Topic 2: Hypotheses: What Is A Hypothesis?

C.
In the study on the relationship between the teaching style and students’
academic motivation, list three (3) moderator variables and another three (3)
extraneous variables.
TOPIC 2: HYPOTHESES
What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is, simply put, a prediction of the possible outcomes of a study. It is

a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is
specific, testable prediction of what you expect to happen in your study.
A hypothesis must be empirically grounded and lead to the main contributor of

the investigation. A research hypothesis is the statement that you created when you
speculate upon the outcome of a structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment. It is
the statement that predicts the relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
A hypothesis is not a final answer, but rather a proposal to be tested and

evaluated. For example, a researcher would like to test whether the use of
manipulatives improves pupils’ performance. Two groups of pupils were used as
participants; one group was introduced with manipulatives and the other with no
manipulatives.
Research question:
Is there a significant difference between the performances of the two
groups of pupils before and after the use of manipulatives?
Ho: There is no significant difference between performances of pupils before and after
the use of manipulatives.
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
A research hypothesis is a statement that researchers can empirically test. It is a

statement about how two variables are related. It is not a question and, to that end, it is
different from a research question that is usually broad and does not specifically link
two or more specific concepts. The following are the characteristics of a good research
hypothesis.
1. Logical. A good hypothesis is usually founded on established theories or

developed from the results of previous research. Specifically, a good hypothesis
should have two logical conclusions of a logical argument.
2. Testable. A good hypothesis must be testable. That is, it must be possible to
observe and measure all the variables involved. The hypothesis must involve real
situations, real events, and real individuals. You cannot test a hypothesis that
refers to imaginary terms or hypothetical situations.
3. Refutable. A testable hypothesis must be refutable. It must be possible to obtain
research results that are contrary to prediction. For example, if the research
hypothesis predicts that the treatment will cause all increase in scores, it must
be possible for the data to show a decrease.
14 | joannedgorospe
Task/Activity
Analyze the research questions below. Formulate hypotheses given the research
questions.
This study aims to determine the effects of games-simulation on mathematical

achievement and degree of motivation of the Grade 6 pupils. Specifically, the researcher
seeks answer to the following questions:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1. Age;
1.2. Gender; and
1.3. Pre-achievement level?
2. What are the levels of mathematical motivations of the two groups of
respondents based on their pre-test and post-test scores?
3. Is there a significant difference in the control and experimental groups’
mathematical motivations as measured by their pre-test and post-test scores?
4. How significantly different are the math academic achievements of the two
groups of students based on their pre-test and post-test results?
TOPIC 3: ETHICS AND RESEARCH
Research, as a scientific activity, always calls for the involvement of human

beings – the researcher and the participants. Because of this, it behooves the researcher
to observe ethical practices in his relationship with others, especially with the research
participants. Respect for the rights and values of others is very essential; hence ethical
considerations and guidelines are deemed as an important aspect of research.
Basic Rules for Ethical Research
The professional integrity of the researcher becomes at stake when research is

carried out without considering moral issues on what ought to be done and what ought
not to be done. The notion of ethics is closely linked to the idea of morality; and that
ethics concerns the system of moral principles by which individuals can judge their
actions as right or wrong, good or bad. Ethics in research calls for a moral perspective
rather than the practical or logical perspective related to the research methodology.
Some ethical questions as guide for the researcher at the start of a research
project are as follows:
 What are the beneficial consequences of the study?
 How can informed consent of the participants be obtained?
 How can confidentiality of the participants be protected?
 What are the consequences of the study for the participants?
 How will the researcher’s role affect the study?
In the context of social science, some authors have developed an “ethical

theory” based on four principles:
1. Non-maleficence – Researchers should avoid harming participants.
2. Beneficence – Research on human subjects should produce some positive and
identifiable benefit rather than simply be carried out for its own sake.
15 | joannedgorospe
3. Autonomy or self-determination – Research participants’ values and decisions
should be respected.
4. Justice – All people should be treated equally.
To expound more on these ethical concerns, the succeeding discussion offers

more succinct ideas pertaining to ethical considerations in research. First on the list is
the integrity of the researcher. Researchers must act professionally in the pursuit of
truth. They should be committed to discovering and reporting things as honestly as
possible.
A very basic ethical rule is to acknowledge the source of information or data

used throughout the text. Knowledge or information taken from another source must
be acknowledged by citing the name of the author/s and the reference material where
such ideas were taken.
Deception or misrepresentation must be avoided. The researcher must not be

influenced by other considerations except only of what is the truth of the matter.
Sometimes misrepresentation or deception in research can occur among social
researches sponsored by various interest groups like political groups, manufacturing
companies, promotion, companies, or even motivated by the researcher’s personal
interests. In the field of educational research perhaps there’s a slim chance that this
could happen. However, human frailty could lead to temptations due to man’s innate
vulnerability to it; hence faithfully observing and committing one’s self to ethical
guidelines and reminders is truly proper.
As expected of every researcher, it is his or her duty to inform and discuss with
the participants the consequences of the study, both the positive and negative
consequences. Luck may be on the researcher’s side if all the intended participants
agree to take part in the study. But if there are some who refuse to participate, the
researcher cannot force them. It is therefore necessary to get the consent of the
participation prior to gathering data.
Informed consent is a principle that is fundamental to the notion of human

rights. This means that it is absolutely essential to seek the voluntary consent of the
human subject. The person involved should have the legal capacity to give consent;
should be able to exercise free power of choice without any intervention or force; and
must have sufficient knowledge and comprehension of the subject of research to enable
him to make an enlightened decision. In the case of children participants or other
vulnerable members of society, consent must be given by the parents or legal guardian
or another person who has a direct, formal responsibility for the welfare of the child or
other vulnerable participant. Teacher-advisers in school, acting in loco parentis or lieu of
parents might take on this role.
Another to consider are privacy, confidentiality and anonymity. The researcher

should take measure to safeguard the confidentiality of information and ensure the
non-disclosure of identities of those participating in the research. In legal form, the issue
of privacy was originally framed as the protection of individual citizens against intrusions
by others into their lives, and against demands for the disclosure of information. Closely
intertwined under the heading of privacy are issues to do with the control of both
territory and information. The territory involved is not only physical space, but also
virtual space that exists on mobile phones, personal and institutional computers and
internet.
16 | joannedgorospe
Task/Activity
Write a narrative story of your past experience wherein you, as a student, did
not conform to the ethical norms while doing your research projects. Analyze your
behavior at that time and reflect on what you should have done as an evidence of
learning.
TOPIC 4: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND STUDIES
The Value of Literature Review
A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because

such reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is
because related literature and studies guide the researcher in pursuing his research
venture.
A literature review is helpful in two ways. It not only helps researchers glean the
ideas of others interested in a particular research question and lets them read about the
results of similar or related studies. A detailed literature review, in fact, is usually
required of students when they design a thesis. Researchers can weigh information
from a literature review in light of their own concerns and situation. They need to be
able not only to locate other work dealing with their intended area of study but also to
be able to evaluate their work in terms of its relevance to the research question of
interest.
Types of Sources
A researcher needs to be familiar with three basic types of sources as he/she

begins to search for information related to the research question. The following are the
types of sources where the researcher can get the necessary information.
1. General references – are the sources researchers often refer to first. In effect,
they tell where to look to locate other sources such as articles, monographs,
books and other documents that deal directly with the research question. Most
general references are either indexes, which list the author, title, and place of
publication of articles and other materials, or abstracts, which give a brief
summary of various publications, as well as their author, title and place of
publication.
2. Primary sources – are publications in which researchers report the results of
their studies. Authors communicate their findings directly to the readers. Most
primary sources in education are journals.
3. Secondary sources – refer to publications in which authors describe the work of
others. The most common sources in education are textbooks. Other commonly
used secondary sources include educational encyclopedias, research reviews,
and yearbooks.
17 | joannedgorospe
Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies/Materials to be Cited
There are certain characteristics of related materials that make them of true
value. Among these characteristics are the following:
1. The materials must be as recent as possible.
2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study.
4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts
or data to make them valid and reliable.
5. Materials must not be too few but not too many.
Task/Activity
In the illustration below, it can be gleaned that the review of related literature is
the first step in the research process. Why do you think so? Why are related literature
and studies important at the start of research undertaking?
ASSESSMENT: THE BASICS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

If you want to study about the determinants of students’ academic success,
answer the following.
1. What independent variables will be taken into consideration? Classify each as
quantitative or categorical variables. What are the possible moderator and
extraneous variables in the study?
2. List possible questions and formulate hypotheses corresponding to these
questions.
3. What ethical considerations will you consider in conducting the study?
4. Is there a need to review the existing literature on the factors affecting students’
academic success? Why?
18 | joannedgorospe

Topic 2: Hypotheses: What Is A Hypothesis?

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Topic 2: Hypotheses: What Is A Hypothesis?

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Topic 2: Hypotheses: What Is A Hypothesis?

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

C.

A hypothesis is, simply put, a prediction of the possible outcomes of a study. It is

A hypothesis must be empirically grounded and lead to the main contributor of

A hypothesis is not a final answer, but rather a proposal to be tested and

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a statement that researchers can empirically test. It is a

1. Logical. A good hypothesis is usually founded on established theories or

This study aims to determine the effects of games-simulation on mathematical

TOPIC 3: ETHICS AND RESEARCH

Research, as a scientific activity, always calls for the involvement of human

Basic Rules for Ethical Research

The professional integrity of the researcher becomes at stake when research is

In the context of social science, some authors have developed an “ethical

To expound more on these ethical concerns, the succeeding discussion offers

A very basic ethical rule is to acknowledge the source of information or data

Deception or misrepresentation must be avoided. The researcher must not be

Informed consent is a principle that is fundamental to the notion of human

Another to consider are privacy, confidentiality and anonymity. The researcher

TOPIC 4: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The Value of Literature Review

A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because

A researcher needs to be familiar with three basic types of sources as he/she

ASSESSMENT: THE BASICS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

You might also like