TERM PAPER

OF
PHYSICS

TOPIC: SPECTROMETER

Submitted to : Submitted by :

Mr. BHARPUR SINGH ACHIN SURI

Roll no- RC6904B4

B.Tech (ECE)

Regd - 10906991

Introduction :
 Spectrmetry was originally the study of the interaction between radiation and
matter as a function of wavelength (λ). In fact, historically, spectroscopy referred to
the use of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, e.g. by a prism. Later the
concept was expanded greatly to comprise any measurement of a quantity as function
of either wavelength or frequency. Thus it also can refer to a response to an alternating
field or varying frequency (ν). A further extension of the scope of the definition added
energy (E) as a variable, once the very close relationship E = hν for photons was
realized (h is the Planck constant). A plot of the response as a function of wavelength
—or more commonly frequency—is referred to as a spectrum; see also spectral
linewidth.

Spectrometry is the spectroscopic technique used to assess the concentration or

amount of a given species. In this case, the instrument that performs such
measurements is a spectrometer or spectrograph.

Spectrometry is often used in physical and analytical chemistry for the

identification of substances through the spectrum emitted from or absorbed by them.

Spectrometry is also heavily used in astronomy and remote sensing. Most large
telescopes have spectrometers, which are used either to measure the chemical
composition and physical properties of astronomical objects or to measure their
velocities from the Doppler shift of their spectral lines.

Classification of methods :

The type of spectroscopy depends on the physical quantity measured.

Normally, the quantity that is measured is an intensity, either of energy absorbed or
produced.

• Electromagnetic spectroscopy involves interactions of matter with

electromagnetic radiation, such as light.

• Electron spectroscopy involves interactions with electron beams. Auger

spectroscopy involves inducing the Auger effect with an electron beam. In this
case the measurement typically involves the kinetic energy of the electron as
variable.

• Acoustic spectroscopy involves the frequency of sound.

• Dielectric spectroscopy involves the frequency of an external electrical field

• Mechanical spectroscopy involves the frequency of an external mechanical

stress, e.g. a torsion applied to a piece of material.
Common types :

Absorption :

Absorption spectrmetry is a technique in which the power of a beam of light

measured before and after interaction with a sample is compared. Specific absorption
techniques tend to be referred to by the wavelength of radiation measured such as
ultraviolet, infrared or microwave absorption spectroscopy. Absorption occurs when
the energy of the photons matches the energy difference between two states of the
material.

Fluorescence :

Fluorescence spectrometry uses higher energy photons to excite a sample,

which will then lower energy photons. This technique has become popular for its
biochemical and medical applications, and can be used for confocal microscopy,
fluorescence resonance energy transfer, and fluorescence lifetime imaging.

X-ray :

When X-rays of sufficient frequency (energy) interact with a substance, inner

shell electrons in the atom are excited to outer empty orbitals, or they may be removed
completely, ionizing the atom. The inner shell "hole" will then be filled by electrons
from outer orbitals. The energy available in this de-excitation process is emitted as
radiation (fluorescence) or will remove other less-bound electrons from the atom
(Auger effect). The absorption or emission frequencies (energies) are characteristic of
the specific atom. In addition, for a specific atom small frequency (energy) variations
occur which are characteristic of the chemical bonding. With a suitable apparatus,
these characteristic X-ray frequencies or Auger electron energies can be measured. X-
ray absorption and emission spectroscopy is used in chemistry and material sciences
to determine elemental composition and chemical bonding.

X-ray crystallography is a scattering process; crystalline materials scatter X-

rays at well-defined angles. If the wavelength of the incident X-rays is known, this
allows calculation of the distances between planes of atoms within the crystal. The
intensities of the scattered X-rays give information about the atomic positions and
allow the arrangement of the atoms within the crystal structure to be calculated.

Flame :
 Liquid solution samples are aspirated into a burner or nebulizer/burner
combination, desolvated, atomized, and sometimes excited to a higher energy
electronic state. The use of a flame during analysis requires fuel and oxidant, typically
in the form of gases. Common fuel gases used are acetylene (ethyne) or hydrogen.
Common oxidant gases used are oxygen, air, or nitrous oxide. These methods are
often capable of analyzing metallic element analytes in the part per million, billion, or
possibly lower concentration ranges. Light detectors are needed to detect light with
the analysis information coming from the flame.

Atomic Emission Spectrometry :

This method uses flame excitation; atoms are excited from the heat of the flame
to emit light. This method commonly uses a total consumption burner with a round
burning outlet. A higher temperature flame than atomic absorption spectroscopy (AA)
is typically used to produce excitation of analyte atoms. Since analyte atoms are
excited by the heat of the flame, no special elemental lamps to shine into the flame are
needed. A high resolution polychromator can be used to produce an emission intensity
vs. wavelength spectrum over a range of wavelengths showing multiple element
excitation lines, meaning multiple elements can be detected in one run. Alternatively,
a monochromator can be set at one wavelength to concentrate on analysis of a single
element at a certain emission line. Plasma emission spectroscopy is a more modern
version of this method. See Flame emission spectroscopy for more details.

Atomic absorption spectroscopy (often called AA) :

This method commonly uses a pre-burner nebulizer (or nebulizing chamber) to

create a sample mist and a slot-shaped burner which gives a longer pathlength flame.
The temperature of the flame is low enough that the flame itself does not excite
sample atoms from their ground state. The nebulizer and flame are used to desolvate
and atomize the sample, but the excitation of the analyte atoms is done by the use of
lamps shining through the flame at various wavelengths for each type of analyte. In
AA, the amount of light absorbed after going through the flame determines the
amount of analyte in the sample. A graphite furnace for heating the sample to
desolvate and atomize is commonly used for greater sensitivity. The graphite furnace
method can also analyze some solid or slurry samples. Because of its good sensitivity
and selectivity, it is still a commonly used method of analysis for certain trace
elements in aqueous (and other liquid) samples.
Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy :

This method commonly uses a burner with a round burning outlet. The flame is
used to solvate and atomize the sample, but a lamp shines light at a specific
wavelength into the flame to excite the analyte atoms in the flame. The atoms of
certain elements can then fluoresce emitting light in a different direction. The intensity
of this fluorescing light is used for quantifying the amount of analyte element in the
sample. A graphite furnace can also be used for atomic fluorescence spectroscopy.
This method is not as commonly used as atomic absorption or plasma emission
spectroscopy.

Plasma Emission Spectroscopy In some ways similar to flame atomic emission

spectroscopy, it has largely replaced it.

Direct-current plasma (DCP) :

A direct-current plasma (DCP) is created by an electrical discharge between

two electrodes. A plasma support gas is necessary, and Ar is common. Samples can be
deposited on one of the electrodes, or if conducting can make up one electrode.

• Glow discharge-optical emission spectrometry (GD-OES)

• Inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES)

• Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) (LIBS), also called Laser-

induced plasma spectrometry (LIPS)

• Microwave-induced plasma (MIP)

Spark or arc (emission) spectroscopy - is used for the analysis of metallic

elements in solid samples. For non-conductive materials, a sample is ground with
graphite powder to make it conductive. In traditional arc spectroscopy methods, a
sample of the solid was commonly ground up and destroyed during analysis. An
electric arc or spark is passed through the sample, heating the sample to a high
temperature to excite the atoms in it. The excited analyte atoms glow emitting light at
various wavelengths which could be detected by common spectroscopic methods.
Since the conditions producing the arc emission typically are not controlled
quantitatively, the analysis for the elements is qualitative. Nowadays, the spark
sources with controlled discharges under an argon atmosphere allow that this method
can be considered eminently quantitative, and its use is widely expanded worldwide
through production control laboratories of foundries and steel mills.

Visible :
 Many atoms emit or absorb visible light. In order to obtain a fine line spectrum,
the atoms must be in a gas phase. This means that the substance has to be vaporised.
The spectrum is studied in absorption or emission. Visible absorption spectroscopy is
often combined with UV absorption spectroscopy in UV/Vis spectroscopy. Although
this form may be uncommon as the human eye is a similar indicator, it still proves
useful when distinguishing colours.

Ultraviolet :

All atoms absorb in the Ultraviolet (UV) region because these photons are
energetic enough to excite outer electrons. If the frequency is high enough,
photoionization takes place. UV spectroscopy is also used in quantifying protein and
DNA concentration as well as the ratio of protein to DNA concentration in a solution.
Several amino acids usually found in protein, such as tryptophan, absorb light in the
280 nm range and DNA absorbs light in the 260 nm range. For this reason, the ratio of
260/280 nm absorbance is a good general indicator of the relative purity of a solution
in terms of these two macromolecules. Reasonable estimates of protein or DNA
concentration can also be made this way using Beer's law.

Infrared :

Infrared spectroscopy offers the possibility to measure different types of inter

atomic bond vibrations at different frequencies. Especially in organic chemistry the
analysis of IR absorption spectra shows what type of bonds are present in the sample.
It is also an important method for analysing polymers and constituents like fillers,
pigments and plasticizers.

Near Infrared (NIR) :

The near infrared NIR range, immediately beyond the visible wavelength
range, is especially important for practical applications because of the much greater
penetration depth of NIR radiation into the sample than in the case of mid IR
spectroscopy range. This allows also large samples to be measured in each scan by
NIR spectroscopy, and is currently employed for many practical applications such as:
rapid grain analysis, medical diagnosis pharmaceuticals/medicines, biotechnology,
genomics analysis, proteomic analysis, interactomics research, inline textile
monitoring, food analysis and chemical imaging/hyperspectral imaging of intact
organisms, plastics, textiles, insect detection, forensic lab application, crime detection,
various military applications, and so on.

Raman :
 Raman spectroscopy uses the inelastic scattering of light to analyse vibrational
and rotational modes of molecules. The resulting 'fingerprints' are an aid to analysis.

Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS)

CARS is a recent technique that has high sensitivity and powerful applications
for in vivo spectroscopy and imaging.

Nuclear magnetic resonance

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analyzes the magnetic properties of

certain atomic nuclei to determine different electronic local environments of
hydrogen, carbon, or other atoms in an organic compound or other compound. This is
used to help determine the structure of the compound.

Mass spectrometry :

Mass spectrometry is a technique for separating and identifying molecules

based on mass. It has become an important tool for proteomics, the analysis of the
whole range of proteins expressed in a cell. Mass spectrometry is used to identify
proteins and to determine their amino acid sequence. It can also be used to determine
if a protein has been modified by the addition of phosphate groups or sugars, for
example. The technique also allows other molecules, including DNA, RNA, and
sugars, to be identified or sequenced.

The use of mass spectrometry has greatly aided proteomics. Whereas DNA
sequencing is simple and straightforward, protein sequencing is not. The ability to
quickly and accurately identify proteins being expressed in a cell allows a range of
hypotheses to be tested that cannot be approached by simply looking at DNA. For
instance, it is possible with mass spectrometry to determine what proteins are
expressed in cancer cells that are not expressed in healthy cells, possibly leading to
further understanding of the disease and to development of drugs that target these
proteins.

Data derived from mass spectrometry is usually analyzed by computer

programs that search databases to help identify the analyzed protein. Such tools are
the province of bioinformatics. The databases are usually located at a centralized
institution and are searched via the Internet

(Main steps of measuring with a mass spectrometer)

What is Mass Spectrometry used for?

• Determine how drugs are used in the body

• Detect and identify illegitimate steroids in athletes

• Determine damage of human or animal genes due to environmental causes

• Determine the age and origins of specimens in geochemistry and archaeology

• Detect dioxins in food and humans

• Locate petroleum deposits by testing rock samples

• Determine country of origin of wine, rice or diamonds

• Test the purity of semi-conductor materials used in making microchips for

computers

• Monitor and track air pollutants

• The identification and characterization of proteins involved in biological

processes

• Find novel proteins in biological samples for use as therapeutic or diagnostic

targets

• Detect the presence of metabolic disorders in infa

Spectrometer and Its Uses :

The spectrometer is an instrument that can measure the masses and relative
concentrations of atoms and molecules and Mass Spectrometry is an analytical
technique that identifies the chemical composition of a compound or sample based on
the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles. The design of a mass spectrometer has
three essential modules, an ion source-which transforms the molecules in a sample
into ionized fragments, a mass analyzer-which sorts the ions by their masses by
applying electric, and magnetic fields and a detector-which measures the value of
some indicator quantity and thus provides data for calculating the abundances each ion
fragment present.

The spectrometer technique has both qualitative and quantitative uses, such as-

1. Identification of unknown compounds

2. Determining the isotopic composition of elements in a compound

3. Determining the structure of a compound by observing its fragmentation

4. Quantifying the amount of a compound in a sample using carefully designed
methods

5. Studying the fundamentals of gas phase in ion chemistry

6. Determining other physical, chemical or biological properties or compounds.

Spectrometers are sensitive detectors of isotopes based on their masses. They

are used in carbon dating and other radioactive dating processes. The combination of a
mass spectrometer and a gas chromatograph makes a powerful tool for the detection
of trace quantities of contaminants or toxins. A number of satellites and spacecraft
have mass spectrometers for the identification of the small numbers of particles
intercepted in space.

Spectrometers are also widely used in space missions to measure the

composition of plasmas. Foe example, the cassini spacecraft carries the Cassini
Plasma spectrometer (CAPS), which measures the mass of ions in Saturn’s
magnetosphere.

Spectrometry is an important method for the characterization of proteins.

Pharmacokinetics is often studied using mass spectrometry because of the complex
nature of the matrix (often blood or urine).

Spectrometers are used for the analysis of residual gases in high vacuum
systems.

An atom probe is an instrument that combines time-of-flight mass spectrometry

and field ion microscopy to map the location of individual atoms.

Application :

Spectrometry is also used to determine the isotopic composition of elements

within a sample. Differences in mass among isotopes of an element are very small,
and the less abundant isotopes of an element are typically very rare, so a very sensitive
instrument is required. These instruments, sometimes referred to as isotope ratio mass
spectrometers (IR-MS), usually use a single magnet to bend a beam of ionized
particles towards a series of Faraday cups which convert particle impacts to electric
current. A fast on-line analysis of deuterium content of water can be done using
Flowing afterglow mass spectrometry, FA-MS. Probably the most sensitive and
accurate mass spectrometer for this purpose is the accelerator mass spectrometer
(AMS). Isotope ratios are important markers of a variety of processes. Some isotope
ratios are used to determine the age of materials for example as in carbon dating.
Labelling with stable isotopes is also used for protein quantification. (See Protein
quantitation below)

Trace gas analysis :

Several techniques use ions created in a dedicated ion source injected into a
flow tube or a drift tube: selected ion flow tube (SIFT-MS), and proton transfer
reaction (PTR-MS), are variants of chemical ionization dedicated for trace gas
analysis of air, breath or liquid headspace using well defined reaction time allowing
calculations of analyte concentrations from the known reaction kinetics without the
need for internal standard or calibration.

An atom probe is an instrument that combines time-of-flight mass spectrometry

and field ion microscopy (FIM) to map the location of individual atoms.

Pharmacokinetics :

Pharmacokinetics is often studied using mass spectrometry because of the

complex nature of the matrix (often blood or urine) and the need for high sensitivity to
observe low dose and long time point data. The most common instrumentation used in
this application is LC-MS with a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Tandem mass
spectrometry is usually employed for added specificity. Standard curves and internal
standards are used for quantitation of usually a single pharmaceutical in the samples.
The samples represent different time points as a pharmaceutical is administered and
then metabolized or cleared from the body. Blank or t=0 samples taken before
administration are important in determining background and insuring data integrity
with such complex sample matrices. Much attention is paid to the linearity of the
standard curve; however it is not uncommon to use curve fitting with more complex
functions such as quadratics since the response of most mass spectrometers is less
than linear across large concentration ranges.

There is currently considerable interest in the use of very high sensitivity mass
spectrometry for microdosing studies, which are seen as a promising alternative to
animal experimentation.

Spectrometry is an important emerging method for the characterization of

proteins. The two primary methods for ionization of whole proteins are electrospray
ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). In keeping
with the performance and mass range of available mass spectrometers, two approaches
are used for characterizing proteins. In the first, intact proteins are ionized by either of
the two techniques described above, and then introduced to a mass analyser. This
approach is referred to as "top-down" strategy of protein analysis. In the second,
proteins are enzymatically digested into smaller peptides using proteases such as
trypsin or pepsin, either in solution or in gel after electrophoretic separation. Other
proteolytic agents are also used. The collection of peptide products are then
introduced to the mass analyser. When the characteristic pattern of peptides is used for
the identification of the protein the method is called peptide mass fingerprinting
(PMF), if the identification is performed using the sequence data determined in
tandem MS analysis it is called de novo sequencing. These procedures of protein
analysis are also referred to as the "bottom-up" approach.

Space exploration :

As a standard method for analysis, mass spectrometers have reached other

planets and moons. Two were taken to Mars by the Viking program. In early 2005 the
Cassini-Huygens mission delivered a specialized GC-MS instrument aboard the
Huygens probe through the atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of the planet
Saturn. This instrument analyzed atmospheric samples along its descent trajectory and
was able to vaporize and analyze samples of Titan's frozen, hydrocarbon covered
surface once the probe had landed. These measurements compare the abundance of
isotope(s) of each particle comparatively to earth's natural abundance.[30]. Also
onboard the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft is an ion and neutral mass spectrometer
which has been taking measurements of Titan's atmospheric composition as well as
the composition of Enceladus' plumes.

Spectrometers are also widely used in space missions to measure the

composition of plasmas. For example, the Cassini spacecraft carries the Cassini
Plasma Spectrometer (CAPS), which measures the mass of ions in Saturn's
magnetosphere.

Refference:

1.www.google.com

2.www.wikipedia.com

3. engineering chemistry