or when we are sure of something. neighbours.
Examples: • The Councillor must be tired of listening to the     • We ought to help the poor and the needy.
complaints of the residents of the area.
    • You must be hungry after all that walking. 13. Used to
(iv) It is used to recommend that someone do something because Used to goes with the infinitive of other verbs to refer to the past
you think it is a good idea. habitual actions.
Examples: • You simply must read this book. Examples: • Affirmative  : She used to assist you.
    • We must get together soon for lunch.     • Interrogative : Used she to assist you? (Note that
10. Dare this is an archaic form)
Dare means to have the courage to do something.
    • Negative    : She never used to assist you.
(i) It is mostly used in interrogative sentences.
Examples: • Dare he behave rudely with me? Special Tricks to Recall Modals
    • Dare he say this? Formal — May; Informal — Can/Could
Permission
(ii) It is also used in negative sentences.
Examples: • He dare not come here. Strong
    • She dare not say this. Will
(iii) It can be used to convey that one possesses courage to face Probability/Certainty
someone or something. Shall
Example: • India is ready to dare any foreign attack.  
May/Might
Weak
(iv) Dare can also be used to indicate a challenge.
Examples: • I dare you to eat all the food on the table.
    • I dare you to prove that my observation is wrong.
11. Need Have
to
Need is used to express necessity or obligation. Obligation Must
(i) It is commonly used in negatives and imperatives.
Need to
Example: • I do not need your help.
Should
(ii) Need can also be used to denote requirement or desire.
Ought to
Example: I need to go there.
12. Ought to Ability Can, Could
Ought to refers to present, past or future tense. Ought to is used to
Request/Offer Can, Could, Would
make a suggestion or to give advice. It carries with it a sense of moral
obligation or duty.

SUBJECT-vERB CONCORD
Concord means agreement. Therefore, subject-verb concord means (ii) But if the nouns refer to the same person or thing, the verb
that the finite verb agrees with the number and person of the subject. is singular.
A singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes Example: The poet and novelist is no more.
a plural verb. However, the students are advised to keep in mind the (iii) When the nouns express a single idea, they take a singular verb.
following cases: Example: Bread and jam makes a tasty breakfast.

1. The Error of Proximity 4. Sentences Containing With, As well as, Along with, Not
Usually, the verb is placed very close to its subject. Therefore, it becomes only … but also
easy for us to ensure that the two agree with each other. However, we (i) When the subject consists of two nouns or pronouns joined by,
have to be careful in the use of the verb if it is far from its subject. with, as well as or along with, the verb agrees with the first of
Example: The condition of these stairs is not very good. them.
In the sentence, the subject is condition (and not stairs), so the verb is Examples: • The captain, with his retinue, has arrived.
agrees with the subject condition.     • T  hey, as well as I, are leaving for the summer camp.
    • The general, along with his soldiers, has arrived at
2. The Introductory there the camp.
Normally, the verb is placed after the subject. However, in sentences (ii) When two subjects are connected with not only … but also, the
beginning with there, the real subject is placed after the verb, so we verb agrees with the latter subject.
have to be careful in the use of the verb. Examples: • Not only Anandini but also her siblings want to visit
Examples: • There is no student in the library. (student is) their hometown.
    • Not only Romi but also Saumya wants to visit grandma.
    • There are many obstacles to be overcome. (obstacles are)
5. Sentences Containing Either … or, Neither … nor
3. Two or More Singular Nouns or Pronouns Joined by and When two subjects are connected with either … or, or neither … nor, the
(i) If the subject consists of two or more singular nouns or pronouns verb agrees with the latter subject.
joined by and, it takes a plural verb. Examples: • Either Harish or his sister has the car keys.
Example: T
 ina and Tarini are sisters.     • N  either you nor I was prepared.
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6. Sentences Containing Either, Neither, Each, Everyone, 8. Nouns Singular in Form but Plural in Meaning
One of the, None Nouns which are singular in form but plural in meaning take a plural
verb.
(i) Either, neither, each, everyone, one of the, take a singular verb.
Examples: • People are getting tired of empty promises.
Examples: • Either of these two candidates is fit for the job.
• Cattle were lashed mercilessly.
    • Neither of the girls was trained.
    • Each of the girls has a book. 9. Class Nouns
    • Everyone of these workers is a trained electrician. Class nouns such as food, clothing, furniture, crockery, cutlery, stationery
    • One of these candidates is sure to be selected. are uncountable and take a singular verb.
Examples: • The furniture in this apartment has been bought from a
(ii) Nouns qualified by each and every when joined by ‘and’ take a
shop in London.
singular verb.
• The stationery sold here is made of recycled paper.
Examples: • Each detective and each police officer was given a
medal. 10. A Pair of
    • Every boy and every girl was given a prize. A pair of shoes, a pair of trousers, a pair of scissors, etc. are treated as
singular. However, if we omit the words a pair of and merely use the
(iii) When none refers to amount or quantity, it takes a singular verb.
plural word, it takes a plural verb.
However, when none of is followed by a plural noun or a pronoun,
Examples: • A pair of cotton trousers is in the cupboard.
the verb is usually plural but can be singular. • This pair of scissors belongs to me.
Example: • None of the information was useful. • These cotton trousers are very fashionable.
7. Nouns Plural in Form but Singular in Meaning • Her shoes are terribly uncomfortable.
(i) Some nouns which are plural in form but singular in meaning take 11. Collective Nouns
a singular verb. These include the names of various branches of Collective nouns (crowd, group, army, committee, jury, assembly, herd,
learning and the names of diseases. etc.) take a singular verb when considered as a whole, or when all the
Examples: • Mathematics is a difficult subject to master. members of a collective noun are performing an action as a unit.
    • Measles is a disease most children experience. Examples: • The jury has agreed to our proposal.
(ii) When a plural noun is the name of a book or a country, it takes a • A flock of sheep was grazing in the field.
singular verb. 12. Relative Pronouns as Subjects
Examples: • The Arabian Nights is still very popular. When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun, the verb agrees with
    • The United States has signed a trade agreement with the antecedent of the relative pronoun.
India. Examples: • I am the person who has always helped you in times of
distress.
(iii) When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity, amount or
• This is one of the best albums that have been released this
distance considered as a whole, it takes a singular verb. year.
Examples: • Five hundred years is a long, long time.
13. The modals ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘shall’, ‘should’, ‘will’, etc. do not change
    • Three hundred rupees is enough for this labour. with the change in the ‘number’ and ‘person’ of the ‘subject’.

reported speech
If we convey the meaning and substance of what a person said or Examples:
wrote, then it is known as reported speech. In it, the exact words Direct Speech Indirect Speech
are not used. The following points are important in the context of
reported speech: She says, ‘‘Sonal likes to She says that Sonal likes to
1. No inverted commas are used. play.’’ play.
2. The comma separating the reporting verb from the exact spoken
She will say, ‘‘Sonal is a She will say that Sonal is a
words is removed.
hosteller.’’ hosteller.
3. The reported speech is introduced by some conjunction, e.g.,
that, whether, if, what, why, etc.
2. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the verb in
 4. When we report statements, we generally use that, but sometimes
the reported speech is changed.
we can leave it out.
 5. The marks of punctuation other than full stop are removed. There Examples:
is no sign of interrogation or exclamation mark at the end of the Change in Tense
sentence. Direct Speech Indirect Speech
 6. The reported speech is changed into assertive sentences.
Present Indefinite Past Indefinite
Rules for Conversion into Reported Speech I play. I played.
The following rules should be kept in mind for conversion of direct
speech into reported speech (indirect speech): Present Continuous Past Continuous
1. If the reporting verb is in the present or the future tense, the I am playing. I was playing.
tense of the verb in the reported speech does not change.
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Present Perfect Past Perfect Words Expressing Nearness Words Expressing Distance
I have played. I had played. (Direct Speech) (Indirect Speech)
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous here there
I have been playing. I had been playing. thus so
Past Indefinite Past Perfect ago before
I played. I had played.
today that day
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
tonight that night
I was playing. I had been playing.
this week that week
Past Perfect Continuous No change
next week the following week
Some other changes
Direct Speech Indirect Speech last Monday previous Monday

will would hence thence

shall should hither thither
can could an hour ago an hour before
may might come go
3. While changing into indirect speech we change personal tomorrow the next day/the following day
pronouns in the first person used in direct speech according to yesterday the previous day/the day before
the subject of the reporting verb.
the day after tomorrow the day after the next day
Examples:
Direct Speech Indirect Speech the day before yesterday the day before the previous day

Rasika said, ‘‘I am making Rasika said that she was Examples:
porridge.’’ making porridge. Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Vipul said, ‘‘I am making a Vipul said that he was making Mamta said to Pragya, ‘‘I will go Mamta told Pragya that she
greeting card.’’ a greeting card. to the market now. ’’ would go to the market then.
You said, ‘‘I am swimming.’’ You said that you were Shikha said to Aditya, ‘‘I will Shikha told Aditya that she
swimming. be here for an hour.’’ would be there for an hour.
4. While changing into indirect speech we change personal Vishal said to mother, ‘‘I will Vishal told mother that
pronouns in the second person used in direct speech according reach Delhi next week.’’ he would reach Delhi the
to the object of the reporting verb. (The object of the reporting following week.
verb is the noun or pronoun that comes after the reporting verb.)
Examples: 7. While converting an assertive sentence into indirect speech,
Direct Speech Indirect Speech the reporting verb said changes into told, replied, informed,
remarked, declared, confessed or answered as required.
He said to Shalini, ‘‘You are He told Shalini that she was
Examples:
late.’‘ late.
Direct : Naina said, ‘‘Tarun is a good host.’’
She said to Arup, ‘‘You are in She told Arup that he was in
Indirect : Naina remarked that Tarun was a good host.
the team.’’ the team.
8. While converting an interrogative sentence into indirect speech,
5. Personal pronouns in the third person do not change in indirect
the following points have to be kept in mind.
speech.
Examples: We change the reporting verb said or told into asked or
(i) 
Direct Speech Indirect Speech enquired or demanded.
Sheela said to Sara, ‘‘He is in Sheela told Sara that he was in (ii) If the question is introduced by a wh-question word (who,
the car.’’ the car. whom, what, which, when, where, why, how, etc.), the question
Veeru said to Harish, ‘‘She is Veeru told Harish that she was word itself is used as the conjunction.
not in the library.’’ not in the library. (iii) If the question is a Yes/No answer-type question, i.e., if it
6. While passing from direct to indirect speech, words expressing begins with an auxiliary verb (is, are, am, was, were, do, has,
nearness in time and place are generally changed into words have, had, can, may, will, shall, etc.), then we use if or whether
expressing distance, as specified in the table below. as a conjunction.
(iv) The interrogative form is changed into assertive form; the
Words Expressing Nearness Words Expressing Distance
(Direct Speech) (Indirect Speech) auxiliary verb placed before the subject is shifted to a place
after the subject and the mark of interrogation (?) is replaced
now then
by a full stop (.).
this that
(v) We remove the quotation marks ( ‘‘ ” or ‘ ’).
these those (vi) The conjunction that is not used.
 English Language and Literature | Class 10  |  9
Examples:
(ii) We use that to introduce the indirect speech.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech (iii) We change the optative sentence into the assertive sentence
and replace the sign of exclamation (!) with a full stop (.).
The constable asked the The constable asked the
Examples:
suspect, ‘‘What is your name?’’ suspect what his name was.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Ruby said to him, ‘‘How is Ruby asked him how his
She said to him, ‘‘May you be She prayed that he might be
your mother?’’ mother was.
healthy!’’ healthy.
She said to me, ‘‘Where is She asked me where my office
We said, ‘‘Long live the queen!’’ We prayed that the queen
your office?’’ was.
might live long.
He said to her, ‘‘Why are you He asked her why she was
He said to me, ‘‘May you be He wished that I might be
waiting here?’’ waiting there.
happy and contended!’’ happy and contended.
She said to me, ‘‘Why are you She asked me why I was late
The beggar said to him, ‘‘May The beggar prayed that he
late for the class?’’ for the class.
you prosper in your business!’’ might prosper in his business.
Rashi said to her teacher, Rashi asked her teacher if she
She said to her, ‘‘May God She wished that God might
‘‘May I go to the library now?’’ might go to the library then.
answer your prayers!’’ answer her prayers.
Tanu said to him, ‘‘Do you Tanu asked him if he sent gifts
The father said, ‘‘May God bless The father prayed that God
send gifts by courier to your by courier to his brother.
you with a lot of happiness and might bless his daughter
brother?’’
success, my daughter!’’ with a lot of happiness and
9. While changing imperative sentences into indirect speech, the success.
following rules should be observed.
(i) We change the reporting verb into a verb signifying a 11. When converting an exclamatory sentence from direct to indirect
command, request or advice. speech the following points should be remembered.
(a) A command can be expressed by the words command, (i) We change the reporting verb said to exclaim with sorrow/
order, tell, charge, etc. joy/fear/anger, or applaud, regret, curse, cry out or any other
(b) A request can be expressed by the words request, beg, ask, such verb that properly conveys the tone of the exclamation.
implore, entreat, desire, etc. (ii) We omit all the interjections and exclamations and convey
(c)  An advice can be denoted by the words advise, urge, their sense by means of suitable adverbs or adverbial phrases,
exhort, etc.
such as, with joy, with wonder, with sorrow, with regret, with
(d) Besides these words, persuade, forbid, incite, etc. may also
surprise, with contempt, etc.
be used according to the context.
(ii) The verb of the reported speech is changed into an infinitive. (iii) We use the conjunction that to introduce the reported
(iii) If the reported speech is negative, the word not is placed speech.
before the to-infinitive. (iv) If an exclamatory sentence begins with words like how or
(iv) No conjunction is used in order to introduce the reported what, omit them in the indirect form of speech. Express their
speech. sense by using the words great, big, very, etc.
Examples:
(v) The sentences which are incomplete or express sudden
Direct Speech Indirect Speech feeling are changed into full sentences.
I said to him, ‘‘Don’t worry I told him not to worry about Examples:

about me.’’ me. Direct Speech Indirect Speech
My friend said to me, ‘‘Please My friend entreated me to
He said, ‘‘Goodbye, Rajesh!’’ He bade goodbye to Rajesh.
accept this invitation.’’ accept that invitation.
He said, ‘‘Farewell, my brave He bade farewell to his brave
Veenu said to Rishu, ‘‘Go out at Veenu ordered Rishu to go
comrades!’’ comrades.
once.’’ out at once.
He said to me, ‘‘Good evening! He wished me good evening
The teacher said to the girls, The teacher ordered the girls
How are you?’’ and asked me how I was.
‘‘Do not be late for the class.’’ not to be late for the class.
She said, ‘‘What a beautiful She exclaimed with joy that it
The teacher said to Vijay, ‘‘Do The teacher advised Vijay not
dress!’’ was a very beautiful dress.
not go to the playground now.’’ to go to the playground then.
She said, ‘‘How beautiful the She exclaimed that the vase
She said to him, ‘‘Please switch She requested him to switch
vase is!’’ was very beautiful.
on the fan.’’ on the fan.
She said, ‘‘How disappointed She exclaimed that he was
10. While converting optative sentences from direct to indirect he is!’’ very disappointed.
speech, the following general rules have to be observed.
She said, ‘‘What an awful She exclaimed with sorrow
 he reporting verb said is changed to wish/pray/long for/
(i) T
tragedy!’’ that it was an awful tragedy.
yearn/earnestly desire, etc.
10  | 
RULES OF REPORTED SPEECH
Change the Tense 20. you (subjective case)  →  he/she/they

1. Simple Present → Simple Past 21. you (objective case)  →  him/her/them
• do/does   →  did 22. your  →  his/her/their
• V I    →  V II 23. yours  →  his/hers/theirs
2. Present Continuous → Past Continuous
Change the Words Expressing Nearness
• is/are/am →  was/were
24. now/just → then
3. Present Perfect → Past Perfect
25. today → that day
• has/have   →  had 26. tomorrow → the next day/the following day
4. Present Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous 27. last night → the previous night/the night before
• has been/ have been   →  had been 28. tonight → that night
5. Simple Past → Past Perfect Tense 29. yesterday → the previous day/the day before
• V II    →  had + V III 30. thus → so
6. Past Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous 31. ago → before
• was/were  →  had been 32. next week → the following week
33. this → that
Note: There will be no change in the transformation of Past
Perfect and Past Perfect Continuous Tense. 34. these → those

7. will → would 35. here → there

8. shall → should Question
9. can → could
10. may → might
Yes/No 3 Yes/No 5
11. must → had to
Change the Personal Pronoun If/whether Question word
12. I → he/she Further, there is change in the position of the helping verb and the
13. me → him/her
subject
14. my → his/her
15. mine → his/hers Direct Speech : Helping verb Subject
16. we → they
17. us → them
18. our → their Reported Speech/ : Subject Helping verb
19. ours → theirs Indirect Speech (with the needed changes)

determiners
A determiner is a word used before a noun to specify and point at it. 2. Demonstratives (This, That, These, Those)
Examples: • This class is well-disciplined. This and these are used to point at things close to us. We use that and
• The rotten apple was thrown away. those to point at things far away from us. We use this and that with
• Some lemon juice is needed now. singular nouns. They take singular verbs (is and was).
• How many pens do you have? These and those are used with plural nouns. They take plural verbs (are,
• What an excellent speech! look).
All the highlighted words (This, The, Some, many, an) are determiners. Examples: • This building is new.
Determiners are classified as follows: • That helicopter was up in the air.
• These packets are for you. Please take them.
1. Articles (A, An, The) • Those kites look beautiful.
Articles are used before nouns. ‘A’ is used before nouns beginning with
a consonant sound and ‘An’ is used before countable nouns beginning 3. Possessives (My, Our, Your, His, Her, Its, Their)
with a vowel sound. ‘The’ is definite article and is used before singular These words show possession. We can use them before both singular
and plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns. and plural nouns. They can also be used before uncountable nouns.
Examples: • An ostrich stood near Raghu. Examples: • Rohan has my bag.
• A lion is a ferocious animal. • Mona wants your notebook.
• She made a sandwich and an omelette for me. • The bag is big but its handle is very small.
• The sky looks clear today. • Sahil likes her painting.
 English Language and Literature | Class 10  |  11
4. Distributives (Each, Every, Either, Neither) (i) Some, Any: We generally use some in affirmative sentences and
The use of distributives is discussed below. any in negative and interrogative sentences.
(i) Each: We use each when we think of things separately, one by We rarely use any in affirmative sentences.
one. Each is used for a small number, preferably two, or the Examples: • Some boys are still in the library.
number in the group should at least be limited.     • T  here is some sugar in the jar.
Examples: • Talk to each child separately.     • A  re there any girls in the English play?
    • Each side of the square has the same length.     • Is there any tea in the kettle?
(ii) Every: We use every when we think of things as a group. It is also     • T  here isn’t any tea in the kettle.
used when the number is large or indefinite. (ii) Much: Much is used with uncountable nouns.
Examples: • Every child needs love and protection. Examples: • Sunehari does not have much knowledge about politics.
    • Every Indian must be proud of his country.     • There is not much milk left.
(iii) Either: Either has two meanings. It can mean any of the two (iii) Many: Many is used with countable nouns.
different persons or things. It can also mean both. Examples: • Did you buy many dresses?
Examples: • You can take either bus. (any of the two buses)     • S  he does not have many friends in the class.
    • There are lifts at either side of the building. (on both     • M  any boys have shown interest in playing cricket.
the sides)     • M  any have been affected by recent floods.
(iv) Neither: Neither means not one or the other. It is the opposite of     • M  any of them are involved in the project.
either. (iv) Few, A Few, The Few
Examples: • Neither document has any signature on it. These are used with countable nouns.
    • Neither of the two girls passed the competitive exam. Few is used to emphasise lack of something, a few is used to
emphasise that something still remains and the few is used to
5. Interrogatives (What, Which, Whose, How many, How much) emphasise not many, but all of those.
These are used to ask questions, and can be placed before any kind of Examples: • T  here are few books on the shelf.
a noun.     • I have a few questions to answer.
Examples: • Whose bag is this?     • He wants to spend the few days that are left in
 • Which book on gardening do you recommend? solitude and meditation.
 • How many cartons will we require to pack these books? (v) Little, A Little, The Little: These are used in the same manner
as few, a few and the few. The only difference is that these are
6. Quantifiers (Any, Some, Much, Many, Few, A Few, The generally used with uncountable nouns.
Few, Little, A Little, The Little) Examples: • W  e had little time to prepare for the competition.
These indicate about the quantity. These are used with both, countable     • It is nice to get a little water in the ground.
as well as uncountable nouns.     • The little time we spent on reading the text was not
The usage of some of the quantifiers is discussed ahead. enough to answer all the questions.