GTU Research Methodology

A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd
MBA CLASSES
nd
II Semester
RESEARCH
METHODOLGY
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which will bring in to focus all important concepts that you need to
study in order to fortify yourself for your examination. The subject
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The Institute is very exhaustive and wholly concept based.
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am sure you will feel that the study is a pleasurable job and not a
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Director
SR NO. NAME OF CHAPTER PAGE NO.
1 Introduction 1.1
2 Process of Research And Research Design 2.1
3 Sampling And Collection of Data 3.1
4 Analysis of Data 4.1
5 Estimation Theory and Hypothesis Testing 5.1

 Z-test 5.11
 T-test 5.16
 F-test 5.20
 Chi-Square test 5.22
6 Techniques of association of Attributes & Testing

 ANOVA 6.1
 Run Test 6.5
 Rank Sum Test (U Test) 6.6
 Kruskal-Wallis Test (H Test) 6.7
 Sign Test 6.8
 Spearmans Rank Correlation 6.9
7 Research Report Preparation 7.1
8 Bibliography and Annexure in the Report 8.1

A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd Introduction
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Research is a systematic activity to achieve the truth. It includes the identification of study area, the
procedure for collecting data, analysing the data, and finding the conclusion or truth based upon the
scientific procedure. The research must be systematic, not haphazard. It must be objective, to avoid the
distorting effects of personal bias. The aim of applied research is to facilitate managerial decision-
making. On the other hand, basic or pure research is used to test and build specific theories and concepts.
Business research refers to any type of researching done when starting or running any kind of
business. For example, starting any type of business requires research into the target customer and the
competition to create a business plan. Conducting business market research in existing businesses is
helpful in keeping in touch with consumer demand. Small business research begins with researching an
idea and a name and continues with research based on customer demand and other businesses offering
similar products or services. All business research is done to learn information that could make the
company more successful.
Business research is an important management activity that helps companies to determine which
products will be most profitable for companies to produce. Several steps are necessary when conducting
business research; each step must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure that the best decision is made for the
company.
Characteristics of Research
1) Clearly Defined Objectives: A good business research should clearly define the objective. It should
know in advance what information want to procure.
2) Choose the Right Methodology: It is the method use for obtaining business research data. Business
research methodologies include phone, mail and Internet surveys as well as personal interviews. Mall
intercept studies are another type of methodology, where researchers talk to consumers in stores.
3) Promoting Business: The objectives of any good business research should be how to better promote
business in an economically sound manner and to increase the businesses net profit, exposure, and ensure
its continuity.
4) Covers Region in Which Business Operates: It covers all the regions in which the business operates,
locally and internationally. Setting-up a hotel means knowing local conditions, such as attractions and
competing establishments, but also problems such as crime or obtaining supplies.
5) Judging Problems: Another characteristic of good business research is judging local problems of the
environment in which our establishment is going to operate.
6) Flexibility: One more characteristic of good business research objectives is flexibility. The research
may be programmed for one area and then something shows-up. If that "something" is pertinent, it should
be investigated and included in the research. Research is discovering new things and factors, it should not
be easily sidetracked but it also should not be inflexible.
7) Help determine How to Produce the Product: Good business research should include the use of the
Internet. If the business is manufacturing a specific product, look at the market size and options on how
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to produce the product. This is part of knowing who the competitor is, but slightly different as it helps to
best determine how to produce the product.
Application of Research in Functions of Management

The prime importance of research in management decision is that it reduces uncertainty by
providing information that facilitates decision-making about strategies and the tactics used to achieve an
organisation's strategic goals. The decision-making process involves four interrelated stages. Business
research by supplying managers with pertinent information may play an important role by reducing
managerial uncertainty in each of these stages:
1) Identifying the Existence of Problems and Opportunities: Before any strategy can be developed, an
organisation must determine where it wants to go and how it will get there. Business research can help
managers plan, strategies by determining the nature of situations or by identifying the existence of
problems or opportunities present in the organisation. Business research may be used as a scanning
activity to provide information about what is occurring within an organisation or in its environment. The
mere description of some social or economic activity may familiarize managers with organizational and
environmental occurrences and help them understand a situation.
2) Diagnosing and Assessing Problems or Opportunities: After an organisation recognizes a problem

or identifies a potential opportunity, business research can help clarify the situation. Managers need to
gain insight about the underlying factors causing the situation. If there is a problem, they need to specify
what happened and why. If an opportunity exists, they may need to explore, refine, and quantify the
opportunity. If multiple opportunities exist, research may be conducted to set priorities.
3) Selecting and Implementing a Course of Action: After the alternative courses of action have been
clearly identified, business research is often conducted to obtain specific information that will aid in
evaluating the alternatives and in selecting the best course of action. Opportunities may be evaluated
through the use of various performance criteria. For example, estimates of market potential allow
managers to evaluate the revenue that will be generated by each of the possible opportunities. A good
forecast supplied by business researchers is among the most useful pieces of planning information a
manager can have.
Even the best plan is likely to fail if it is not properly implemented. Business research may be conducted
to indicate the specific tactics required to implement a course of action.
4) Evaluating the Course of Action: After a course of action has been implemented, business research
may serve as a tool to tell managers whether or not planned activities were properly executed and if they
accomplished what they were expected to accomplish. In other words, managers may use evaluation
research to provide feedback for evaluation and control of strategies and tactics. Evaluation research is
the formal, objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to which a given activity, project, or
programme has achieved its objectives or whether continuing programmes are presently performing as
projected. Evaluation research may also provide information about the major factors influencing the
observed performance levels.
5) Testing New Products: Research tests the potential success of new products. Companies must know
what types of products and services customers want before they market them. For example, a restaurant
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chain may initially interview focus groups to test half dozen types of fish meals. The focus groups will
likely consist of small groups of customers. The objective of the focus group may be to determine which
fish meal customers like the best. The company may even use customer input in naming the entree and
ask how much consumers would spend for the meal. Eventually, the company may test the fish meal
through surveys with larger groups of people.
6) Ensuring Adequate Distribution: Companies may also use research to ensure the adequate
distribution of their products. For example, a telephone directory publisher may conduct a distribution
follow-up study to make sure phone directories have been delivered to all residential customers.
Publishers of telephone directories base their advertising rates on distribution. Therefore, ensuring that all
residences receive phone books is crucial to the success of the publisher's business clients. Similarly, a
consumer products company may want to talk to retailers about all the different brands they sell. The
results of the research will help marketing managers determine where they need to increase their product
distribution.
7) Measuring Advertising Effectiveness: Companies use research to determine the success of their
advertising. For example, a milk manufacturer may want to know what percentage of the population saw
its most recent television commercial. The milk company may find that more people become aware of its
advertising the longer the television ad runs. The milk company may need to run its television
advertisements at different times if few people have seen the commercials. Companies also use research
to see if consumers recall the message or slogan of their commercials.
8) Studying the Competition: Companies often use research to study key competitors in their markets.
Companies will often start with secondary research information or information that is already available.
For example, a software company may want to know the percentage of customers in the market who
purchase its products versus competitors' products. The researchers can then study the purchasing trends
in the industry, striving to increase their company's share of the market. Companies will often need to
increase their market share in an industry to increase sales and profits.
In addition to business organizations, non-profit organizations and governmental agencies frequently
conduct evaluation research. Every year thousands of federal evaluation studies are undertaken to
systematically assess the effects of public programmes.
Types of Research
There are several ways to classify the research which are as follows:
1) On the Basis of Application: On the basis of application research is of two types:

i) Pure/Basic/Fundamental Research: This research is also called basic research, is concerned with
quest for knowledge more about the phenomenon without concern for its practical use and also with
developing and testing hypotheses and theories. Pure research takes place to explore a particular concept,
or issue, without regards for a specific problem, and may be carry out to simple gain a better
understanding of the overall concept. It is said, there is nothing as practical as a good theory. For example
the development of a model of a coaching behaviour. Such research in itself has no immediate value
beyond contributing to an area of intellectual inquiry. It is undertaken for increase in knowledge. There is
no direct benefit as it is a research for the sake of research. It is conducted to satisfy any curiosity such as:
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a) What makes things happen,
b) Why society changes, and
c) Why social relations are in a certain way.
In fact, it is the source of most new theories, principles, and ideas. Basic research rarely helps anyone
directly. It only stimulates new ways of thinking. The main motivation is to expand m s knowledge.
There is absolutely no commercial value to the discoveries resulting from such research. To sum-up,
basic research is purely theoretical to increase our understanding of certain phenomena or behaviour but
does not seek to solve any existing problem.
For example, investigation probes for answers to questions such as:
a) How did the universe begin?
b) What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
c) How do slime moulds reproduce?
d) What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
ii) Applied Research: It is also termed as practical, need based or action research. The objective of this
research is to find the solutions to problems that are faced by government, society or the business.
Applied Research, thus, is more concerned with actual life. It also suggests remedial measures to alleviate
all type of problems. This research is concern with search for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve
practical problems. It focuses on analysing and solving social and real life problem. The findings become
basis of framing programme and policies, based on principles of pure research. According to Horton and
Hunt, this research is an investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems.
Because this research is generally conducted on large-scale basis, it is expensive. As such, it is often
conducted with the support of some financing agency like government, public corporation, World Bank,
UNICEF, UGC, ICSSR, etc. Many a time, this type of research is conducted on interdisciplinary basis
also.
An example of this may be a sports organisation that wishes to explore a potential market, and
commission research to determine demand for sports- related services or products, or research to explain
why individual drop out from a particular fitness programme after a short period of time.
A sociologist who seeks to find out why crime is committed or how a person becomes a criminal is
working for pure research. If this sociologist then tries to find out how a criminal can be rehabilitated and
his deviant behaviour can be controlled is doing applied research.
It is use of basic research or past theories, knowledge, and methods for solving an existing problem. It
deals with practical problems. It is opposed to pure or fundamental research which is not problem-
oriented but for the increase in knowledge which may or may not be used in future. In the present world
situation, more emphasis is being given to applied research to solve problems arising out of
overpopulation and scarcity of natural resources.
2) On the Basis of Objective: On the basis of fundamental objective research are designed in following
ways:
i) Exploratory Research: When the purpose of research is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or
acquire new insights into it in order to formulate a more precise problem or develop hypothesis, the
exploratory studies (also known as formulative research) come in handy. If the theory happens to be too
general or too specific, a hypothesis cannot be formulated. Therefore a need for an exploratory research is
felt to gain experience that will be helpful in formulating relevant hypothesis for more definite
investigation.
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It is important to bear in mind that exploratory study merely leads to insights for formulating hypothesis.
Its approaches do not consider it important to test or demonstrate them.
ii) Descriptive Research: Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and
characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the
questions who, what, where, when, and how. The description is used for frequencies, averages, and other
statistical calculations. Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a
survey investigation. In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied.
But there are always restrictions to that. The research must have an impact to the lives of the people
around the researcher.
iii) Causal/Experimental Research: Although experimental research is primarily possible in areas of

physical sciences, with the help of hypothesis, may also be carried out in social sciences if such research
enables us to quantify the findings, to apply the statistical and mathematical tools and to measure the
results thus quantified. It is also classified under conclusive research. For example, to investigate "what is
the effect of mineral content of water on plant growth".
Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause-and-effect (causal) relationships. In casual studies it
is typical to have an expectation of the relationship to be explained, such as predictation about the
influence of price, packaging, advertising, and the like on sales. Thus, researcher must be knowledgeable
about the research subject.
3) On the Basis of Extent of Theory: On the basis of extent of theory research are of two types:
i) Theoretical Research: Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop
new ideas through analysing existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not tested through
collecting evidence in the form of primary data. Theoretical research is held to be a classical way of
adding something of value to the body of knowledge.
In the business and management studies world theoretical research is not always well-received. In fact
some academic researchers would argue that the process described as theoretical research should not be
regarded as "proper" academic research. The basis of such a claim is that this type of theoretical research
does not have a test component. This fact is used by those who are not enthusiastic about theoretical
research, to imply that theories can be postulated without any "proof'. However this type of thinking is a
misunderstanding of the nature of research. All research processes requires conceptualization. One of the
primary roles of theoretical research is to re-work already established ideas in order to improve insights
into the subject matter. Such improvements could well-constitute adding something of value to the body
of knowledge.
ii) Empirical Research: This is a data based research where we collect primary data and then data is
further analysed and used for testing hypothesis. It is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct
observation or experience. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences)
can be analysed quantitatively or qualitatively. It is based on observation and experience more than upon
theory and abstraction and can be both qualitative and quantitative. Health research mainly follows the
empirical approach. An empirical research involves these five stages.
Empirical means based upon observation or measurement rather than theoretical reasoning. It supports
the development of new ideas through the collection of data. Thus a researcher who develops a theory of
sport fan violence through visiting a library and developing their own explanation through reading
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existing work will be undertaking theoretical research. The researcher who takes this one step further and
collects data to test their explanation will be undertaking empirical research. For example, computer
simulations generate scores from random number routines. Cases and measures are not involved.
Analytical researchers use mathematical operations to work from initial assumptions to conclusions.
There are no cases, measures, or scores.
4) On the Basis of Time Dimension: On the basis of time dimension Research can be of two types:
i) Cross-Sectional Research: In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point in time.
Cross- sectional research is usually the simplest and least costly alternative A cross-sectional design
provides a snapshot of the variables included in the study, at one particular point in time. It may reveal
how those variables are represented in a cross-section of a population. Cross-sectional designs generally
use survey techniques to gather data, e.g., the U.S. Census. Cross-sectional research can be exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory but it is most consistent with a descriptive approach to research.
ii) Longitudinal Research: Researchers using longitudinal research examine features of people or other
units at more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than cross-sectional research, but it is
also more powerful, especially when researchers seek answers to questions about social change.
Descriptive and explanatory researchers use longitudinal approaches. It will now consider three types of
longitudinal research which are as follows:
a) Time-Series Research: A time series design collects data on the same variable at regular intervals
(weeks, months, years, etc.) in the form of aggregate measures of a population. Measurements are taken
on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in
variables over time. For example, the Consumer Price Index (CPI), the FBI Uniform Crime Rate,
unemployment rates, poverty rates, etc. Time series designs are useful for establishing a baseline
measure, describing changes over time, Keeping track of trends, and Forecasting future (short-term)
trends.
Time series data are nearly always presented in the form of a chart or graph. The horizontal (or x) axis is
divided into time intervals, and the vertical (y) axis shows the values of the dependent variable as they
fluctuate over time.
b) Panel Study: It is a powerful type of longitudinal research. It is more difficult to conduct than time-
series research. In a panel study, the researcher observes exactly the same people, group, t>r organisation
across time periods. Participants, who are examined over repeated time points may be affected by having
previously completed the measure being used. (This is known as sensitization.) Therefore it is sometimes
necessary to include a control group matched on age and gender with which to compare the panel group
at each time interval. Panel research is formidable to conduct and very costly. Tracking people over time
is often difficult because some people die or cannot be located. Nevertheless, the results of a well-
designed panel study are very valuable. Even short-term panel studies can clearly show the impact of a
particular life event.
c) Cohort Study: A cohort is a group of respondents who experiences the same events within the same
time interval. Cohort analysis also used to predict changes in voter opinions during the polls. It is similar
to the panel study, but rather than observing the exact same people, a category of people who share a
similar life experience in a specified time period is studied. Cohort analysis is "explicitly macroanalytic",
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which means researchers examine the category as a whole for important features. In cohort study, the
individuals examined over time may not be the same but they should be representative of a particular
group (or cohort) of individuals who have shared a common experience. When cohort analysis design is
used, a table is constructed to display the results with column for the time interval of data collection (the
cohort interval), for example age group such as 15-20 years, 21-25 years etc.
5) Other Types of Research

i) Ex-Post Factor: Ex-Post-Factor is a term used to designate action taken to change the effect given to a
set of circumstances. This action relates back to a prior time, and imposes this new effect upon the same
set of circumstances that existed at the time of the occurrence. Ex post facto research is the process
beginning with a phenomenon and going backward in time to identify casual factors.
ii) Historical Research: Historical research is the systematic collection, critical evaluation, and
interpretation of historical evidence (i.e., data relating to past occurrences). In general, historical research
is undertaken to answer questions about causes, effects, or trends relating to past events that may shed
light on present behaviours or practices. Historians seek to explain why events happen.
iii) Diagnostic Research: This research is conducted to establish whether two or more variables are
associated and their degree of association. Generally social research may adopt a descriptive or a
diagnostic research.
Types of Business Problems Encountered by the Researcher
India is one of the developing country of the World, yet research in India had not really got such status as
in the other countries have. Research in India has met with certain roadblocks like.
1) Shortage of Funds: Many research projects are delayed due to lack of finances in the hand of
researcher.
2) Lack of Centralised Databases: In India there are no centralised databases available. Currently we
find that lot of research is repetitive in nature because there is no centralised databank where information
on research work already done can be obtained.
3) No Code of Conduct: There is no code of conduct for researchers working in different departments
and universities. This creates conflicts among them on one issue or another.
4) Poor Library Management: As there is shortage of research books, journals, reports etc. and also
there is no proper management in Libraries so lot of time of researchers is wasted to tracing relevant
material out of them.
5) Ethics in Research: In India, researchers do not have thorough knowledge about research methods.
Mostly researchers and their guides use the cut copy and paste criteria for material. Thus research results
do not reflect true picture or reality. It should be our endeavour to conduct authentic research in an ethical
manner.
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6) Lack of Proper Contacts between Research Departments: For best and realistic research healthy
relationship between all concerned departments should be developed. Otherwise great deal of primary
data will remain untouched by the researchers.
7) Lack of Confidence on Researcher: Most of the business organisations or other organisations think
that researchers will misuse the data provided to them so they do not cooperate with researchers.
8) Availability of Qualified Personnel: Research is very complex work demanding qualified personnel.
In India large part of academic research is carried out by people who are unaware about research methods
and research procedures. India needs to develop as well as retain skilled researchers.
9) Lack of Scientific Training in the Methodology of Research: There is a paucity of competent

researchers. The scenario in most cases is like a blind leading the blind. Most of the people who hold the
position of research guides are themselves not thorough with the various methodologies. They lead the
researcher/students to copy methodology of similar studies.
10) Manipulation of Data: Every researcher tries or does one or the other kinds of manipulation of data.
May be multiplying the sample size or to make the result in the way they want. The lack of confidence
over the result they may get after the completion of study is the reason for manipulation of result. This
never reveals the reality, as the intuition of the researcher is guided by mere theoretical knowledge. In
reality sometimes theory and practice may be contradictory. Some researchers just finish off their study
by simply sitting in their home; they don't even interact with their subject or have any one.
11) Lack of Confidence: This may be due to any of the above-mentioned reasons, also the fear of the
result and fear of not able to answer questions during presentations. One should be dare enough to
disseminate the result of the study, as it is the truth he/she has come to know after the research process.
Limitations of the study are always considered and no one is going to blame on that, unless until the
research is re-done. This leads to undertaking of overlapping studies, as there is a want of information.
12) Expensive: Once research study is completed, the further step will be the publishing of the same.
Printing and binding may turn to be expensive. Also, it will be very expensive as the paper has to be
published in any international journals or conferences. These expenses may not be affordable by the
student researchers.
Problem & Precautions to the Researchers

The various problems faced by researchers can be solved by taking following precautions:
1) Systematic Study: A systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before

undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects.
As such, efforts should be made to provide short duration intensive courses for meeting this requirement.
2) Satisfactory Liaison: Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison among all concerned for
better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some mechanisms of a university so that
academics can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the
research done by the academics.
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3) No Misuse of Data: There is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained
from a business unit will not be misused.
4) Compilation and Revision: The problem of duplication can be solved by proper compilation and
revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the places where the research is going on.
Due attention should be given toward identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied
science which are of immediate concern to the industries.
5) Efficient Secretarial Assistance: All possible efforts should be made in this direction so that efficient
secretarial assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time.
6) Supply of Governmental Publications: Significant efforts should be made for the regular and speedy
supply of all governmental publications to reach the libraries.
Significance of Research in Business
1) Estimating Expenses: Businesses, especially new ones, often cost more than their owners anticipate.
Nonetheless, research is needed to estimate at least a year's worth of business expenses to create a budget.
One will not be able to set the correct prices for his products and services or turn a profit if he does not
know how much it costs to run the business. The research should include things such as the cost of
insurance, business licenses and product packaging.
2) Price Determination: Research helps businesses get a handle on pricing and prevents them from
pushing themselves out of the market by setting prices too high. Some of this research includes tracking
competitors' prices. That not only involves examining how much competitors charge for products and
services, but it also includes noting the features or extras they offer. One might be selling a product that
costs more than similar items. However, if customers can do more with his product compared with
others, that might constitute a selling point that justifies not lowering the price.
3) Managing Costs: Be it a capital investment or the day-to-day expenses, it is critical to forecast how
much one is going to spend on the business. Just planning the costs without forecasting the expenses will
lead to a chaotic situation in the business. One of the key needs of business research methods is to
evaluate the costs involved in conducting a business. One can forecast and strategise the investments,
expenses and the return on these investments before developing an action plan. Remember to include
cost-based data such as the software licenses, business licenses, insurance, package, inventory, storage,
transaction, advertising and marketing while using these business research methods.
4) Assisting Managers in the Decision-Making Process: Business research is necessary to assist

managers in the decision-making process, is so they have a clear path to follow and all the steps run
smoothly in the research. It formulates or organizes ideas and tells the reader what one wants to do, why
he is doing it, what he wants to achieve and how he plans to do it. Another way of putting it is to organise
ideas, convince the audience and contract with a client. The proposal needs to have a title, background,
research questions and objectives, method and timescale.
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5) Evaluating Market Trends: This is an essential task organisations undertake during the initial stages.
The market trend analysis is also conducted during the product/project planning phases. Unless the
management understands how the market works and how the trend flows for a particular product or
service, managing a project will be tiresome. Simply having an enthusiastic feeling and motivational
thoughts cannot help conducting a business in this ever-changing competitive world. The business
research methods such as questionnaires, surveys and focus groups are widely used by businesses to gain
insights on evaluating the market trends. Through business research models, one can check if the market
is huge enough to earn revenue by selling the company's product or by offering its services.
6) Achieving Competitive Advantage: There are consumer research methods that help to analyse how
the competition is performing. Social media is ruling the marketing world now. By analysing the
marketing techniques of successful competitions and by adopting the best practices through business
research methods, organisations can achieve a competitive advantage. There are many technologies,
digital marketing measurement models or software based tools to help companies compare their social
media activities with competitors. One can also opt to use system-based performance measurement tools
like MIS or HRMS to track the performance of the employees, products, services and overall operations
in the organisation.
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Process Of Research and
A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd Research Design
CHAPTER 2 PROCESS OF RESEARCH AND

RESEARCH DESIGN
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Research is an art of scientific investigation.
According to Robert Ross, “Research is essentially an investigation a recording and analysis of evidence
for the purpose of gaining knowledge.”
The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is
research.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
 Research is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon.
 It adopts scientific method
 It is objective and logical, applying possible tests to validate the measuring tools and the
conclusions reached
 It is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
 Research is directed towards finding answers to pertinent questions and solutions to problems.
Research process consists of a number of closely related activities.
The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the
research process:
 Formulating the research problem
 Extensive literature survey
 Developing the hypothesis
 Preparing the research design
 Determining sample design
 Collecting the data
 Execution of the project
 Analysis of data
 Hypothesis testing
 Generalizations and interpretation, and
 Preparation of the report or presentation of the results i.e., formal write up of conclusions reached.
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FF
FF
Review concepts
Define and theories Define Interpret
Analyze
research Formulate research and
Collect data data (test
problem hypotheses (including report
(execution) hypotheses
Review previous sample F if any) F
research finding design)
F = Feedback (helps in controlling the sub system to which is transmitted)
FF = Feed forward (serves the vita function of providing criteria for evaluation)
(i) Formulating the research problem: The first step in research is formulating a research problem. It is
most important stage in applied research, as poorly defined problems will not yield useful results. It is
rightly said that: “A problem well defined is half-solved”. Poorly defined problems cause confusion and
do not allow the researcher to develop a good research design.
(ii) Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated the next step is to write down a brief
summary. For this the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc., must be taped depending on the nature of the problem.
(iii) Development of working hypotheses: Now the researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is
particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. Hypothesis should be very specific
and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to
guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track.
Working hypotheses can be developed by using the following approach:

(i) Discussion with colleagues and experts about the problem its origin and the objectives in seeking a
solution;
(ii) Examination of data and records, if available concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities
and other clues;
(iii) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms.
(iv) Preparing the research design: Research design is the conceptual structure within which research
should be conducted. A research design specifies the methods and procedures for conducting a particular
study. The researcher should specify the approach he intends to use with respect to the proposed study.
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The function of researcher design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. Research designs can be grouped into three categories-
exploratory research, descriptive research and casual research.
(i) Exploratory research: A exploratory research focuses on the discovery of ideas and is generally
based on secondary data. It is preliminary investigation, which does not have a rigid design.
(ii) Descriptive research: A descriptive study is undertaken when the researcher wants to known the
characteristics of certain groups such as age, sex, educational level, income, occupation, etc. in contrast
to exploratory studies, descriptive studies are well structured.
(iii) Casual research: A casual research is undertaken when the researcher is interested in knowing the
cause and effect relationship between two or more variables. Such studies are based on reasoning along
well-tested lines.
(v) Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a
census inquiry. In such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest
accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. This type of inquiry involves a great deal of
time, money and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many
circumstances.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a ‘sample’ or the sample design. A sample design is a
definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability
samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability
samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
Important sample designs are as follows:
 Judgment sampling
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Quota sampling
 Cluster sampling and Area sampling
 Multi stage sampling
 Sequential sampling
(Refer chapter Sampling)
(vi) Collecting the data: The next step is to determine the sources of data to be used. The researcher has
to decide whether he has to collect primary data or depend exclusively on secondary data. Sometimes, the
researcher study is based on both secondary and primary data.
Once the decision in favour of collection of primary data is taken, one has to decide the mode of
collection. The two methods available are observational method, and survey method.
(i) Observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigators own
observation, without interviewing the respondents. While the observational method may be suitable in
case of some studies, several things of interest such as attitudes, opinions, motivations and other
intangible states of mind cannot be observed.
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(ii) Surveys: In marketing research, field surveys are commonly used to collect primary data from the
respondents.
Surveys can be:
(a) Through personal interviews: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set
of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried
out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.
(b) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting the
respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in
industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very
limited time.
(c) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do not come in contact with each
other if this method of survey is adopted questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to
return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used mood in various economic and business
surveys.
(d) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are
provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these
schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by
respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some
occasional filed checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.
(vii) Execution of the project: The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time.
If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-
processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to
be collected through interviews, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the
interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals, which explain clearly the
job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as
possible. This means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that
the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy.
(viii) Analysis of data: After the data, have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing
them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing
statistical inferences.
(ix) Hypothesis testing: After analyzing the data the researcher has to test the hypotheses, various tests,
such as Chi- square test, t-test, F test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The
hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and
object of research inquiry. Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting
it.
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(x) Generalization and Interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization i.e., to build a theory.
(xii) Preparation of the report or the thesis: Although report writing needs some skill, which can be
developed with practice, the researcher should follow the main principles of writing a report. Some of
these principles are:
(a) There should be objectivity, coherence, clarity in the presentation of ideas.
(b) Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
(c) Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more
clearly and forcibly.
(d) Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.
(e) The layout of the report should be as follows:
 The preliminary pages;
 The main text, and
 The end matter
In its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and
charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation
of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
(b) Summary of findings: A statement of findings and recommendation in non-technical language

should be there after introduction. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and sections.
(d) Conclusion: At the end of the main text, result of the research should be put clearly and precisely.
RESEARCH DESIGN
DEFINATION
“A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study that is used as a guide in collecting and
analyzing the data.”
FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will we used for gathering and analyzing the data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints.
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

 It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, there by making research as
efficient as possible yielding maximum information with minimum expenditure of effort, time
and money.
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 We need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis of our research
project.
 The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form where by it will be possible for
him to look for flows and inadequacies.
REQUIREMENTS FOR A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

 Nature and scope of the problem to the studied must be stated clearly.
 If any hypothesis is to the tested, it must be clearly formulated.
 The research design must adequately answer the research questions. And test the hypothesis.
 Relevant variables must be clearly identified and operationalized.
TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

There are two primary types of research design - QUANTITATIVE and QUALITATIVE.
(i) QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Quantitative research approaches involve the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict,
and/ or control phenomena of interest. Data analysis is mainly statistical.
Quantitative research design can be classified into Exploratory, Descriptive, Correlation, Casual –
comparative and Experimental Research.
(a) Exploratory: It has the goal of formulating problems more precisely, clarifying concepts, gathering
explanations, gaining insight, eliminating impractical ideas, and forming hypotheses. Exploratory
research can be performed using
 A literature search.
 Surveying certain people about their experiences.
When surveying people, exploratory research studies would not try to acquire a representative sample,
but rather, seek to interview those who are knowledgeable and who might be able to provide insight
concerning the relationship among variables.
 Four groups and case studies.
(b) Descriptive: Descriptive research is more rigid than exploratory research and seeks to describe users
of a product, determine the proportion of the population that uses a product, or predict future demand for
a product. Descriptive research involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses or describe a behavior.
In contrast with the qualitative approach the data are numerical. The data are typically collected through a
questionnaire, an interview, or through observation. Generally these data are analyzed using Chi square,
percentages, standard deviations. For e.g. Attitude of employees regarding decentralization in decision –
making; Customer satisfaction about particular product; Way in which unproductive employees spend
their time.
(c) Co- relational: Co- relational research attempts to determine whether and to what degree, a
relationship exists between two or more numerical variables. Statistics used for this analysis are the
correlation coefficient to report the results.
(d) Causal – comparative: Causal comparative research attempts to establish cause – effect relationship
among the variables of the study. The attempt is to establish that values of the independent variable have
a significant effect on the dependent variable. This type of research usually involves group comparisons.
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Cause (independent variable) Effect- outcome (dependent variable)
Cause effect diagram
For eg: The effect of smoking (independent variable) on lung cancer (dependent variable).
(e) Experimental: Experimental research or intervention approach, the researcher manipulates a

situation and measures the effect of this manipulation.
In an experimental study, individuals are randomly allocated to at least two groups. One group is subject
to an intervention, or experiment, while the other group is not. The outcome of the intervention (effect of
the intervention on the dependent variable / problem) is obtained by comparing the two groups.
Study population (Sampling)
Sample population (Randomization)
Experimental, or study group control or comparison group
First data collection First data collection

(Before intervention) X (Same time as in study group) A
Period of interventional manipulation no intervention manipulation
Last data collection Last data collection

(After intervention) Y (Same time as in study group) Z
Compare
Treatment effect (Y – X) – (Z – A)
Before and After with control design
For eg: A researcher plans to study the effect of a new drug. He plans to include 300 patients in the study
who are currently receiving the standard treatment for the same condition for which the new drug has
been designed. He explains the study to the patients asking their consent to be divided into two groups on
a random basis. One group will receive the experimental drug while the other group will continue to
receive the standard treatment. He makes sure that the medications are disguised and labeled in such a
manner that neither the research assistant administering them nor the patient know which drug is used.
Another type of design that is often chosen because it is quite easy to set up uses only one group in which
an intervention is carried out. The situation is analysed before and after the intervention to test if there is
any difference in the observed problem. This is called an in BEFORE – AFTER experimental study
involves neither randomization nor the use of a control group.
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(ii) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Qualitative research involve the identification and exploration of a number of often mutually related
variables that give insight in human behavior (motivations, opinions, attitude), in the nature and causes of
certain problems and in the consequences of the problems for those affected.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE METHOD

(a) Historical Review: In the case of historical reviews our job is to describe what happened in the past
so that we can understand the present or plan for the future. Here we go through existing records and
reports, & take to different people to get as true a picture as possible.
(b) Group Discussion: The second qualitative method mentioned above is group discussion (also
referred to as focus groups). In this type of research method, the researcher can get together with several
respondents at the same time and initiate a discussion on a certain topic. The opinions of the respondents
are considered as information analyzed later on. This method differs from other methods such as in-depth
interviews in the sense that here the interaction is not only between the interviewer and the respondent,
but also among the respondents. It is also considered as a relatively cheap and convenient way of
gathering information from several respondents in a short time.
(c) Case study method (In depth Interview): In relatively less – known areas, where there is little
experience and theory available to serve as a guide, intensive study of selected examples is a very useful
method of gaining insight and suggesting hypotheses for future research. In our discipline, the case study
method is often used for these types of study. The main focus is on seeking insight rather than testing:
instead of testing existing hypotheses we seek insight through the features and characteristics of the
object being studied. A second feature is the intensity of the study of the object, individual, group,
organization, culture, incident or situation. We need to have sufficient information to characterize to
explain the unique feathers of the case, as well as to point out the characteristics that are common in
several cases. Finally, this approach relies on integrative powers of research: the ability to study on object
with many dimensions and then to draw an integrative interpretation.
QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative Quantitative
(i) Focus of research Understand and interpret Describe, explain & predict
(ii) Researcher involvement High- researcher in participant or Limited: controlled to prevent bias.
catalyst
(iii) Research purpose In depth understanding: theory Describe or predict: build and test
building theory
(iv) Sample design No probability: purposive Probability
(v) Sample size Small Large
(vi) Research design (a) may evolve or adjust during the (a) determined before commencing
course of the project the project
(b) often uses multiple methods (b) uses single method or mixed
methods
(vii) Participant preparation Pre- tasking is common No preparation desired to avoid
biasing the participant
(viii)Data type and (a) verbal or pictorial descriptions (a) verbal descriptions
preparation (b) reduced to verbal codes (b) Reduced to numerical codes for
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(sometimes with computer computerized analysis.
assistance)
(ix) Insights and meaning Deeper level of understanding is the Limited by the opportunity to probe
norm: determined by type and respondents and the quality of the
quantity of free response questions original data collection instrument.
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A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd Sampling and collection of data
CHAPTER 3 SAMPLING AND

COLLECTION OF DATA
SAMPLING
INTRODUCTION
When secondary data are not available for the problem under study, a decision may be taken to collect
primary data.
CENSUS METHOD
Under the census or complete enumeration survey method, data are collected for each and every unit
(person, household, field, shop, factory etc.,) as the case may be of the population or universe, which is
the complete set of items, are of interest in any particular situation. Some of the merits of the census
method are:
 Data are obtained from each and every unit of the population
 The results obtained are likely to be more representative, accurate and reliable.
Despite these advantages the census method is not very popularly used in practice. The effort, money and
time required for carrying out complete enumeration will generally be very large and in many cases cost
may be so prohibitive that the very idea of collecting information may have to be dropped.
SAMPLE METHOD
Sampling is simply the process of learning about the population on the basis of a sample drawn from it.
In the sampling technique instead of every unit of the universe only a part of the universe is studied and
the conclusions are drawn on that basis for the entire universe. The process of sampling involves three
elements:
(a) Selecting the sample,
(b) Collecting the information, and
(c) Making an inference about the population.
ESSENTIALS OF SAMPLING
The following are the essentials of sampling:
(i) Representativeness: A sample should be so selected that it truly represents the universe otherwise the
results obtained may be misleading.
(ii) Adequacy: The size of sample should be adequate; otherwise it may not represent the characteristics
of the universe.
(iii) Independence: All items of the sample should be selected independently of another and all items of
the universe should have the same chance of being selected in the sample.
Sampling Procedure
A sampling plan is a detailed outline of which measurements will be taken at what times, on which
material, in what manner, and by whom. Sampling plans should be designed in such a way that the
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resulting data will contain a representative sample of the parameters of interest and allow for all
questions, as stated in the goals, to be answered. The steps involved in developing a sampling plan are:
1) Define the Universe: Universe can be confined to a particular type of product, some geographical
limits or some other constraints.
The first problem in any sampling procedure is to define the universe. The target population or universe
is the collection of elements or objects that possess the information sought by the researcher and about
which inferences are to be made. The target population must be defined precisely. Imprecise definition of
the target population will result in research that is ineffective at best and misleading at worst. Defining
the target population involves translating the problem definition into a precise statement of who should
and should not be included in the sample.
The target population should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent and time. An
element is the object about which or from which the information is desired. In survey research, the
element is usually the respondent.
For example, consider a marketing research project assessing consumer response to a new brand of
men's cologne. Who should be included in the target population? Ail men? Men who have used cologne
during the last month? Men 17 or older? Should females be included, because some women buy colognes
for their husbands? These and similar questions must be resolved before the target population can be
appropriately defined.
2) Sample Frame: The frame is constructed either by the researcher for the purpose of his study or may
consist of some existing list of the population.
After the population to be studied has been specified, the next step is to develop a frame of this
population. A list containing all sampling units of a population is known as sampling frame. The frame is
constructed either by the researcher for the purpose of his study or may consist of some existing list of
the population. A frame does not always have to be a list of names; it can also involve a definite location,
a boundary, an address, or a set of rules by which a sampling unit can be delineated.
A frame in some sense is a set of boundaries circumscribing the universe. It may be in the form of lists,
indices, maps, directories, population records, electoral rolls, city tax rolls, students enrolled in a
university etc. In marketing studies the frame is essential. A list of every element of the population
appearing once and only once would constitute a sample frame. A good sampling frame should be
accurate, free from duplication and conveniently available. A sample frame is essential for marketing
research and better performance of sampling procedure.
A sampling frame is a representation of the elements of the target population. It consists of a list or set of
directions for identifying the target population. For example, the telephone book, an association directory
listing the firms in an industry, a mailing list purchased from a commercial organisation, a city director)',
or a map.
3) Specifying the Sampling Units: The decision on sampling unit often depends on the sampling frame.
The sampling unit is the basic unit containing the elements of the population to be sampled, e.g. city
blocks, households, a business organisation etc. The selection of the sampling unit partially depends on
the overall design of the project also. The units which serve as the basis of initial sampling are known as
primary sampling units. It can be composed of one or more units of the population depending on the
objectives of the inquiry.
For example, suppose that Revlon wanted to assess consumer response to a new line of lipsticks and
wanted to sample females over 18 years of age. It may be possible to sample females over 18 directly, in
which case a sampling unit would be the same as an element. Alternatively, the sampling unit might be
households. In the latter case, households would be sampled and all females over 18 in each selected
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household would be interviewed. Here, the sampling unit and the population element are different. Extent
refers to the geographical boundaries and the time factor is the time period under consideration,
4) Selection of Sample Design: It is the procedure of selecting units in the sample. There are two basic
methods of sampling namely, probability and non-probability methods which can be further divided into
some specific methods of selection. It is the procedure of selecting units in the sample. A probability
sample is one, where the selected units have some specific chance of being included in the sample. In a
non-probability sample some arbitrary method of selection not depending on chance is adopted. This
method mainly depends on the purpose of the inquiry, as well as on the attitude or convenience of the
investigators.
The selection of the sample design really involves two decisions:
i) To use probability or non-probability method of selection, and
ii) Specific sample design to use in collecting the data.
The researcher's choice will be affected by the following considerations:
i) If sampling error is to be evaluated, then probability sampling must be used.
ii) To ensure randomness in the selection of units, probability sample should be used.
iii) In the absence of proper sample frame, non-probability sampling should be used.
iv) If time and money considerations are vital, then non-probability sampling should be used.
Once the decision about probability and non-probability method of selection has been made, one should
select the sample design that will best accomplish the objectives of the investigation. Regardless of the
design finally chosen, the researcher may have to defend this design, when the study results are
ultimately presented.
5) Determination of Sample Size: The size of the sample has direct relationship with degree of accuracy
desired in the investigation. It also depends upon the nature of the population as well as the method of
selection. In marketing research investigations the ideal sample size depends upon the type of the series
and the size of the population. It is a common practice that larger the size of the population, more units
should be drawn in the sample and more the degree of heterogeneity, larger should be sample size for it
to be representative.
6) Select the Sample: Select the sample means execute actual sampling process. It is the actual selection
of the sample elements. This requires a substantial amount of office and field work, particularly when
personal interviews are involved.
Execution of the sampling process requires a detailed specification of how the sampling design decisions
with respect to the population, sampling frame, sampling unit, sampling technique, and sample size are to
be implemented. If households are the sampling unit, an operational definition of a household is needed.
Procedures should be specified for vacant housing units and for call backs in case no one is at home.
Detailed information must be provided for all sampling design decisions.
METHODS OF SAMPLING / VARIOUS TYPE OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

The various methods of sampling can be grouped under two broad heads:
(a) Probability sampling (also known as random sampling)
(b) Non- probability sampling (or non- random sampling)
(a) Probability sampling: Probability sampling methods are those in which every item in the universe
has a known chance, or probability, of being chosen for the sample.
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(b) Non- probability sampling: Non- probability sampling methods are those, which do not provide
every item in the universe with a known chance of being included in the sample.
Sampling methods
Non- probability sampling methods Probability sampling methods
Judgment sampling Sampling or unrestricted

random samples
Quota sampling
Restricted random samples
Convenience sampling Stratified sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster sampling
A. Non- probability sampling methods:

(i) Judgment sampling
(ii) Convenience sampling
(iii) Quota sampling
(i) Judgment sampling: In this method of sampling the choice of sample items depends exclusively on
the judgment of the investigator. In other words, the investigator exercises his judgment in the choice and
includes those items in the sample which he thinks are most typical of the universe with regard to the
characteristics under investigation. For example, if sample of ten students is to be selected from a class of
sixty for analysing the spending habits of students, the investigator would select 10 students who, in his
opinion, are representative of the class.
MERITS
 When only a small number of sampling units are in the universe, simple random selection may
miss the more important elements, whereas judgement selection would certainly include them in
the sample.
 When we want to study some unknown traits of a population.
DEMERITS
 This method is not scientific because the population units to be sampled may be affected by the
persoal prejudice or bias of the investigator.
(ii) Convenience sampling: A convenience sample is obtained by selecting ‘convenient’ population

units. The method of convenience sampling is also called the chunk. A chunk refers to that fraction of the
population being investigated which is selected neither by probability nor by judgement but by
convenience. A sample obtained from readily available lists such as automobile registrations, telephone
directories etc., is a convenience sample and not a random sample even if the sample is drawn at random
from the lists. If a person is to submit a project report on labour management relations in textile industry
and he takes a textile mill close to his office and interviews some people over there, he is following the
conveince sampling method.
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Hence the results obtained by following convenience sample method can hardly be representative
of the opoulation – they are generally baised and unsatisfactory.
(iii) Quota sampling: Quota sampling is a type of judgment sampling and is perhaps the most commonly
used sampling technique in non- probability category. In a quota sample, quotas are set up according to
some specified characteristics such as so many in case of several income groups, so many in each age, so
many with certain political or religious affiliations, and so on. Each interviewer is then told to interview a
certain number of persons which constitute his quota. Within the quota, the selection of sample items
depends on personal judgement. For example, in a radio listening survey, the interviewers may be told to
interview 500 people living in certain area and that out of every 100 persons interviewed 60 are to be
housewives, 25 farmers and 15 children under the age of 15. within these quotas the interviewer is free to
select the people to be interviewed.
Nature of Probability Sampling
The nature of probability sampling can be described as follows:

1) Accurate Estimates of Population: For some research problems, highly accurate estimates of
population characteristics are required. In these situations, the elimination of selection bias and the ability
to calculate sampling error make probability sampling desirable. However, probability sampling will not
always result in more accurate results. If non-sampling errors are likely to be an important factor, then
non-probability sampling may be preferable, as the use of judgement may allow greater control over the
sampling process.
2) Heterogeneous Population: Another consideration is the homogeneity of the population with respect
to the variables of interest. A more heterogeneous population would favour probability sampling, because
it would be more important to secure a representative sample. Probability sampling is preferable from a
statistical viewpoint, because it is the basis of the most common statistical techniques.
3) Sophisticated: However, probability sampling is sophisticated and requires statistically trained

researchers. It generally costs more and takes longer than non-probability sampling. In many marketing
research projects, it is difficult to justify the additional time and expense and thus operational
considerations favour the use of non-probability sampling. In practice, the objectives of the study often
exert a dominant influence on which sampling method will be used.
4) Permits Generalisation: The major advantage of probability sampling is that it permits

generalisation, the process of applying the findings from the sample to the population from which the
sample was drawn. As for the broader population beyond the sampling frame, the researcher can only
hypothesise about the applicability of the sample findings. This is one reason why replication in research
is so important, to test the limits of findings as they apply to additional settings and variations in the
population.
Advantages of Probability Sampling

Advantages of probability sampling are as follows:
1) Unbiased Estimates: Random (Probability) sampling is the only sampling method that provides
essentially unbiased estimates having measurable precision. If the investigator requires this level of
objectivity , then some variant of probability sampling is essential.
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2) Relative Efficiency: Random Sampling permits the researcher to evaluate, in quantitative terms, the
relative efficiency of alternate sampling techniques in a given situation. Usually this is not possible in
non- probability sampling.
3) Less Universe Knowledge Required: This requires relatively little universe knowledge. Essentially,
only two things are needed to be known:
i) A way of identifying each universe element uniquely, and
ii) The total number of universe elements.
4) Fair: Every item in the population has an equal chance of being selected and measured.
5) Easy: It allows easy data analysis and error calculation.
Disadvantages of Probability Sampling

Following are the disadvantages of probability sampling:
1) Less Efficient: It is less statistically efficient than other sampling methods.
2) Non-Utilisation of Additional Knowledge: It does not make use of additional knowledge of how the
population is structured.
3) Complex and Time Consuming: The method of selection in many cases can be complex and time
consuming. Especially in the cases of marketing research, the constraints of budget and time may give
preference to non-probability methods of sampling.
4) High Level Skills: Probability sampling requires a very high level of skill and experience for its use.
5) More Time Required: It requires a lot of time to plan and execute a probability sample.
6) High Costs: The costs involved in probability sampling are generally large as compared to non-
probability sampling.
B. Probability sampling methods

(i) Simple or unrestricted random sampling; and
(ii) Restricted random sampling:

(a) Stratified sampling
(b) Systematic sampling
(c) Cluster sampling
(i) Simple random sampling: Simple random sampling refers to that sampling technique in which each
and every unit of the population has an equal opportunity of being selected in the sample. In simple
random sampling which items gets selected in the sample is just a matter of chance – personal bias of the
investigator does not influence the selection.
Example: Lottery method: this a very popular method of taking a random sample. Under this method all
items of universe are numbered or named on separate slips of paper of identical size and shape. These
slips are then floded and mixed up in a container or drum. A blindfold selection is then made of the
number of slips required to constitute the desired sample size. The selection of items thus depends
entirely on chance.
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(ii) Restricted random sampling
(a) Stratified sampling: While applying stratified sampling technique, the procedure followed is given
below:
 The universe to be sampled is sub-divided (or stratified) into groups which are mutually exclusive
and include all items in the universe.
 A simple random sample is then chosen independently from each group.
This sampling procedure differs from simple random sampling in that in the latter the sample items are
chosen at random from the entire universe. In stratified random sampling the sampling is designed so that
a designated number of items is chosen from each stratum. In simple random sampling the distribution of
the sample among strata is left entirely to chance.
(b) Systematic sampling: A systematic sample is formed by selecting one unit at random and then
selecting additional units at evenly spaced intervals until the sample has been formed. This method is
popularly used in those cases where a complete list of the population from which sample is to be drawn is
available. The list may be prepared in alphabetical, geographical, numerical or some other order. The
items are serially numbered. The first item is selected at random generally by following the lottery
method. Subsequent items are selected by taking every kth item from the list where ‘k’ refers to the
sampling interval or sampling ratio, i.e., the ratio of population size to the size of the sample.
Symbolically:
k=N
n
Example: In a class there are 96 students with roll nos, 1 to 96. it is desired to take sample of 10
students. Use the systematic sampling method to determine the sample size.
Solution:
k=N
n
= 96 = 9.6 or 10
10
from 1 to 96 roll nos. the first students between 1 and k, i.e., 1 and 10, will be selected at random and
then we will go on taking every kth student. Suppose the first student comes out to be 4th. The sample
would then consist of the following roll nos.
4, 14, 24, 34, 44, 54, 64, 74, 84, 94.
(c) Cluster sampling or Multi- stage sampling: There are several stages in which the sampling process
is carried out. At first, the first stage units are sampled by some suitable method, such as simple random
sampling. Then, a sample of second stage units is selected from each of the selected first stage units,
again by some suitable method, which may be the same as, or different from the method employed for
the first stage units. Further stages may be added as required. The procedure may be illustrated as
follows:
Suppose we want to take a sample of 5000 households from the state of U.P. at the first stage, the
state may be divided into a number of districts and a few districts selected at random. At the second
stage, each district may be subdivided into a number of villages and a sample of villages may be taken at
random. At the third stage, a number of households may be selected from each of the villages selected at
Branches:
the second stage. To take another example suppose in a particular survey, we wish to take a sample of
10000 students from Delhi university. We may take colleges- primary units – as the first stage, then draw
departments as the second stage, and choose students as the third and last stage.
Nature of Non-Probability Sampling

The nature of non-probability sampling can be described as follows:
1) Unknown Probability: Selection, i.e., in the case on non-probability sampling, the probability of
selection of each sampling unit is not known. It implies that non-probability samples cannot depend upon
the rationale of the probability theory and hence we cannot estimate population parameters from sample
statistics. Further, in the case of non-probability samples, we do not have a rational way to prove/know
whether the selected sample is representative of the population.
2) Applied in Social Research: In general, researchers prefer probabilistic sampling methods over non-
probabilistic ones, but in applied social research due to constraints such as time and cost and objectives
of the research study there are circumstances when it is not feasible to adopt a random process of
selection and in those circumstances usually non-probabilistic sampling is adopted.
3) Subjective Judgement: A core characteristic of non-probability sampling techniques is that samples

are selected based on the subjective judgement of the researcher, rather than random selection (i.e.,
probabilistic methods), which is the cornerstone of probability sampling techniques. Whilst some
researchers may view non-probability sampling techniques as inferior to probability sampling techniques,
there are strong theoretical and practical reasons for their use.
4) Easier, Quicker and Cheaper Method: Non-probability sampling is often used because the
procedures used to select units for inclusion in a sample are much easier, quicker and cheaper when
compared with probability sampling. This is especially the case for convenience sampling. For students
doing dissertations at the undergraduate and master's level, such practicalities often lead to the use of non
-probability sampling techniques.
Advantages of Non- Probability Sampling
1) True Universe Picture: Relevant sections of the universe may be selected in the proportions they
appear in the universe.
2) Economical: Geographical concentration can be achieved thus reducing costs.
3) Quick: Useful and quick method in certain circumstances.
4) Specific Cases Types: Might be only method available, such as if sampling illegal drug users.
5) Specific Members of Population: If researchers are truly interested in particular members of a

population, not the entire population.
6) Pilot Study: Exploratory research attempting to determine whether a problem exists or not, such as a
pilot study.
Branches:
Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling
1) Details Needed: Detailed initial information of the universe is needed.
2) Errors: Errors in sample selection can easily occur.
3) Subjective Nature: The subjectivity of non-probability sampling prevents making inferences to the
entire population.
4) Selection Bias: Validity and credibility questionable due to selection bias.
5) Reliability: The reliability of the resulting estimates cannot be evaluated which results in the user not
knowing how much confidence can be placed in any interpretations of the survey finding.
Difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling
Branches:
Basis Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

1) Control Sampling error can be controlled Sampling error cannot be controlled.
2) Chances The selection process depends on Selection bias can be very high.
of Selection Bias the specific technique and is, therefore,
not influenced by the expertise of
the researcher.
3) Economy Time and costs involved may be high. Usually a low-cost, quicker alternative.
4) Reliability It is possible to test the hypotheses
through formal, rigorous tests Parametric tests of significance
of significance and, thus, obtain not applicable; the reliability of results
more reliable results. is therefore, not very high.
5) Suitability
More reliable and representative if May be more useful in a
the population is heterogeneous. homogeneous population.
6) Usefulness Preferable if complex, detailed
Reasonably useful if parameters
estimates of is required.
to parameters be estimated are at
broad, aggregated levels, such as
market shares or total sales.
7) Degree of Accuracy in such situations is
Accuracy may be poor if the population
Accuracy quite scattered.
is high.
8) Sampling Frame Formal sampling frames' required. Can be effective even in the absence of
an elaborate sampling frame.
9) Convenience May be very inconvenient if the More convenient, less time
cheaper geographical spread of consuming, non- sampling errors.
the population is high and likely to
have lower.
Selection of appropriate method of sampling
SIZE OF SAMPLE
The following factors should be considered while deciding the sample size:
(i) The size of the universe: The larger the size of the universe, the bigger should be the sample size.
(ii) The degree of accuracy or precision desired: The greater the degree of accuracy desired, the larger
should be the sample size. However, it does not necessarily mean that bigger samples always ensure
greater accuracy. If a sample is selected by experts by following scientific method, it may ensure better
results even when it is small compared to a situation in which a larger sample size is selected by
inexperienced people.
(iii) Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the universe: If the universe consists of homogeneous units a
small sample may serve the purpose but if the universe consists of heterogeneous units a larger sample be
inevitable.
Branches:
(iv) Nature of study: For an intensive and continuous study a small sample may be suitable. But for
studies, which are not likely to be repeated and are quite extensive in nature, it may be necessary to take a
larger sample size.
MERITS OF SAMPLING
(i) Less time consuming: Since the sample is a study of a part of the population, considerable time and
labour are saved when a sample survey is carried out. Time is saved not only in collecting data but also in
processing it. For these reasons a sample provides more timely data in practice than a census.
(ii) Less cost: Although the amount of effort and expense involved in collecting information is always
greater per unit of the sample than a complete census, the total financial burden of a sample survey is
generally less than that of a complete census. This is because of the fact that in sampling, we study only a
part of population and the total expense of collecting data is less than that required when the census
method is adopted.
(iii) More reliable results: Although the sampling technique involves certain inaccuracies owing to
sampling errors, the results obtained is generally more reliable than that obtained from a complete count.
LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING
(i) A sample survey must be carefully planned and executed otherwise the results obtained may be
inaccurate and misleading.
(ii) Sampling generally requires the services of experts. In the absence of qualified and experienced
persons, the information obtained from sample surveys cannot be relied upon. In India, shortage of
experts in the sampling field is a serious hurdle in the way of reliable statistics.
DATA COLLECTION
TYPE OF DATA: SECONDARY AND PRIMARY

The researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz, primary and secondary. The primary data are
those, which are collected fresh and for the first time, and thus happen to the original in character. The
secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and
which have already been passed through the statistical process.
SECONDARY DATA
(1) Internal Secondary Data: Data that originate within the firm for which the research is being
conducted are internal data. If they were collected for some other purposes, they are internal secondary
data.
(a) Sales Analysis: Sales analysis is an important tool of marketing research. It is the first step in the
marketing research programme and acts as a basis for the development of future marketing research.
Step in sales Analysis:
Branches:
(i) Territorial Analysis: Sales data per territory or region are classified and are put in comparable from
to have a bird’s eye view of the total sale.
(ii) Customer Analysis: Sales data according to different nature of customers are classified and
compared. They provide the useful purpose of understanding the nature of customers and their behaviors
to the sale.
(iii) Product Analysis: Sales data product wise can be significant source of marketing research. The
sales may vary from product to product.
(iv) Time Analysis: Sales data classified as per different segments of time viz monthly, six monthly and
yearly may be useful source of analysis of sales.
(2) External secondary Data: The second form of secondary data is external sources which are
generally published and are available in different forms and form different sources.
(i) Libraries: Libraries contain a large amount of business information, which provides sources of other
data. Management books, theses, management journals and other publications can be consulted in these
libraries. Management institutes, research institutes, banks, insurance companies, public utility
companies and manufacturing units have maintained adequate libraries.
(ii) Periodicals: Business periodicals published fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, semiannually and
annually are often consulted by the marketing executives and researchers to plan and design their
marketing research.
(iii) Government Departments: Different government departments have different data, which are not
available in libraries. But these are very useful for understanding various aspects of the economy. The
researchers can utilize them for the purposes of their researchers. Information and data pertaining to
agriculture, industry, trade, transport, banking and finance can be obtained from the respective ministries
of the government of India.
(iv) Private sources: Private sources include varied sources available in the form of books, monographs,
bulletins, journals, commercial reports and so on.
(v) Financial Data: The financial data of reputed concerns are available in several magazines,
newspapers, journals and in summary of statistics.
(vi) References and Bibliography: In every publication, the researcher can find references and a
bibliography which can be very good sources of information of marketing research.
ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA
(i) Economy: Such data are cheaper. The amount of money spent in acquiring secondary data is
generally a great deal less than that needed to obtain primary data.
(ii) Quickness: Most of these data are instant since they already exist and merely need to be discovered.
DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA
Branches:
(i) Relevance: The data may not fit into the needs of investigation. There may be difference in the units
of measurement there may be surrogated data.
(ii) Accuracy: It is observed that it is rather difficult to measure the degree of approximations used in the
collection of information as well as the competence of the investigator in motivating the persons to
supply the desired information.
PRIMARY DATA
The objectives should be precise, attainable, and economic so that the findings may be accurate, reliable,
valid and useful.
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA (VARIOUS METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION)

Several methods of collecting primary data are:
 Observation method
 Interview method
 Questionnaires
 Schedules.
(A) OBSERVATION METHOD

The observation method is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to behavioral
sciences. The observation method may be used to study:
 Sales technique
 Customer movement
 Customer responses in retail stores.
 Fashions & style acceptances.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION METHOD
(i) Superior in data collection on Non- verbal Behavior: When a person’s opinion on a particular issue
is to be assessed, survey method is definitely more useful, but when the non – verbal behavior is to be
discovered or where memory failure of the respondent is possible, observation will be more functional.
(ii) Natural Environment: The behaviors being observed in natural environment will not cause any bias.
Observation will neither be artificial nor restrictive.
(iii) Longitudinal Analysis: In observation, the researcher is able to conduct his study over a much
longer period than in the survey.
SURVEY METHOD
In research, surveys are most commonly used and most abused means of collecting primary data. Survey
means a planned effort to collect the desired information from a represent active sample of the relevant
population. The survey method can be divided in four categories.
Survey Method
Personal Telephone Mail Diary
Branches:
MERITS OF SURVEY METHOD

 A survey permits the researcher to come in direct contact with the people, whom he wants to
study.
 This method permits greater objectivity. The data are influenced by any one main view or beliefs.
 General surveys bring to light a number of problems and propositions that would have not been
possible by fore theoretical analysis.
 A survey allows full emotional impact of social situations especially when it is based upon
participant observation. John Howard, for eg; could have never realized the plight of convicts in
jails had he not lived with them.
DEMERITS OF SURVEY METHOD

 The first obvious drawback of survey method in the money needed for conducting the surveys. In
most cases the researcher has to recruit a large number of field workers, make arrangement for
their training and supervision, and arrange for the printing of schedules and the tabulation of
collected data. All this requires a considerable amount of money which very few people can
afford.
 Survey is a prolonged and time – consuming process. A large and elaborate survey may take years
and it is a real task for anyone to maintain his zeal during this period.
 The reliability and validity of the data collected through survey is not always without doubt. The
reliability of data to a great extent is dependent upon the honesty and efficiency of the field
workers, the cooperation of the respondents, the adequacy and suitability of schedules etc.
 Survey method is not suitable for problems that require the study in the historical retrospect.
INTERVIEW METHOD
Interviewing requires face to face contact or contact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is
done by using a structured schedule.
Characteristics
 The participants – the interviewer and the respondent are strangers. Hence, the investigator has to
get himself introduced to the respondent in an appropriate manner.
 Interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange, but a conversation with a specific
purpose, viz, obtaining information relevant to a study.
 Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally.
 The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need net necessarily be on a face to
face basis, because interview can be conducted over the telephone also.
 Information furnished by the respondent in the interview is recorded by the investigator.
 Interviewing is not a standardized process like that of a chemical technician: It is rather a flexible
psychological process.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
(1) Personal Interview: A personal interview is face to face communication with the respondent. The
interviewer gets in touch with the respondent, asks the questions, and records the answers obtained.
Branches:
Here, the interviewer is likely to play an important role. Due considerations should be given to the
followings points.
 Nature of the interviewer must suit the type of the inquiry.
 Interviewer should be able to generate the interests of the respondent in the investigation.
 Complete anonymity must be ensured.
 The interviewer should try to complete the word quickly.
 The respondent should bee given some advance training to improve the quality of answers.
 The respondent should be properly identified.
 There should be sufficient flexibility in the interview.
 The credibility of the sponsor should be known to the respondent.
Thus, there may be four types of personal interview (i)structure and direct interviews (ii) unstructured
and direct interviews (iii)structured and indirect interviews and (iv) unstructured and indirect interviews.
(i) Structured Direct Interviews: The usual type of interview is the structured direct interview. A
formal questionnaire consisting of non – disguised questions are used for this interview. The main
purpose is to get the facts. A formal list of questions is prepared and questions are asked in sequences. No
other questions except from the questionnaire are sought from the respondents. Answers are limited to a
list of alternatives from which the respondents have to select the best answer.
(ii) Unstructured and Direct Interview: Instead of approaching the respondents with a fixed list of
questions, the interviewer is given the freedom to talk openly about the subject. The interviewer is given
only general instructions about the type of information desired. The purpose of the interview is clear but
the response to the question is open ended.
(iii) Structured and Indirect Interview: Instead of direct interviews, the respondents are asked the
questions indirectly. It is supported on the ground that the respondents knowledge, perception and
memory are conditioned by their attitudes.
(iv) Unstructured and Indirect Interview: Structured questions do not provide an ample opportunity to
express their willingness, attitudes and interests. Therefore, clinical psychologists have developed
disguised method of gathering information and data. The respondents cannot know the object of the study
and may not be biased in their answers. The more unstructured and indirect a stimulus, the more a subject
can and will project his needs, motivations, emotions and attitudes.
ADVANTAGES OF PERSONAL INTERVIEW

 These are sample designs that can be implemented best by personal interview (e.g., area
probability samples).
 Personal interview procedures are probably the most effective way of enlisting cooperation.
 Advantages of interview questions probing for adequate answers, accurately following complex
instructions or sequences – are realized.
 Multimethod data collection, including observation, visual cues, and self administered sections,
are feasible.
 Rapport and confidence building are possible including any written reassurances that may be
needed for reporting very sensitive material.
 Probably longer interviews can be done in person.
DISADVANTAGES OF PERSONAL INTERVIEW
Branches:
 It is likely to be more costly than alternatives.
 A trained staff of interviewers that is geographically near the sample is needed.
 The total data collection period is likely to be longer than for most procedures.
 Some samples (those is high – rise buildings of high – crime areas, elites, employees, students)
may be more accessible by some other mode.
(2) Telephone Interview: The telephone interview is used when the information to be collected is
limited. The telephone interview is suitable for inquiry about information just released or telecast by
radio or television. The respondents may be asked whether they watch the particular programme
regularly. What are their views about the programme. The indirect and unstructured questions are not
suitable for the telephone interview.
ADVANTAGES OF TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING

 Lower costs than personal interviews.
 Random digit dialing (RDD) sampling of general population.
 Better access to certain populations, especially as compared to personal interviews.
 Shorter data collection periods.
 The advantages of interviewer administrations (in contrast to mail surveys).
 Interviewer staffing and management easier than personal interviews – smaller staff needed, not
necessary to be near sample, supervision and quality control potentially better.
 Likely better response rate from a list sample than from mail.
DISADVANTAGES OF TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING

 Sampling limitations, especially as a result of omitting those without telephone.
 Non response associated with RDD sampling is higher than with interviews.
 Questionnaire or measurement constraints, including limits on response alternatives, use of visual
aids, and interview observations.
 Possibly less appropriate for personal or sensitive questions if no prior contact.
(3) Mail Interview: The mail interview places a great deal of importance on the construction of the
questionnaire, because there is no interviewer in mail surveys to ask questions and record answers. It
cannot be used to conduct an unstructured study. Personal and telephone interviews are more flexible in
the sense that they can be stopped or attered at any point whereas the researcher has no control on the
interview once the questionnaire is mailed. The mailing questionnaire is accompanied with a covering
letter instructing the respondent how to complete the questionnaire and return the questionnaire to the
researchers. The respondents complete the questionnaire at their own leisure and mail the replies to the
researcher.
ADVANTAGE OF MAIL INTERVIEW

 Relatively low cost.
 Can be accomplished with minimal staff and facilities.
 Provides access to widely dispersed samples & samples that for other reasons are difficult to
reach by telephone or in person.
 Respondents have time to give thoughtful answers, look up records, or consult with others.
DISADVANTAGES OF MAIL INTERVIEW
Branches:
 Ineffective as a way of enlisting cooperation (depending on group to the studied).
 Various disadvantages of not having interviewer involved in data collection.
 Need for good mailing addresses for sample.
ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWING
 The greatest value of this method is the depth and detail of information that can be secured.
 The interviewer can gather other supplemental information like economical level, living
conditions, etc, through observation of the respondents environment.
 The interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual materials and like in order to improve the
quality of interviewing.
 The accuracy and dependability of the answers given by the respondent can be checked by
observation and probing.
 Interview is flexible and adaptable to individual situations.
DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWING
 Its greatest drawback is that it is costly, both in money and time.
 The interview results are often adversely affected by the interviewers made of asking questions
and interactions, and incorrect recording and also are the respondent’s faulty perception. Faulty
memory, inability to articulate etc.
 Interview poses the problem of recording information obtained from the respondents. No
foolproof system is available.
 Interview calls for highly skilled interviewers. The availability of such persons is limited and the
training of interviewers is often a long and costly process.
QUESTIONNAIRE
The questionnaire is a list of questions to be asked from the respondents. It also contains a suitable space
where the answers can be recorded.
The term questionnaire usually refers to a self – administered process where by the respondent himself
reads the question and records his answers without the assistance of an interviewer.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE STUDIES
Structured Non- structured

Non - disguised Most questionnaires Some focus group and depth interviews.
E.g.: does your family own a piano? E.g. ask respondent(s) to discuss what they
think when canned soup is mentioned.
Disguised Some attitude measurements. Some projective techniques.
E.g. which of the following eat a lot, E.g. Nescafe.
and which a little, oat meal: farmers,
movie: actors, etc.
(i) Structured, non – disguised Questioning: Most questionnaire studies made in marketing research
are of the first type – they are structured and are not disguised. If the sales manager for a musical
instrument company wants to find out how many & what type of people play various types of
instruments, a formal list of questions may be set up that asks directly about the ownership and playing of
various instruments. Each of a selected group of persons is then asked this set of questions in the given
sequence. Answer are frequently limited to a list of alternatives, which is stated or implied.
Branches:
Does your family own a piano?

Yes – No –
(If yes, ask)
What type of piano do you have?
Upright – spinet – grand – other –
Did you buy it or was it a gift?
Which members of your family, if any, can now
play the piano?
(ii) Non – structured, Non – disguised questions: Direct questions dealing with motives rarely elicit
useful answers. As pointed out above, most people do not have a clear idea why they make specific
marketing decisions. Direct questions do not measure the relative importance of the various types of
reasons, and many individual will not report motives that might be considered base or socially
unacceptable.
To overcome these difficulties researchers have developed depth interviews and focus group
interviews. Instead of approaching respondents with a fixed list of questions, the interviewer attempts to
get respondents to talk freely about the subject of interest.
(iii) Non – structured, Disguised Questioning: Many people are either unwilling or unable to give
accurate reports as to their own attitudes and motivations. Thus, even focus groups (non structured, non -
disguised questioning) probably give biased results. To overcome this difficulty, clinical psychologists
have developed disguised methods of gathering such data. Disguised methods are designed so that the
respondents do not know what the objects of the study is Such disguised methods may also be non –
structured. Projective techniques are an example of this type.
(iv)Structured, disguised Questioning: Questioning of the structured, disguised type has the advantages
of disguise that were pointed out above – primarily that respondents do not know what is being measured
and, hence, are not biased in their answers. The advantages of structure lie in the reduction of interviewer
and interpreter bias, in quicker and less costly interviewing, and in easier tabulation of results.
Some structured, disguised tests of attitudes are based on the theory that individuals knowledge,
perception and memory are conditioned by their attitudes.
Preparation of Questionnaire
Adequate preparation of questionnaire or questionnaire designing is critical to the success of a survey.

Questionnaire designing is discussed in following steps. These steps may vary in importance in
individual projects, but each step must receive attention in each case. The steps of constructing
questionnaire are:
1) Determine What Information is Wanted: Questionnaires are prepared to meet research objectives
and to motivate the respondents to cooperate with the survey. Therefore a specific statement of the
information required for research purposes is prepared and put in operation to motivate the respondents.
The specific characteristics of the information are decided upon for the proposed analysis and objectives.
2) Determine the Type of Questionnaire to Use: After deciding the information required for the
research, the next step is to decide the method of using the questionnaire or administering the
Branches:
questionnaire. The questionnaire can be used by personal interview, mail, telephone or all of them. The
choice among these alternatives is largely determined by the type of information to be obtained and by
the type of respondents from whom it is to be obtained. It is necessary to decide on the type of
questionnaire at this point since the questions asked, the way in which they are asked, and the sequence
in which they are asked will all be influenced by this decision. The influence of the type of questionnaire
on these factors will be brought out in the discussion.
3) Determine the Content of Individual Questions: Once the needed information is specified, the
method of communication is decided, researchers are ready to begin formulating the questionnaire. One
problem is to decide what to include in individual questions.
4) Determine the Type of Question to Use: Once the content of individual questions is decided,
researchers are ready to begin forming the actual questions. Before they can work on the wording of each
question, they must decide on the type of question to use.
Part of this decision is whether to use disguised or non disguised, structured or unstructured questioning.
5) Deciding on Wording of Questions: In the preceding discussion of question content and types of
questions, much has been said on question wording. A number of other important ideas however should
be considered. Unfortunately, these ideas are more rules of thumb that have been developed form
experience than they are underlying concept.
i) Define the issue
ii) Should question be subjective or objective
iii) Positive or negative statement
iv) Use simple words
v) Avoid ambiguous questions
vi) Avoid leading questions
6) Decide on Question Sequence: Once the wording of the individual questions has been determined, it
is necessary to set them up in some order. The sequence can influence the results obtained. A
questionnaire has three major sections:
i) Basic information
ii) Classification information
iii) Identification information
7) Decide on Length of Questionnaire: How long the questionnaire/ schedule would be depends upon:
i) What the researcher wants to know and how many items are necessary so that the data will be credible;
ii) On the type of study (since self-administered questionnaires may be shorter than face-to-face
interviews;
iii) On the time which the researcher has available for the study;
iv) On the time the respondents can and will take; and
v) On researcher's resources.
For obtaining necessary and adequate data and credible answers, it is necessary that the length of the
questionnaire should be given importance, i.e., it should be reasonably long. It is equally important that
time for filling up questionnaires or responding to interview schedule is generally limited to 30-40
minutes in comparison to face-to-face interview which can continue for 45-60 minutes. Another
consideration is the respondents. How long can they be available? Will they take interest in answering
questions seriously? Young people may be available for less time than the middle-aged and the old
people.
Branches:
8) Decide on Layout and Reproduction: The physical layout and reproduction of the questionnaire
influence the success of the interview. While planning the layout and reproduction, three important points
are considered. They are:
i) Acceptance of the Questionnaire: The physical appearance of the questionnaire influences the
interests and attitude of the respondents. If the questionnaire is prepared on rough paper, typed
unimpressively and designed poorly it may not attract the respondents to read and answer the questions.
On the other hand, a questionnaire typed or printed on good quality paper may attract the respondents to
read it. The respondents may be requested not to disclose their identities. The researchers, sometimes, to
avoid any bias, may avoid the use of their company's name.
ii) Ease of Control: The questionnaire should be numbered serially to make it possible to control the
questionnaire in the operation. It will make it easy to edit and tabulate the answers. All questions must be
accounted and evaluated properly. Numbered questions are easy to follow and simple to operate
throughout the survey time, and analyse thereafter.
iii) Ease of Handling: The reproduction of a questionnaire may influence the fieldwork and analysis. It
is essential that a large number of questions must not be put in a short space. If the questionnaire is
crowded, it makes a bad appearance. This may cause errors in collection of data and tabulation as it is
hard to read the answers. Too large a questionnaire cannot be handled properly. Questions should be laid
out and reproduced in an easy way for the field worker to follow the sequence.
9) Check Questions: Once the first draft of the questionnaire has been completed, and before it is
actually pre-tested, it is a good idea to get one (or more) expert's opinion of the questionnaire. A person
who is expert in research methodology can help to catch methodological weaknesses in the instrument,
such as faulty scales, inadequate instructions, etc. A person who is familiar with the topic of the
questionnaire can help in assessing the face validity of the questions. Do they make sense; are they easy
to understand, do they ask what they are supposed to be asking?
10) Pilot-Testing or Pre-Testing: Before the questionnaire is ready for the field, it needs to be pre-tested
under field conditions. No', researcher can prepare a questionnaire so good that improvements cannot be
discovered in field test. Researchers have reported pre-testing, changing, and pre-testing again for as
many as 25 times before they were satisfied with some questionnaires. One pre-test is as much, however,
as most questionnaires get.
11) Revision and Final Draft: After each significant revision of the questionnaire, another pre-test
should be run. When the last pre-test suggests no new revisions, the researcher is ready to print the actual
questionnaires to be used in the survey.
Types of Questions
The types of questions to be asked are directly related to the information the researcher requires. A
questionnaire usually consists of a combination of the following types of questions:
1) Open-Ended Questions: Open format questions are those questions that give the audience an
opportunity to express their opinions. In these types of questions, there are no predetermined set of
responses and the person is free to answer however he/she chooses. By including open format questions
in the questionnaire true, insightful and even unexpected suggestions can be obtained. Qualitative
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questions fall under the category of open format questions. An ideal questionnaire would include an open
format question at the end of the questionnaire that would ask the respondent about suggestions for
changes or improvements.
2) Closed-Ended Questions: Closed-format questions are questions that include multiple choice
answers. Multiple choice questions fall under the category of closed format questions. These multiple
choices could either be in even numbers or in odd numbers. By including closed format questions in the
questionnaire design, one can easily calculate statistical data and percentages. Preliminary analysis can
also be performed with ease. Closed format questions can be asked to different groups at different
intervals. This enables efficient tracking of opinion over time.
3) Leading Questions: These are questions that force audience for a particular type of answer. In a
leading question, all the answers would be equally likely. An example of a leading question would be a
question that would have choices such as, fair, good, great, poor, superb, excellent, etc. By asking a
question and then giving answers such as these, one can get an opinion from audience.
4) Importance Questions: In these questions, the respondents are usually asked to rate the importance of
a particular issue, on a rating scale of 1-5. These questions can help grasp what are the things that hold
importance to the respondents. Importance questions can also help make business critical decisions.
5) Likert Questions: These questions can help to ascertain how strongly the respondent agrees with a
particular statement. Likert questions can also help to assess how customers feel towards a certain issue,
product or service,
6) Dichotomous Questions: These questions are simple questions that ask respondents to just answer yes
or no. One major drawback of a dichotomous question is that it cannot analyse any of the answers
between yes and no.
7) Bipolar Questions: These questions are questions that have two extreme answers. The respondent is
asked to mark his/her responses between the two opposite ends of the scale.
8) Rating Scale Questions: In rating scale questions, the respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on
a scale that ranges from poor to good. Rating scale questions usually have an even number of choices, so
that respondents are not given the choice of a middle option.
9) Buying Propensity Questions: These questions are questions that try to assess the future intentions of
customers. These questions ask respondents if they want to buy a particular product, what requirements
they want to be addressed and whether they would buy such a product in the future.
10) Contingency Questions: Questions that need to be answered only when the respondent provides a
particular response to a question prior to them are called contingency questions. Asking these questions
effectively avoids asking people questions that are not applicable to them.
Sequencing of Questions
The structure of a questionnaire is an important aspect in questionnaire design. The questionnaire
structure is framed depending upon whether it is self-administered or the administration is facilitated by
an interviewer. Questionnaire structure pertains to the proper sequencing for better and effective
responses. The sequencing tends to drive the interview through a 'funnel-shaped' process, starting with
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general questions and progressing to more specific ones. The interviewer, before moving to sequential
steps, gives a brief introduction about the survey's basic purpose survey and client confidentiality. This
sequencing is explained through the following steps:
1) Lead-in Questions: This is the introductory phase of the interview and consists of tactfully designed
ice breakers. These can prove crucial in gaining the participant's confidence and co-operation. The
questions should be simple, non-threatening and not too personal at this stage. A good way to start the
session is by asking a 'ringer or throw away' question or a dichotomous question with two responses.
These questions measure the respondent's interest and willingness to respond. The questions can be about
hot topics of the day, where responses are of little importance to the survey.
2) Qualifying Questions: These are questions that slowly lead to the survey's objective. This stage is
characterised by questions that evaluate the respondent and qualify him/her for further questioning.
Depending on the responses, the interviewer directs the interview towards a relevant set of questions.
Prior to this, it should be ensured that the interviewees are related to the survey in some meaningful
terms.
3) Warm-up Questions: This stage plays on the respondent's mind by making him/her think of certain
facts related to the survey questions. Questions like, "When was the last time you bought toothpaste?";
"Was it fluoride content or herbal?"; "Looking back, can you recollect how many times you might have
used fluoride toothpastes over the last one year?" tend to make the respondent think and recollect past
experiences. A person who is straightaway asked such questions may not be interested in answering or
providing details, but after a series of lead-in and qualifying questions, the resistance slowly decreases
and gives way to co-operation.
4) Specific Questions: This stage consists of questions that are specific to the research objectives. As
such, they are asked of participants who show a favourable response or are end users of the product, in
this case, fluoride toothpastes. These questions tend to estimate the usage pattern and influential factors
in using fluoride content toothpaste. These specific questions play a major role in data collection and
analysis. After ensuring that enough rapport has been established, this section can probe to gain insight
into sensitive issues.
5) Demographic Questions: These are a necessary part of every survey. Responses to survey questions
cannot be analysed until they are sorted out according to the different characteristics pertaining to the
study. This is especially true for surveys that analyse responses based on the demographic characteristics
of respondents. These usually consist of a set of questions related to age, sex, location, occupation, etc.
These questions are kept to the end to avoid interviewee resistance and to prevent the interviewee's
attention from being diverted.
Length of Questionnaire
Questionnaire length is an important concern in any type of survey. One basic reason is that questionnaire
length is directly related to completion rate. Long questionnaires cause fatigue and respondent mortality,
and low completion rates. Shorter questionnaires guarantee higher completion rates.
In most cases, questionnaire length is determined by trial and error. A survey that has more than 10%
incompletes or break-offs (the respondent hangs up during a telephone survey or terminates the survey in
some way) is probably too long.
There is no hard and fast rule about the number of questions that can be included in a questionnaire. This
will depend on factors such as the topic under investigation, how complex the questions are the nature of
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the respondents who have been targeted and the time it takes to complete the questionnaire. Decisions
about the size of a questionnaire are ultimately a matter of judgement on the part of the researcher, who
needs to gauge how many questions can be included before the respondent is likely to run out of patience
and consign the questionnaire to the waste bin. The length depends on a variety of factors:
1) Amount of money in the research budget
2) Purpose of the survey.
3) Type of problems or questions to be investigated.
4) Age of respondents involved in the survey.
5) Type and complexity of questions in the questionnaire.
6) Location in the country where the study is conducted.
7) Specific setting of the testing situation.
8) Time of year and time of day when the study is conducted.
9) Type of interviewer (professional or amateur).
10) To accomplish this balancing act there are certain rules to bear in mind.
In most cases, researchers do not get a second chance to follow up issues they might have missed in the
initial questionnaire. Conscious of this 'one shot' constraints, there may be the temptation to ask about
everything that might possibly be of relevance. It is, after all, vital to cover all key matters if the
questionnaire is to supply data which permit a reasonable analysis by the researcher. But the shrewd
researcher realises that it is counter productive to include everything that might feasibly have some
relevance to the research issues. Every effort should be made to keep the questionnaire as brief as
possible by restricting the scope of the questions to crucial issues related to the research, and avoiding
any superfluous detail or non-essential topics. When designing a questionnaire, then, the researcher has to
walk a tightrope between ensuring coverage of all the vital issues and ensuring the questionnaire is brief
enough to encourage people to bother answering it.
Guidelines for Length of Questionnaire

Following guidelines used for length of questionnaire:
1) Only Ask those Questions which are Absolutely Vital for the Research: The better the research is
planned, the easier it will be to identify the absolutely crucial questions and discard the 'just in case I
need this information later' questions.
2) Be Rigorous in Weeding Out any Duplication of Questions: A moment's reflection might lead the
researcher to the conclusion that one or other will supply adequate information for the particular purposes
of the investigation - or that one can be deduced from the other. For example, if a questionnaire contains
as separate questions, 'What is your date of birth?' and 'How old are you?' we need to ask just how vital it
is that both are included.
3) Straightforward and Speedy: Make the task of responding to the questionnaire as straightforward
and speedy as possible.
4) Pilot the Questionnaire: Pilot the questionnaire to see how long it takes to answer and then consider
whether it is reasonable to expect the specific target group to spare this amount of time supplying the
answers.
Check Questions
A good research question is appropriately narrow, allows for depth and exploration, not just a shallow
glossing over of everything, defines the topic, guides the research, and keeps the researcher focused.
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In preparing the first draft of the questionnaire, the researcher may decide that some questions are of such
a nature that respondents are unlikely to answer them accurately or honestly. In this case, he or she may
be well advised to incorporate some check questions to determine the reliability of certain questions.
Check questions are those that ask for the same information as one or more others, but each is worded
differently. If the respondents answer the essentially the same question differently, one must their
reliability. However, the wording of a question can affect its responses. In addition, respondents may be
irritated, or even insulted, if they detect the use of cross-check questions. Such a reaction can affect their
responses to their responses to the questionnaire as a whole and bias the results.
For example, people often round off their ages to the lowest decade. A date of birth question could be
inserted later in the form double-check their first answer.
A researcher can check if your research question is a "good" question by checking it against the
following questions:
1) Is the question, clearly defined and appropriately narrow?
2) Is the question a single question?
3) Is it a real question containing no opinions or predetermined answers?
4) Can the question be answered with data or analysis?
5) Is the question based on sound assumptions?
6) Does the question allow for different outcomes?
Precautions in Preparation of Questionnaire

The guidelines for preparing questionnaire are as follows:
1) Arrange Questions in a Logical Order: Arrange questions carefully so that the respondents will be
able to make their replies easily and without confusion. Ask an easy-to-answer question in the beginning.
Also, group the sequence of items in a logical and coherent order. If possible, group together all items
about a particular topic or subject. This grouping will, help the respondent think more logically about the
issues involved. It will show the thoughtful plan in designing the questionnaire.
2) Design Items that Require Current and Easily Remembered Data: When respondents must rely
too much on their memories they may either guess or not respond at all. Either way, their answers would
be invalid and unreliable.
3) Questions should not be Ambiguous: The structure of the sentence as well as the word choice and
order should not provide any room for misinterpretation on the part of the respondent. A question like
'What type of T.V. do you prefer?' is ambiguous. The respondent may get a doubt - Do they mean
coloured or black and white? Or portable or non-portable? Or perhaps it is the brand they are after. The
question could be much more accurately phrased in such a manner as this; 'Do you prefer portable or
non-portable T.V.?'
4) Leading Questions should not be Asked: These are questions that suggest the desired answer or
anticipate answers. These questions condition the respondent's mind. So the respondent cannot give the
truthful answer. For example, 'Do you read The Economic Times?' is a leading question. A better
question to ask would be - 'Which newspaper do you read?'
5) Personal Questions should be Avoided: Theses include question about politics, religion, age and
income, etc. Sometimes one needs the information generally. For example, you will not need the exact
age or exact amount of income. However, the information may be necessary in order to accomplish the
particular purpose of the report. To encourage response as well as facilitate evaluation of the answers,
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provide ranges from which the respondent may show his age and income range. For example, the
researcher can show age brackets below 21, '20 to 25' and set-up income brackets in the same way.
6) Good Transition between Questions: Provide good transition between questions and if possible use
parallel wording. Both of these factors will aid the respondent in moving from one question to another.
With good transition he easily sees the connection between questions. Parallel wording actually makes it
easier for him to understand questions and thus answer them.
7) Avoid Skip-and-Jump or Involved Rating Questions: If possible, 'skip-and-jump' or 'involved

rating' questions should not be asked. For the average person the 'skip-and-jump' type of questions are
difficult to follow and comprehend. Others feel that it takes more time than ordinary questions. An
example of such a question is one that reads, 'If one has answered question number 6 with 'yes' then skip
question numbers 7 and 8 and answer questions 9 and 10. If one has answered question number 6 with a
'no', answer question numbers 7 and 8 and skip 9 and 10. It is equally unreasonable to ask the respondent
to 'Rate from number 1 to 10 in order of preference of the following factors'.
ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
(i) Versatility: Probably the greatest advantage of the questionnaire method is its versatility. Almost
every problem of marketing research can be approached from the questionnaire standpoint.
(ii) Speed & cost: Questioning is usually faster and cheaper than observing. Interviewers have more
control over their data gathering activities then do observers. As a result, less time is typically wasted in a
questionnaire study.
DISADVANTAGS OF QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
(i) Unwillingness of respondent to Provide Information: The interviewer counts on the natural
politeness and good nature of most people to gain their cooperation. But in some cases potential
respondents will refuse to take the time to be interviewed or will refuse to answer some specific
questions. Questions about income or about very personal subjects frequently meet refusals.
(ii) Inability of Respondents to provide Information: Despite a willingness to cooperate many persons
are unable to give accurate information on questions which the marketing interviewer would like to ask.
SCHEDULES
MEANING OF DEFINITION
Schedule is a device in social research, which is most frequently used is collecting field data specially
where the survey method is employed.
“Schedule is that name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled in by an
interviewer in a face – to – face situation with another person.”
TYPES OF SCHEDULE
(i) Enquiry Schedule: It is used for collecting general information or for collecting information’s
related to census. Field workers move from house to house ask questions to the informants and fill the
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schedules by themselves. Such schedules are used mostly for knowing income expenditure, literacy,
indebtedness, occupation, family structure types of dwellings place of residence etc.
(ii) Observation Schedule: Such schedules are used for the purpose of observation. It contains specific
topics upon which the observer has to concentrate and the nature of information that he has to record.
(iii) Rating schedules: Rating schedules have been mostly used in psychological research. They are
used in those cases when the attitude or opinion is to be measured. Various ranks or scales are
constructed and used for this purpose.
(iv) Documentary Schedules: Documentary schedules generally help in collecting data through
secondary sources. They are used for recording data from written documents like autobiography, case
history, diary or official records maintained by the government.
(v) Interview Schedules: These days such schedules are most frequently used for interview on personal
level. These are primarily used in formal interviews. They contain standard questions that the
interviewers have to ask and blank tables that he has to fill up.
Preparation of Schedule
The preparation of schedule can be done as follows:
1) Study the Different Aspects of the Problem: The problem under study should first of all be split up
into various aspects. The determination of these aspects will depend upon clear understanding of the
problem under study.
2) Sub-Divide the Problem to Get Necessary Information: Each aspect has again to be broken up into
a number of sub-parts. These sub-parts should be quite exhaustive to give a full and complete picture of
the aspect under study.
3) Class Questions: Care should be taken to see that the questions convey the exact sense. Respondents
will be willing to supply information without any hesitation, bias or distortion of facts, if questions are
exact and clear.
4) Serialisation of Questions: In order to obtain well-organised information, it is necessary that the

questions should be presented to the respondents in a well-ordered serial. It has been experienced to
various field studies that the changes in the order of questions affect the answers adversely.
5) Testing the Validity of Schedule: Whatever may be the degree of precaution taken, some slips are
based to be left out and these can be located when the schedule is put into a reliability and validity test.
6) Division: The schedule is divided into adequate number of divisions. Introductory part, instructional
part, issues-related parts, etc., are certain parts by which the schedule is divided into parts.
Use appropriate forms of questions at appropriate places. Open-ended, close-ended, pictorial, Yes or No
(questions), multiple choice questions, etc., be used.
ADVANTAGES OF SCHEDULE METHOD
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 In interview through schedule method the research worker finds himself close to the respondent.
Due to this facility he can try to get maximum possible response. This facility is not found in
questionnaire.
 The field worker can create a favorable atmosphere for proper response. He can start some
interesting discussion and develop the interest of the respondent before presenting the schedule.
For getting correct replies right atmosphere is necessary.
 Due to personal presence of the field worker any doubt is easily removed.
LIMITATIONS OF SCHEDULE METHOD

 It is expensive and time taking.
 The presence of field worker sometimes creates bias.
 Schedule method has limited utility in the sense that is cannot be used in all circumstances and for
all the places.
 Occasionally, the field worker faces the problem of non response.
Online Surveys
An online survey is a questionnaire that the target audience can complete over the Internet. Online
surveys are usually created as Web forms with a database to store the answers and statistical software to
provide analytics. People are often encouraged to complete online surveys by an incentive such as being
entered to win a prize.
Other Methods:
There are a number of other methods for collection of data which are described as below:
i) Warranty Cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards, which are used by dealers of
consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed in
the form of questions on the 'warranty cards' which is placed inside the package along with the product
with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.
ii) Distributor or Store Audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as
manufacturers through their sales men at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited
through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, and seasonal
purchasing pattern. The data in such audits are obtained not by questioning but by observation.
iii) Pantry Audits: Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the
consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices
of commodities consumed. Thus, in pantry audit data are recorded from the examination of consumer's
pantry.
iv) Mechanical Devices: The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect information by
way of indirect means. Eye camera, Pupilo-metric camera, Psycho-galvanometer, Motion picture camera
and Audiometer are the principal devices so far developed and commonly used by modern big business
houses, mostly in the developed world for the purpose of collecting the required information.
v) Simulation: Another source from where data is generated is through the use of simulation. A
sophisticated set of mathematical formula are used to simulate or imitate a real life situation. By changing
one variable in the equation, it is possible to determine the effect on the other variables in the equation.
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The simulation design is conclusive research, i.e., secondary research in nature. Simulation is a
quantitative research technique.
vi) Panel: This form of data collection method is nowadays increasingly used for syndicated research. A
panel is a group of study units (households, retail stores, organisations) that exist over time and from
which data is collected on a regular interval of time. For example, members of a consumer panel might
maintain purchase diaries in which consumers record every purchase in a particular product class.
Measurement of this nature provides longitudinal data and permits analysis of changes in behaviour
and/or attitudes. All panels are virtually sponsored by some commercial houses and maintained by some
marketing research agency in the form of syndicated research services.
Difference between Questionnaire & Schedule
Basis of Difference Questionnaire Schedules

1) Mode The questionnaire is generally sent The schedule is generally filled out
through mail to informants to be answered by the research worker or
as specified in a covering letter, the enumerator, who can
but otherwise without further assistance interpret questions when necessary.
from the sender.
2) Economy To collect data through questionnaire To collect data through schedules

is relatively cheap and economical since is relatively more expensive
we have to spend money only in since considerable amount of
preparing the questionnaire and in money has to be spent in
mailing the same to respondents. appointing enumerators and
Here no field staffs are required. in imparting training to them.
Money is also spent in
preparing schedules.
3) Chances of Non- Non-response is usually high in case Non-response is generally very low
response of questionnaire as many people do in case of schedules because these
not respond and many return are filled by enumerators who are
the questionnaire without answering able to get answers to all
all questions. Bias due to non-response questions. But there remains
often remains indeterminate. the danger of interviewer bias
and cheating.
4) Identification of In case of questionnaire, it is not always In case of schedule the identity
Respondents clear as to who replies. of respondent is known.
5) Time The questionnaire method is likely to be In case of schedules the information
Consumption very slow since many respondents do is collected well in time as they
not return the questionnaire in time are filled in by enumerators.
despite several reminders.
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6) Personal Contact In case of schedules direct
Personal contact is generally not
personal contact is established
possible in case of the
with respondents.
questionnaire method as questionnaires
are sent to respondents by post who also
in turn returns the same by post.
Difference Between Primary and Secondary Data
Primary Data Secondary Data

Basis of
Difference
1) Meaning Primary data is the one, which is
collected by the investigator himself Secondary data are those data which have
for the purpose of a specific inquiry been already collected and analysed by
or study. some earlier agency for its own use; and
later the same data are used by a
different agency.
2) Cost Secondary data is typically available for free
The cost of obtaining primary data or for the subscription fee to the
is typically more. database magazine or journal.
3) Sources
A primary data source is a publication A secondary data source is a
in which the data are published by publication, reporting the data which have
the same authority which gathered been gathered by other authorities and
and analysed them. for which others are responsible.
4) Methods It is normally collected The method or way of collecting secondary
Through experiments, surveys, data includes books, journals, census data
questionnaire focus groups, interviews. biographies, articles and databases.
5) Reliability
The information collected for primary data Whereas secondary data are less reliable
is more reliable than those collected from because these information are not collected for
the secondary data. that particular purpose.
6)Scientific Primary data follows the scientific method.Secondary data does not start with a hypothesis
Method A hypothesis is formed, data is collected as the data is already collected. Patterns and
from an experiment based on the insights are found within the secondary data
hypothesis and the hypothesis is proven and then the observation on that data is made.
correct or not.
7) Precaution No extra precautions are required in Secondary data need more care and attention.
primary data
8) Form of Primary data are in the shape of raw Secondary data are usually in the shape of
Data material readymade products.
9) Accuracy Primary research is tailored specifically forWhile secondary data can provide plenty of
the project and tends to be more accurate. information, it is less accurate because the data
Primary data is customized. collected was not collected specifically for the
questions. Secondary data is not customized.
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10) Example One’s own questionnaire Data from a magazine, journal, etc.
*****
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A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd Analysis of Data
CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS OF DATA

DATA PROCESSING
Introduction
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the outline laid down for
the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a scientific study and for
ensuring that one has all relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and analysis. Technically
speaking, processing implies editing, coding and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to
analysis. The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, in the process of analysis, relationships or
differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to statistical
tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.
Data processing and analysis is essential in recording information, analysing the information and
communicating analysis. The first stage in data analysis is the preparation of an appropriate form in
which the relevant data can be collected and coded in a format suitable for entry into a computer, this
stage is referred to as data processing. After the collection of the data has been done, it has to be then
processed and then finally analysed. The processing of the data involves editing, coding, classifying,
tabulating and after all this analysis of the data takes place.
Data Processing Operations

Data processing refers to the process of converting data from one format to another. It transforms
plain data into valuable information and information into data. Clients can supply data in a variety of
forms, be it excels sheets, audio devices or plain printed material. Data processing services take the raw
data and process it accordingly to produce sensible information. The various applications of data
processing include converting raw data into useful information that can be used further for business
processes. Processing operations of data involves the following steps.
Data processing operations
Editing of Data
The raw data is likely to contain number of errors during the process of recording the information in
surveys. By means of editing one tries to eliminate the errors or remove the points of confusion, if any.
Alternately, recorded raw data is normally less than perfect and the first phase through which this data
must pass is editing.
For proper analysis and interpretation, it is necessary that the collected data is presented, in the desired
form, i.e., data collected has no missing values, all entries are readable or all information is accurate. This
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introduces errors in collected information, which are to be rectified before further analysis. The errors or
points of confusion in raw data are eliminated through editing. Editing comprises inspecting, correcting
and modifying the raw data to ensure that information is available correctly, adequately and relevantly.
Essentials of Editing
1) Completeness: The editor must find whether there is an answer to every question. If the interviewer
has forgotten to ask a question or to record the answer; it may be possible to deduce from other data on
the questionnaire and fill up the gap. The interviewer may also be able to fill in the gap from his memory.
If the information is vital, it can be collected by a postal enquiry.
2) Accuracy: The editor must try to check whether the answers are accurate. In the first place,
inconsistencies should be looked for. Every effort should be made to resolve clear inconsistencies. If this
is not possible, then the inconsistent entries should be omitted.
3) Uniformity: In editing data sets, another focus should be placed for any lack of uniformity in
interpretation of questions and instructions by the data recorders. For example, the responses towards a
specific feeling could have been queried from a positive as well as a negative angle. While interpreting
the answers, care should be taken as to record the answer as a "positive question" response or as
"negative question" response, In all, uniformity checks for consistency in coding throughout the
questionnaire/ interview schedule response/data set.
Coding of Data
Coding is the procedure of classifying the answers to a question into meaningful categories. The symbols
used to indicate these categories are called codes. Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or
other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes.
Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They must also posses
the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for every data item) and also that of mutual
exclusivity which means that a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category
set. Another rule to be observed is that of uni-dimensionality by which is meant that every class is
defined in terms of only one concept.
Coding is necessary to carry out the subsequent operations of tabulating and analysing data. If coding is
not done, it will not be possible to reduce a large number of heterogeneous responses into meaningful
categories with the result that the analysis of data would be weak and ineffective and without proper
focus.
Coding involves two steps:
1) The first step is to specify the different categories or classes into which the responses are to be
classified.
2) The second step is to allocate individual answers to different categories.
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced to a small
number of classes, which contain the critical information required for analysis. Coding decisions should
usually be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire.
Essentials of Coding
Following are the essentials of coding:
1) Appropriateness: The first rule might appear to be so obvious that nothing further needs to be said
about it, but this is not the case. Categories must be set-up to provide the information required to test the
hypotheses or investigative questions. If the categories do not adequately serve these critical needs, then
all else is trivial. Relevancy is the criterion here, but it is often violated. Irrelevancies occur because some
topic suggests another interesting bit of information which can be "easily secured while we are at it".
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Another problem concerns the definition of category boundaries. Often, it is possible to compare our data
with information from other sources if the definitions of categories are the same. This is obviously of
great concern when one is defining complex constructs, but even such a simple concept as age can
present problems. It is disheartening to find, after the data have been collected and tabulated, that our
respondent age categories of "Under 20 years, 20 to 29, 30 to 39, and so on do not match those of the
comparison study wanted to use.
2) Exhaustiveness: The rule on exhaustiveness states that there must be a category for every data item. A
simple way to make each category set exhaustive is to include an "other" cell in each set. If we depend on
this tactic alone, however, avoid the real problem of properly defining response categories in the research
design stage. If new responses show up later in the study (usually in the form of a large number of
"other" responses) it means our design work and pre-testing were inadequate. Failure to present an
adequate list of alternatives is especially damaging when multiple choice questions are used. Any answer
that is not specified in the set presented for choice will surely be under-represented in the final tally.
While the exhaustiveness requirement in a single category set may be obvious, there is a second aspect
which is less apparent. A given body of data may also be analysed in terms of more than one set of
categories. For example, responses to an open-ended question about a family's prospects for next year
may originally be classified only in terms of whether the expectations are optimistic or pessimistic. It
may be more enlightening if we also classify these responses in terms of more specific topics such as:
i) Income prospects,
ii) Buying intentions, and
iii) Other types of family change expectations.
3) Mutual Exclusivity: A third important rule is that category components should be mutually exclusive.
This standard is met when a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category
set. For example, in an occupation survey the classifications may be professional, managerial, sales,
clerical, crafts, operatives, and unemployed. Some respondents will think of themselves as being in more
than one of these groups. The man who views selling as a profession and who spends part of his time
supervising others may feel that fits under three of these categories. One of the functions of operational
definitions is to provide categories that are composed of mutually exclusive elements. In this case
operational definitions of the occupations to be classified under "professional", "managerial" and "sales"
should clarify the situation.
4) Single Dimension: The need for a category set to follow a single classificatory principle means,
simply, that every class in the category set is defined in terms of one concept. Returning to the
occupation survey example, the man in the study might be both a salesman and unemployed. The
"salesman" label expresses the concept of an occupation type, while the response "unemployed" is
another dimension concerned with current employment status without regard to the respondent's normal
occupation. When a category set employs more than one dimension, there is a strong risk that the classes
will not be mutually exclusive unless the cells in the set combine the dimensions (employed manager,
unemployed manager, and so on).
Classification of Data
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into homogeneous
groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which
happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristic.
Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided
into a number of groups or classes.
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Principles in Classification of Data

1) Classification should not be Ambiguous: They very purpose of classification is to remove
ambiguity. For this, homogeneity should be made the basis of classification. Various categories/groups
should be clearly defined in classification. This avoids confusion in classification and facilitates analysis
of concrete nature.
2) Classification should be on the Basis of Single Classification Principle: The consideration for
classification should be only one at a time. For example, buyers may be classified on the basis of
economic or social status or frequency of purchases or the amount spent. For classification, only one
point at a time
3) Classification should be Mutually Exclusive: This means the answer given by a respondent should
be suitable for placement under one classification only. There should be no overlapping of the categories
after classification.
4) Classification should be Mutually Exhaustive: Classification should cover all data under one
category or the other. For this, all possible categories should be prepared at the time of classification.
Answer of the respondents should not be omitted in the process of classification.
5) Classification should be Action-Oriented: Classification should be devised keeping in view the

future action to be taken on the basis of the analysis and interpretation of data. Classification is a means
and not the end in itself.
6) Classification should be Distinct: Various sub-divisions under each category of classification should
be so distinct as to indicate differences enough to lead to different decisions to suit each specific aspect of
the problem.
7) Classification should be Pertinent to Marketing Research Project: The purpose of classification

should be to study the marketing problem in the best possible manner. Classification without reference to
the purpose will not be useful for analysis of data.
Tabulation of Data
Tabulation is the primary function of data analysis. The data is validated and analysed to generate tables
in a client-specified format that helps the researcher to interpret the results of the survey and present it to
his/her client.
According to L.R. Connor, "Tabulation involves the orderly and systematic presentation of numerical
data in a form designed to elucidate the problem under consideration".
According to Blair, "Tabulation in its broadest sense is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows".
Rules of Tabulation
General Rules
i) Attractive Shape: The table should be neat and attractive. The size of the table should be neither too
big nor too small.
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ii) Simplicity: A table should be simple and self-explanatory and according to the object of statistical
investigation.
iii) Place of Approximation: If approximation is done for the figures written in the table it should be
mentioned.
iv) Free from Irrelevant Data: A table must be free from all types of irrelevant data.
v) Use of Circle or Box, etc.: Certain figures which are to be emphasized should be in distinctive type or
in circle, box or between thick lines.
vi) Miscellaneous Columns: A table should have miscellaneous column or remark column for the
information which cannot be grouped in the classification mode.
vii) Non-availability of the Data: If some information is not available due to one or other reason a line
(-) or not available (N.A.) or a cross (x) should be used, along with a classification of these symbols.
Advantages of Tabulation
The importance of tabulation is as follows:
1) Simplifies Complex Data: The main purpose of the tabulation is to simplify the complex information
so that it can be easily understood. If data are presented in tabular form, these can be readily understood.
Confusions are minimum when one is going through the data for further analysis or drawing conclusions
about the observation.
2) Facilitates Comparison: Data in the statistical table are arranged in rows and columns very
systematically. Such an arrangement enables the researcher to compare the information in an easy and
comprehensive manner.
3) Presents Data in True Perspective: With the help of tabulation, the repetitions can be dropped out
and data can be presented in true perspective highlighting the relevant information.
4) Figures can be Worked Out more Easily: Tabulation also facilitates further analysis and finalization
of figures for understanding the data.
5) Prepares the Ground for Analysis and Interpretation: Tabulation prepares the ground for analysis
and interpretation. Therefore a suitable method must be decided carefully taking into account the scope
and objects of the investigation, because it is very important part of the statistical methods.
6) Confusing Data is Reduced: The large mass of confusing data is easily reduced to reasonable form
that is understandable to kind. From the table it is easy to draw some reasonable conclusion or inferences.
7) Gives a Bird Eye View: The data once arranged in a suitable form, gives the condition of the situation
at a glance, or gives a bird eye view.
8) Errors are Detected: Errors and omission if any are always detected in tabulation. Therefore the
importance of a carefully drawn table is vital for the preparation of data for analysis and interpretation.
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9) Makes the Data Brief: Tabulation makes the data brief and summaries the large scattered data.
Therefore, it can be easily presented in the form of graphs. Since data are arranged in a table with a title
and a number so these can be easily identified and used for the required purpose. So, the maximum
information may be collected from these tables.
Disadvantages of Tabulation
The disadvantages of tabulation are as follows:
1) Time Consuming: It is time consuming. It takes long time to tabulate the information and difficulty in
accumulation of sufficient data.
2) Lack of Description: Tables contain only numerical data. They do not contain details. Qualitative
expression is not possible through tables. It provides incorrect information while comparing with other
data.
3) Difficult for Layman: Tables can be used by experts only to draw conclusions. Only people with
practical experience and knowledge can construct good table. Common men do not understand them
properly.
DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
It is important to understand that raw data has no usage in marketing research. Hence appropriate
analytical tools must be used. The most elementary is the arithmetic analysis using percentile and ratios.
Statistical analysis like mean, median, mode, percentages, standard deviation and coefficient of
correlation should be used wherever applicable. Advanced statistical tools like tests of significance,
factor analysis, multiple discriminate analysis, and regression analysis may also be used.
Data analysis is a process of gathering, modeling and transforming data with the goal of
highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions and supporting decision-making.
Data analysts can be divided into two phases:
1) Preliminary Data Analysis: In order to acquire knowledge of the characteristics and properties of the
collected data, some preliminary data analysis are conducted usually before performing measurement
qualify assessment or test of hypothesis. Carrying out such analysis before assessing measurement
qualify gives preliminary indication of how well the coding and inputting of data have been done, how
good the scales are and whether there is a suspicion of poor content validity or systematic bias.
The knowledge acquired in this preliminary data analysis may influence the discussion of the results and
the conclusions. Preliminary data analysis is performed by checking central tendencies, dispersions,
frequency distributions and correlations.
2) Hypothesis Testing: Before testing hypothesis it is useful to check the assumptions underlying the
tests and to get a feeling for the data, in order to better interpret the results of the tests. Hypothesis testing
determines the validity of the assumption (technically described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose
between two conflicting hypotheses about the value of a population parameter.
Objectives of Data Analysis

1) Evaluate and enhance data quality.
2) Describe the study population and their relationships to some presumed source (account for all in-
scope potential subjects; compare the available study population with the target population).
3) Assess potential for bias (e.g., non-response, refusal, and attrition, comparison groups).
4) Estimate measures of frequency and extent (prevalence, incidence, means, and medians).
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5) Estimate measures of strength of association or effect.
6) Assess the degree of uncertainty from random noise ("chance").
7) Control and examine effects of other relevant factors.
8) Seek further insight into the relationships observed or not observed.
9) Evaluate impact or importance.
Key Considerations in Data Analysis

There is no shortage of key considerations, issues, and potential problems that need to be addressed
during the data analysis process to ensure that the analysis yields accurate conclusions that can be used
for decision making. Here are some of the things to consider:
1) Bias and objectivity.
2) Having the tools and skill to properly analyse.
3) Selecting the correct collection and analysis techniques.
4) The sample size of pool of data being used to draw an accurate conclusion.
5) The reliability of the analysis.
6) Effective training of analysis participants to ensure all procedures is followed.
7) Data presentation.
8) The accuracy of the analysis.
9) Identify the purpose of the analysis or project,
10) Understand the sample(s) under study,
11) Understand the instruments being used to collect data,
12) Be cognizant of data layouts and formats,
13) Establish a unique identifier, if matching or merging is necessary,
14) Plan the work and work out the plan.
CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS IN DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
Collecting and analysing data are important steps in the research process. The researcher needs to analyse
data to see how the data support (or do not support) the hypotheses. Data are pieces of numerical
information. Data can be displayed in charts and diagrams or as sets of ordered pairs. Analysis through
charts and diagrams is one method used to help analyze data collected.
A diagram is a picture that shows a relationship between different quantities. A diagram can
transform data in ways that demonstrate aspects of the data more clearly and meaningfully such as
showing patterns and trends or summarizing information. A chart illustrates data using only one
quantitative coordinates. Charts are most appropriate for quantitatively comparing discrete categories or
groups of data. The most common charts are column, line and pie charts. Diagram is a visual form for
presentation of statistical data, highlighting the basic facts and relationship. It refer to the various types of
bars, circles, maps, pictorials, cartograms, etc., which are strictly speaking not graphic. These devices
also follow scale rules but the presentation is not confined to points or lines as it was in the case of
graphic devices. These devices, therefore, can take many attractive forms.
Various Kinds of Charts and Diagrams Used in Data Analysis

In practice, a very large variety of diagrams are in use and new ones are constantly being added. For the
sake of convenience and simplicity, they may be divided under the following heads:
1) Line Diagram: Line diagram is used in case where there are many items to be shown and there is not
much of difference in their values. Such diagram is prepared by drawing a vertical line for each item
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according to the scale. The distance between lines is kept uniform. Line diagram makes comparison easy,
but is less attractive. For example, show the following data by a line chart:
No. of Children 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 10 14 9 6 4 2
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Bar Diagrams
Bar graphs display quantities (data) as bars that run either vertically or horizontally. The bar length
corresponds to its numerical value. A bar graph displays data visually and is sometimes called a bar chart
or a bar graph. Data is displayed either horizontally or vertically and allows viewers to compare items
displayed. Data displayed will relate to things like amounts, characteristics, times and frequency etc. A
bar graph displays information in a way that helps us to make generalizations and conclusions quickly
and easily.
A typical bar graph will have a label, axis, scales and bars. Bar graphs are used to display all kinds of
information such as, numbers of females versus males in a school, sales of items during particular times
of a year. Bar graphs are ideal for comparing two or more values.
A bar graph is a chart that uses either horizontal or vertical bars to show comparisons among categories.
One axis of the chart shows the specific categories being compared, and the other axis represents a
discrete value. Some bar graphs present bars clustered in groups of more than one (grouped bar graphs),
and others show the bars divided into subparts to show cumulate effect (stacked bar graphs).
Types of Bar Diagram

1) Simple Bar Diagram: Simple bar diagram can be drawn either on horizontal or vertical base, but bars
on horizontal base are more common. Bars must be uniform in width and intervening space between bars
must be equal. While constructing a simple bar diagram, the scale is determined on the basis of the
highest value in the series.
Example 1: Represent the following data by a bar diagram:
Year Production (in tonnes)
1991 45
1992 40
1993 42
1994 55
1995 50
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2) Multiple Bar Diagram: Multiple bar diagram is used for comparing two or more sets of statistical
data. Bars are constructed side by side to represent the set of values for comparison. In order to
distinguish bars, they may be either differently coloured or there should be different types of crossings or
dotting, etc. An index is also prepared to identify the meaning of different colours or dotting.
Example 2: Draw a multiple bar diagram for the following data:
Year Profit before Tax (in Profit after Tax (in

lac of rupees) lac of rupees)
1998 195 80
1999 200 87
2000 165 45
2001 140 32
3) Sub-Divided Bar Diagram: In a sub-divided bar diagram, the bar is sub-divided into various parts in
proportion to the values given in the data and the whole bar represent the total. Such diagrams are also
called Component Bar diagrams. The sub divisions are distinguished by different colours or crossings or
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dotting. The main defect of such a diagram is that all the parts do not have a common base to enable one
to compare accurately the various components of the data.
Example 3: Represent the following data by a sub-divided bar diagram:

Monthly Expenditure (in Rs)
Expenditure Items
Family A Family B
Food 75 95
Clothing 20 25
Education 15 10
Housing Rent 40 65
Miscellaneous 25 35
4) Percentage Bar Diagram: This is another form of component bar diagram. Here the components are
not the actual values but percentages of the whole. The main difference between the sub-divided bar
diagram and percentage bar diagram is that in the former the bars are of different heights since their total
may be different whereas in the latter the bars are of equal height since each bar represents 100 percent.
In the case of data having sub-division, percentage bar diagram will be more appealing than sub-divided
bar diagram.
Example 4: Represent the following data by a percentage bar diagram

Particular Factory A Factory B
Selling Price 400 650
Quantity Sold 240 365
Wages 3500 5000
Materials 2100 3500
Miscellaneous 1400 2100
Solution: Convert the given values into percentages as following:
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Factory A Factory B
Particulars Rs % Rs %
Selling Price 400 5 650 6
Quantity Sold 240 3 365 3
Wages 3500 46 5000 43
Materials 2100 28 3500 30
Miscellaneous 1400 18 2100 18
Total 7640 100 11615 100
Significance of Bar Diagram
1) Visual Representation: Like all graphs, bar graphs give a visual representation of numerical data.
This representation is designed to make it easier to understand the data it presents. It may also highlight
the specific relevant features of the data.
2) Facilitates Easy Comparison: Bar graphs make it easy to compare the relative size of quantities,
particular if the reader is more adept at judging the relative heights of bars than he is at mental arithmetic.
3) Show Trends in Data: They clearly show trends in data, meaning that they show how one variable is
affected as the other rises or falls.
4) Determining Value of Other Variable: Given one variable, the value of the other can be easily
determined.
5) Recording Information: A bar chart is very useful for recording certain information whether it is
continuous or not continuous data. Bar charts also look a lot like a histogram; however bar charts have
spaces between columns (unlike histograms) as values are independent of each other.
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6) Facilitates Complex Comparison: Bar graphs can also be used for more complex comparisons of
data with grouped bar charts and stacked bar charts.
Pie Diagram or Circular Diagram

Pie Diagram is a graphic representation of quantitative information by means of a circle divided into
sectors, in which the relative sizes of the areas (or central angles) of the sectors correspond to the relative
sizes or proportions of the quantities. It is also called circle graph, pie graph. A pie chart is a circular
graph, cut into wedges or slices. Pie charts are used primarily for data that adds to 100%. The size of each
pie slice is proportional to the percentage of the category it represents. Another way of preparing a two-
dimensional diagram is in the form of circles. In such diagrams, both the total and the component parts or
sectors can be shown. The area of a circle is proportional to the square of its radius.
Construction of Pie Diagram

While making comparisons, pie diagrams should be used on a percentage basis and not on an absolute
basis. In constructing a pie diagram the first step is to prepare the data so that various components values
can be transposed into corresponding degrees on the circle.
The second step is to draw a circle of appropriate size with a compass. The size of the radius depends
upon the available space and other factors of presentation. The third step is to measure points on the
circle and representing the size of each sector with the help of a protractor.
Example 7: Draw a Pie diagram for the following data of production of sugar in quintals of various
countries.
Country Production of Sugar (in quintals)
Cuba 62
Australia 47
India 35
Japan 16
Egypt 6
Solution: The values are expressed in terms of degree as follows:
Production of Sugar
Country In Quintals In Degrees
Cuba 62 134
Australia 47 102
India 35 76
Japan 16 35
Egypt 6 13
Total 166 360
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Significance of Pie Diagram
1) Facilitates Difficult Comparisons: One reason is that it is more difficult for comparisons to be made
between the size of items in a chart when area is used instead of length and when different items are
shown as different shapes.
2) Visual Aid: Pie charts provide the advantage of functioning as a visual aid to help your audience
examine and interpret the data you present. Pie charts use percentages to illustrate quantities. This is a
clear advantage when presenting statistics such as those for profits and expenses.
3) Effective Communication: The effectiveness of pie charts for examining percentages lies in audience
members immediately understanding what you intend to communicate.
4) Other Significance:
i) They are often used to present financial information.
ii) It is simple to read a pie chart.
iii) A pie chart is used to compare the different parts that make up a whole amount.
Advantages of Charts and Diagrams

The use of diagrams is becoming more and more popular in the present time. Diagrams occupy an
important place, because:
1) They are Attractive and Impressive: Diagrams are attractive and create interest in the mind of the
readers. They are more appealing to the eye. Even a layman can understand them very easily. Diagrams
have greater attraction than mere figures.
2) They save Time and Labour: Diagram saves much time and labour to understand it and enables one
to draw meaningful inferences from it. Human beings may not like to go through numerical data, but may
go through a diagram or graph, because without strain one can understand it.
3) They have Universal Applicability: Diagrammatic presentation of statistical data is followed
universally. It is greatly used in almost all walks of life as a good guide in economics, business, social
institutions, administration and other fields.
4) They Make Data Simple: Diagrams can be remembered easily, as they render comparison in an easy
and possible way. They render the whole data readily intelligible. For example, the study of profit pattern
of two firms with the help of figures may not be clear, but when the figures are put in the media of
diagram, the trend becomes very clear at once.
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5) They Make Comparison Easy: Diagrams render comparison between two or more sets of data. In
absolute figures comparison may not be clear, but diagrammatic presentation makes it easier and simpler.
6) They Provide More Information: A diagram reveals more information than the data in a table. Cold
figures can speak in clear tones, if translated into diagrammatic language.
Disadvantages of Charts and Diagrams

1) Diagrammatic presentation of statistical data is useful to a common man. Its utility to an expert is
limited.
2) Diagram can show only a limited amount of information. Statistical tables can be divided into a
number of columns and rows so as to depict many sets of facts.
3) Diagram can show only approximate values.
4) It is not possible to present a precise difference between two sets of data in a diagram. Really, a
diagram can depict only a relative difference. If two measurements, say 8000 and 8050 are to be shown in
a diagram, the difference cannot be very apparent.
5) If there is wide gap between different measurements, this also cannot be shown meaningfully in a
diagram. For example, two measurements, 50 and 50,000 cannot be shown in a diagram, whatever scale
is adopted.
6) A diagram is limited to the portrayal of two or three aspects of a set of data; otherwise it becomes too
complex to be understood.
7) Diagrams cannot be analysed further.
8) Diagrams drawn on false-base are illusory.
9) Diagram is only a means of drawing conclusions. It will be better, if a practice of double presentation
is adopted tables for detailed reference and diagrams for rapid understanding.
STATISTICAL PACKAGE FOR THE SOCIAL- SCIENCES (SPSS)
Introduction
SPSS stands for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. It was developed in 1968, by three young
men from disparate professional backgrounds. Norman H. Nie, C. Hadlai (Tex) Hull and Dale H. Bent
developed SPSS out of the need to quickly analyse volumes of social science data gathered through
various methods of research.
SPSS or the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences is basically a computer programme which enables
us in survey authoring and deployment, data mining, text analytics, statistical analysis, and collaboration
and deployment. Since its' inception in 1968 it has been helping users do various kinds of analysis and
research in the social scenario. In SPSS research, an integrated set of programs are used to analyse a set
of management and statistical data from questionnaire surveys and other soirees.
SPSS is a multipurpose data storage, graphical, and statistical system.

The primary use of SPSS in educational settings is for data analysis about people, their attitudes and
behaviours. SPSS is mainly used by Political Science, Communication, Sociology, Social Work and
Psychology departments. Overall, SPSS is a good first statistical package for people wanting to perform
quantitative research in social science because it is easy to use and because it can be a good starting point
to learn more advanced statistical packages.
Proficiency with statistical software packages is indispensable today for serious research in the sciences.
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) is one of the most widely available and powerful
statistical software packages. It covers a broad range of statistical procedures that allow you to summarise
data (e.g., compute means and standard deviations), determine whether there are significant differences
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between groups (e.g., t-tests, analysis of variance), examine relationships among variables (e.g.,
correlation, multiple regression), and graph results (e.g., bar charts, line graphs).
Significance of SPSS
SPSS is the statistical package most widely used by political scientists. There seem to be several reasons
why:
1) Of the major packages, it seems to be the easiest to use for the most widely used statistical techniques;
2) One can use it with either a Windows point-and-click approach or through syntax (i.e., writing out of
SPSS commands). Each has its own advantages, and the user can switch between the approaches;
3) Many of the widely used social science data sets come with an easy method to translate them into
SPSS; this significantly reduces the preliminary work needed to explore new data.
Limitations of SPSS
There are also two important limitations that deserve mention at the outset:
1) SPSS users have less control over statistical output than, for example, Stata or Gauss users. For novice
users, this hardly causes a problem, But, once a researcher wants greater control over the equations or the
output, she or he will need to either choose another package or learn techniques for working around SPSS
limitations;
2) SPSS has problems with certain types of data manipulations, and it has some built in quirks that seem
to reflect its early creation. The best known limitation is its weak lag functions, that is, how it transforms
data across cases. For new users working off of standard data sets, this is rarely a problem, but once a
researcher begins wanting to significantly alter data sets, he or she will have to either learn a new
package or develop greater skills at manipulating SPSS.
Use of SPSS in Data Analysis

SPSS is a widely-used package for parametric and nonparametric statistical analysis of marketing data
often used in the field of sociology, psychology, social science and frequently utilized in marketing
research. SPSS provides the user friendly graphic interface to the researcher so it can be very useful for
easing research techniques. One can explore a number of SPSS applications in MKT 550, including
analysis of data distribution and descriptive statistics, tests of association, as well as both dependent and
interdependent multivariate tests. The various other applications of SPSS in research are enlisted below
as:
1) Data Collection and Organisation: SPSS Package is often used as a data collection tool by
researchers. The data entry screen in SPSS looks much like any other spreadsheet software. You can
enter variables and quantitative data and save the file as a data file. Furthermore, you can organize your
data in SPSS by assigning properties to different variables. For example, you can designate a variable as
a nominal variable, and that information is stored in SPSS. The next time you access the data file, which
could be weeks, months or even years, you'll be able to see exactly how your data is organized.
2) Data Output: Once data is collected and entered into the data sheet in SPSS, you can create an output
file from the data. For example, you can create frequency distributions of your data to determine whether
your data set is normally distributed. The frequency distribution is displayed in an output file. You can
export items from the output file and place them into a research article you're writing. Therefore, instead
of recreating a table or graph, you can take the table or graph directly from the data output file from
SPSS.
3) Statistical Tests: The most obvious use for SPSS Package is to use the software to run statistical tests.
SPSS Package has all of the most widely used statistical tests built-in to the software. Therefore, you
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won't have to do any mathematical equations by hand. Once you run a statistical test, all associated
outputs are displayed in the data output file. You can also transform your data by performing advanced
statistical transformations. This is especially useful for data that is not normally distributed.
4) Simplifying Research Programming: SPSS places constraints on internal file structure, data types,
data processing and matching files, which together considerably simplify programming. SPSS datasets
have a 2- dimensional table structure where the rows typically represent cases (such as individuals or
households) and the columns represent measurements (such as age, sex or household income). Only 2
data types are defined: numeric and text (or "string"). All data processing occurs sequentially case-by-
case through the file. Files can be matched one-to-one and one-to-many, but not many-to-many.
5) Research Data Management: SPSS is a comprehensive and flexible statistical analysis and data
management solution. SPSS can take data from almost any type of file and use them to generate tabulated
reports, charts, and plots of distributions and trends, descriptive statistics, and conduct complex statistical
analyses. SPSS is available from several platforms; Windows, Macintosh, and the UNIX systems.
6) Extracting Data Input and Output: SPSS can read and write data from ASCII text files (including
hierarchical files), other statistics packages, spreadsheets and databases. SPSS can read and write to
external relational database tables via ODBC and SQL. Statistical output is to a proprietary file format
(*.spv file, supporting pivot tables). The proprietary output can be exported to text or Microsoft Word.
Alternatively, output can be captured as data (using the OMS command), as text, tab-delimited text, PDF,
XLS, HTML, XML, SPSS dataset or a variety of graphic image formats (JPEG, PNG, BMP and EMF).
7) Handling the Complexity of Research: The information available for decisions making exploded in
the recent years, and will continue to do so in the future, probably even faster. Today this information is
being collected and stored in data warehouses, and is available to be mined for improved decision
making. Some of this information can be analyzed and understood with simple statistics, but much of it
requires more complex, multivariate statistical techniques to convert this data in to knowledge such as
SPSS. For example, Microsoft is interested in predicting internet usage, by households and it has
conducted a survey. The data has the following variables as usage, PC speed, children, education, and
activeness. It need just to run a multiple regression analysis to see if the dependent variable "Usage rate"
is predicted by the independent variables. .
8) Computing and Recording Data: SPSS is the acronym of Statistical Package for Social Science. It is
a very popular program for doing data analysis and manipulation. SPSS is also a very versatile program
which can be run in interactive and batch mode formats. Furthermore, in the interactive format, SPSS can
be used as syntax based program or as a window based menu driven program. It is necessary to
emphasize that the batch mode format is predicated on a base knowledge of SPSS programming syntax.
SPSS is a software package used for conducting statistical analysis, manipulating data, and generating
table and graphs that summarize data.
9) Research Quality Control: SPSS can provide a single, standardized quality control and improvement
solution that can be easily validated that cover the whole range of manufacturing statistics, including
simple descriptive statistics and graphics, QC charting, capability analyses for normal and Non-normal
distributions, design of experiment (DOE) much more.
10) Compliance and Validation: SPSS offers a pre-validation core platform with fully secure user
administration and configuration control, audit trails on system configuration changes, data manipulation,
analysis results and integrated data modules. Together these features can radically change the way of
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your organization works and remove the need for extensive manual documentation of analytical
processes.
11) Research Empowerment: Even small improvement in research and development process directly
affects an organization's bottom line and many pharmaceuticals research organizations have experienced
the positive impact of deploying SPSS. Offering a choice of desktop (stand-alone), networks, and server
based analytical platforms. Statistician has provided analytical tools that are easy to use, relevant and
integrated with their data sources.
12) Miscellaneous Applications: SPSS performs statistical analysis range from basic descriptive
statistics, such as average and prevalence, to advanced inferential statistical, such as regression model,
analysis of variance (ANOVA), factor analysis etc. SPSS also contains several tools for manipulating
data, including functions for recording data, macros programming on visual basic editor, merging data,
and aggregating complex data sets. SPSS given the technique of specialize in design, development, and
implementation of corporate analytical and data mining solution integrated with the existing data
acquisition and storage of systems.
Use of SPSS in Non-Parametric and Parametric Tests

There are two types of hypothesis test in statistics as follows:
1) Parametric Test: Parametric tests are based on models with some assumptions. If the assumptions
hold, well, these tests may offer a more powerful tool for analysis. It usually assumes certain properties
of the parent population from which we draw samples. Parametric tests are base on following
assumption:
i) The observations must be independent (For example participants need to have completed the dependent
variable separately, not in groups).
ii) The observations must be drawn from normally distributed populations.
iii) These populations must have the same variances.
2) Non-Parametric Test: Nonparametric statistics or distribution-free tests are those that do not rely on
parameter estimates or precise assumptions about the distributions of variables. Here we will learn how
to use SPSS Nonparametric statistics to compare 2 independent groups, 2 paired samples, k independent
groups, and k related samples.
*****
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Estimation Theory and
A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd Hypothesis Testing
CHAPTER 5 ESTIMATION THEORY AND

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
ESTIMATION THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Introduction
Estimation Theory as the name itself suggests refers to the technique and methods by which population
parameters are estimated from sample studies. Estimation of parameter is absolutely essential when-ever
a sample study has been conducted. People are interested, for a variety of reasons, in parameter values.
For example, a manufacturer would like to have some estimate about the future demand of his product, a
businessman would like to estimate his future sales and profits, a production engineer would very much
wish to know the percentage of defective articles which his machine is likely to produce over a period of
time, the manufacturer of a motor tyres would like to know the approximate life of his tyres, a bulb
manufacturer would be interested to know about the length of life of the bulbs and so on. Such estimates
can be obtained either by the Census Method or Sample Method However, as pointed out earlier;
generally sample studies are conducted to save time, money and energy.
Objectives of Theory of Estimation
1) To Estimate Population Parameter: The primary objective of theory of estimate is to estimate

population parameter on the basis of sample statistic. Sampling aims at obtaining the information about
the population on the basis of sample drawn from such population. This is done on the basis of estimation
of unknown population parameter by using a suitable statistic computed from a sample drawn from such
parent population.
2) To Set the Limits of Accuracy and Degree of Confidence: Theory of estimation strives to set the
limits of accuracy and degree of confidence of the estimates of the population parameter computed on the
basis of sample statistic. The estimates of the population parameters obtained on the basis of sample
statistics may not give true results. Thus researcher set the limits of accuracy and degree of confidence on
such estimates in order to determine how precise the estimates are. Thus, the precision of the estimate is
another main object of sampling theory.
3) To Test Significance: One of the objectives of estimation theory is to test significance about the
population characteristic on the basis of sample statistic. Statistical inferences and statistical conclusions
about population characteristic may be conveniently drawn on the basis of sample statistic. Thus, the
testing of statistical hypothesis and drawing of statistical conclusions are also the objective of the
sampling theory.
4) To Estimate Unknown Population: Its major aim is to help in estimating unknown population
parameter from knowledge of statistical measure based on sample studies.
5) To Compare the Observed and Expected Value: Theory of estimation aims to help compare the
observed and expected value and to find if the difference can be ascribed to the fluctuations of sampling.
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6) To Estimate the Properties of the Population: The theory of estimation is concerned with estimating
the properties of the population from those of the sample and also with gauging the precision of the
estimate.
7) To Determine the Approximate Value: To determine the approximate value of a population

parameter on the basis of a sample statistic. Or in other words we can say that to obtain an estimate of
parameter from statistic is the main objective of the theory of estimation.
Criteria of Good Estimator

A good estimator must possess the following properties:
1) Unbiasedness: An estimator is unbiased if its value is identical with the real value of the parameter.
An estimator θ of a population parameter is said to be unbiased if the expected value of the estimator is
equal to the population parameter. That is, θ is unbiased if E(θ) - θ
For example, the mean of a sampling distribution is supposed to be equal to the parameter value of the
mean. If this is so we would say that the estimator (the mean of the sampling distribution) is unbiased.
However there are some estimators which are not totally unbiased but are asymptotically unbiased, which
means that as the sample size goes on increasing the bias goes on declining till such time that the sample
size is so large that the bias is reduced to almost zero.
Bias in an estimate is not always bad or undesirable. An estimator with large bias but with low variability
is better than an estimator with low bias but high variability. When the variability in an estimator is large
the parameter value given by it would not be dependable.
For example, the samples mean X is an unbiased estimator. Given a random sample, the expected value
of X is µ, the same value one is trying to estimate.
2) Consistency: An estimator is said to be consistent, if with an increase in its size, its value (statistic)
comes closer and closer to the parameter value.
For example, if a sample means...X comes closer to the parameter value of the mean µ, it would be said
that the estimator is consistent. Obviously it means that consistency is a property concerning the behavior
of the estimator for very large values of N. If the value of N is very large - moving towards infinity, then
a value given by the estimator would not differ from the real value of the parameter or the probability of
its being very close to the real parameter value would be unity and the difference between the two values
would be a negligible constant figure.
3) Efficiency: In many cases there can be more than one unbiased and constant estimator of the
parameter value. For example, in a normal distribution both the mean and median are unbiased and
consistent estimators of the parameter mean. However the variance of the sampling distribution of mean
would be less than the variance of the sampling distribution of Median and for this reason Mean would
be considered to be a more efficient estimate than median.
Therefore an estimator which has lesser variability is said to be more efficient and as such more
dependable as others.
4) Sufficiency: A statistic is said to be a sufficient estimator of the parameter if it contains all the
information in the sample about the parameter. If all the information that a sample can provide about the
parameter has been utilized by an estimator it would be termed as a sufficient estimator.
If there is a sufficient estimator for the parameter, it would also be the most efficient and the most
consistent estimator. It however need not be the most unbiased estimator.
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MEANING
Hypothesis Testing / Significance Testing is a procedure that helps us to decide whether the
hypothesized population parameter value is to be accepted or rejected by making use of the information
obtained from the sample
BASIC STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
(i) Formulate the null and alternate hypothesis

The null hypothesis (Ho) is the hypothesized parameter value, which is compared with the sample result.
Ho :  = Ho
Suppose we want to test the assumption that the mean mileage per gallon for all the cars of the new
model is 36, based on sample evidence of test runs.
The null hypothesis is:

Ho: = 36
The alternative hypothesis (H1) is accepted only if null hypothesis is not supported by the sample results.
There can be three possible alternative hypotheses:

 Population mean is not equal to the hypothesized mean.
In the example, it means that the mean mileage of all cars is not equal to 36. it can be greater than 36, or
less than 36.
H1:   36
 Population mean is greater than the hypothesized mean or H1:  > Ho
In the example, it means that the mean mileage of all cars is greater than 36 or H1:  > 36.
 Population mean is less than the hypothesized mean or H1:  < Ho
In the example, it means that the mean mileage of all cars is less than 36 or H1:  < 36.
(ii) Set up a suitable significance level ():

This is very important concept in the context of hypothesis testing. It is always some percentage (usually
5 %,  = 0.05), which should be chosen with great care, thought and reason. If we take the significance
level () at 5 percent, then this implies that the researcher is willing to take 5% risk of rejecting the null
hypothesis (Ho) when it happens to be true. It is usually determined in advance before testing the
hypothesis.
(iii) Two tailed and one tailed tests

Two tailed test – the null and alternative hypothesis are:
Ho :  = Ho
H1:   Ho which may mean  > Ho or  < Ho

Thus there are two rejection regions, as illustrated below:
Level of significance = 5%
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5% / 2 = 2.5% (rejection regions from both side)
Two tailed test

Normal probability distribution
47.5% 47.5%
Area Area
Z = -1.96 Z=0 Z = 1.96

Reject ACCEPT Ho Reject Ho
ONE TAILED TEST:

A one tail test would be used to test whether the population mean is either lower (left – tailed test), or
higher (right - tailed test ) than some hypothesized value
Left – tailed test – The null and the alternative hypothesis for left- tailed test
Ho :  = Ho
H1:  < Ho ; there is one rejection region only on the left tail as illustrated below:
Level of significance = 5%
(5% rejection regions from both side)
Left tailed test

Normal probability distribution
45% 50%
Area Area
Z = -1.645 Z=0
Reject ACCEPT Ho
Right – tailed test – The null and the alternative hypothesis for right- tailed test
Ho :  = Ho
H1:  > Ho ; there is one rejection region only on the right tail.
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(I) TWO TAIL

( = 0.05) means that area on both the tails is 5% of the total area, i.e. 2.5% on both sides of the normal
curve. The critical values of z most commonly used in business research, for different proportion of areas
 are shown below:
TWO TAIL
LEVEL 10% ( = 0.10) 5% ( = 0.05) 1% ( = 0.01) 0.1% ( = 0.001)
|Z| 1.645 1.96 2.58 3.289
(II) ONE TAIL (left tail or right tail)

In one tail, ( = 0.05) means that area on both the tails is 5% of the total area. The critical values of z
most frequently used in business research, for different proportion of areas  are shown below:
ONE TAIL
LEVEL 10% ( = 0.10) 5% ( = 0.05) 1% ( = 0.01) 0.1% ( = 0.001)
|Z| 1.28 1.645 2.33 3.09
Types of Hypothesis
1) Research Hypotheses: The research hypothesis is a directional hypothesis, i.e., it indicates the
expected direction of the results. The direction is implied by theory or previous research. The hypothesis
would not indicate the expected direction of the results in exploratory studies where there is no strong
rationale for an expected direction. When it is time to test whether the data support or refute the research
hypothesis, it needs to be translated into a statistical hypothesis.
2) Statistical Hypothesis: It is given in statistical terms. Technically, in the context of inferential

statistics, it is a statement about one or more parameters that are measures of the populations under study.
Statistical hypotheses often are given in quantitative terms, e.g., "The mean reading achievement of the
population of third grade students taught by Method A equals the mean reading achievement of the
population taught by Method B".
The two hypotheses in a statistical test are normally referred to as:
1) Null Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis which is stated for the purpose of possible acceptance is
called null hypothesis. It is usually denoted by the symbol H0. For example, the null hypothesis may be
expressed symbolically as:
H0: µ = 162 cms.
According to Prof R.A. Fisher: "Null hypothesis is the hypothesis-which is tested for possible rejection
under the assumption that it is true."
The following may be borne in mind in setting the null hypothesis:
i) If we want to test the significance of the difference between a statistic and the parameter or between
two sample statistics then we set up a null hypothesis that's difference is not significant. This means that
the difference is just due to fluctuations of sampling:
H0: µ = X
ii) If we want to test any statement about the population we set up the null hypothesis that it is true.
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For example, it we want to find it the population mean has specified value µ0, then we setup the null
hypothesis
H0: µ= µ0
2) Alternative Hypothesis: Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null hypothesis is called an
alternative hypothesis and is usually denoted by H1 or Ha. For example, if we want to test the null
hypothesis that the average height of the soldiers is 162 cms., i.e.,
H1: µ= 162 cms. = µ0 (say)
Then the alternative hypothesis could be:
a) H1: µ ≠ µ0 (i.e., µ > µ0 or µ < µ0)
b) H1: µ > µ0
c) H1: µ < µ0
Formulation of Hypothesis
Step 1) Set up a Hypothesis: The null hypothesis, generally referred to as H0, is the hypothesis which is
tested for possible rejection under the assumption that it is true. Theoretically, a null hypothesis is set as
no difference of status quo and considered true, until and unless it is proved wrong by the collected
sample data. The null hypothesis is always expressed in the form of an equation, which makes a claim
regarding the specific value of the population. Symbolically, a null hypothesis is represented as:
H0: µ = µ0
Where µ is the population means and Ho is the hypothesized value of the population mean. For example,
to test whether a population mean is equal to 150, null hypothesis can be set as "population mean is equal
to 150".
Symbolically,
H0: µ = 150
The alternative hypothesis, generally referred by H, (H sub-one), is the logical opposite of the null
hypothesis. In other words, when null hypothesis is found to be true, the alternative hypothesis must be
false or when null hypothesis is found to be false, the alternative hypothesis" must be true. Symbolically,
alternative hypothesis is represented as:
H1: µ ≠ µ0
Consequently, H1: µ< µ0
Ho: µ > µ0
For the above example, the alternative hypothesis can be set as "population mean is not equal to 150".
Symbolically,
H1: µ ≠ 150
This result in two more alternative hypotheses, H1: µ < 150, which indicates that the population mean is
less than 150 and H1: µ < 150, which indicates that the population mean is less than 150 and H1: µ >
150; which indicates that the population mean is greater than 150.
Step 2) Set up a Suitable Significance Level: The level of significance generally denoted by α is the
probability, which is attached to a null hypothesis, which may be rejected even when it is true. The level
of significance is also known as the size of the rejection region or the size of the critical region. It is very
important to note that the level of significance must be determined before we draw samples, so that the
obtained result is free form the choice bias of a decision maker. The levels of significance which are
generally applied by researchers are: 0.01; 0.05; 0.10. The concept of "level of significance" is discussed
in detail later in this chapter.
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Step 3) Test Statistic: The next step is to decide an appropriate statistical test that will be used for
statistical analysis. Type, number, and the level of data may provide a platform for deciding the statistical
test. Apart from these, the statistics used in the study (mean, proportion, variance, etc.,) must also be
considered when a researcher decides on appropriate statistical test, which can be applied for hypothesis
testing in order to obtain the best results.
Step 4) Doing Computations: Having taken the first three steps, one has completely designed a statistical
test. One now proceed to the fourth step - performance of various computations from a random sample of
size n, necessary for the test. These calculations include the testing statistic and the standard error of the
testing statistic.
Step 5) Making Decision: Lastly, a decision should be arrived as to whether the null hypothesis is to be
accepted or rejected. In this regard the value of the test statistic computed to test the hypothesis plays a
very important role.
i) If the computed value of the test statistic is less than the critical value, then the computed value of the
test statistic falls in the acceptance region and the null hypothesis is accepted.
ii) If the computed value of the test statistic is greater than the critical value, then the computed value of
the test statistic falls in the rejection region and null hypothesis is rejected.
Usually 5% level of significance a = 0.05 is used in testing a hypothesis and taking a decision otherwise
any other level of significance is specially stated.
Importance of Hypothesis
1) Finding Answers: Hypothesis supports the researcher to find an answer to a problem. It is expressed
in declarative form. The most important thing is that it provides a guideline to the problem.
2) States Purpose of Researcher: A hypothesis states what researchers are looking for. When facts are
assembled, ordered, and seen in a relationship they constitute a theory. The theory is not speculation but
is built upon fact. Now the various facts in a theory may be logically analysed and relationships other
than those stated in the theory can be deduced. At this point there is no knowledge as to whether such
deductions are correct. The formulation of the deduction however constitutes a hypothesis; if verified it
becomes part of a future theoretical construction.
3) Forward Looking: A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which can be put to a test to
determine its validity. It may seem contrary to or in accord with common sense. It may prove to be
correct or incorrect. In any event however, it leads to an empirical test.
4) States Specific Relationship: Hypothesis is to state a specific relationship between phenomena in

such a way that this relationship can be empirically tested. The basic method of this demonstration is to
design the research so that logic will require the acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis on the basis of
resulting data.
5) Provides Direction: It provides a direction to the research and prevents waste of time and effort of the
researcher.
6) Helps in looking in Particular Aspect: It helps the researcher to look into a particular aspect of the
problem thereby offering certain issues and facts.
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7) Framework for Analysis: It acts as a framework for analysis and interpretation of the data to draw
conclusions.
8) Suggests Areas of Importance: It suggests the areas of importance which need more attention or
more collection of facts by the researcher.
9) Ensures Scientific Nature of Research: A hypothesis ensures the entire research process remains
scientific and reliable; and following the principles of deduction.
Limitations of Hypothesis
1) Fashion of Testing: The tests should not be used in a mechanical fashion. It should be kept in view
that testing is not decision-making itself the tests are only useful aids for decision-making. Hence "proper
interpretation of statistical evidence is important to intelligent decisions."
2) Explanation of Difference: Tests do not explain the reasons as to why does the difference-exist, say
between the means of the two samples. They simply indicate whether the difference is due to fluctuations
of sampling or because of other reasons but the tests do not tell us as to which is/are the other reason(s)
causing the difference.
3) Lack of Certainty: Results of significance tests are based on probabilities and as such cannot be
expressed with full certainty. When a test shows that a difference is statistically significant, then it simply
suggests that the difference is probably not due to chance.
4) Lack of Accuracy: Statistical inferences based on the significance tests cannot be said to be entirely
correct evidences concerning the truth of the hypotheses. This is specially so in case of small samples
where the probability of drawing erring inferences happens to be generally higher. For greater reliability,
the size of samples is sufficiently enlarged.
IMPORTANT TERMS
Errors in Hypothesis Testing

In hypothesis basically there are two kinds of errors are occurred.
1) Type I Error
2) Type II Error
When a hypothesis is tested, there are four possibilities are occurred:
1) The hypothesis is true but our test leads to its rejection.
2) The hypothesis is false but our test leads to its acceptance.
3) The hypothesis is true and our test leads to its acceptance.
4) The hypothesis is false and our test leads to its rejection.
The first two possibilities lead to errors. If we reject a hypothesis when it should be accepted (possibility
1) we say that a type I error has been made. On the other hand, if we accept a hypothesis when it should
be rejected (possibility 2), we say that a type two error has been made.
The following table gives an idea about the Type I and Type II Errors
Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 is true No Error Type I Error
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H0 is false Type II Error No Error
Type I Error
Type I Error is committed when we reject a correct or true hypothesis. Type I Error (of rejecting a null
hypothesis when it is true) is denoted by a. Thus
α = Probability of Type I Error
= Probability of rejecting H0 when H0 is true.
Type II Error
Type II Error is committed when we accept a wrong or incorrect hypothesis. Type II Error (of accepting a
null hypothesis when it is not true) is denoted by β. Thus
β = Probability of Type II Error
= Probability of accepting H0 when H0 is not true.
If the difference between two means is zero and if test indicated rejection of the null hypothesis we
commit Type I error.
If on the other hand the difference between two means is not zero but our test suggests acceptance of null
hypothesis we commit Type II error.
Level of Significance
Having set up the hypothesis, it is necessary to test the validity of H0 against that of Ha at a certain level
or significance. The hypotheses are tested on a pre-determined level of significance and as such the same
should be specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose.
The factors that affect the level of significance are:
1) The magnitude of the difference between sample means;
2) The size of the samples;
3) The variability of measurements within samples; and
4) Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional (A directional hypothesis is one which
predicts the direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be
adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.
Degree of Freedom
The degree of freedom can be defined as the number of components in the calculation of a statistics that
are free to vary.
Let us consider that one know the mean of data is 25 and that the values are 20, 10, 50, and one unknown
value.
To find the mean of a list of data, we add all of the data and divide by the total number of values. Let the
unknown value is x then using the mean formula 20 + 10 + 50 - x = 25. After solving this one find that
4
x = 20.
If there is two values are missing and they are denoted as x and y. Using the mean formula one find that x
= (70 - y). This is shows that when one chooses a value for x, the value for y is determined. This shows
that there is one degree of freedom.
If size of the given sample is n, then the degree of freedom will be (n - 1). For example, if the size of the
sample is 22 then the degrees of freedom will be 21. In the contingency table the degree of freedom is
calculated in a slightly different manner. If there is s x t size of contingency table then the degree of
freedom will be (s-1) (t-1), where s refers to number of columns and t refers to number of rows. Thus in 2
x 2 contingency table the degree of freedom = (2-1) (2-1) = 1.
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One Tailed and Two Tailed Tests

A hypothesis test in which the population parameter is known to fall to the right or the left of centre of
the sampling distribution is called one tailed test. A one-tailed test looks for an increase or decrease in the
parameter. For example, a one-tailed test would be used to test these null hypotheses:
Females will not score significantly higher than males on an IQ test, blue collar workers will not have
significantly lower education than white collar workers, superman is not significantly stronger than the
average person. In each case, the null hypothesis predicts the direction of the expected difference.
There are two types of one tailed test as follows:
1) Right-tailed Test: A one-tailed test in which the sample statistic is hypothesized to be at the right tail
of the sampling distribution is called right tailed test.
2) Left-tailed Test: A one-tailed test in which the sample statistic is hypothesized to be at the left tail of
the sampling distribution is called left tailed test.
A hypothesis test in which a parameter statistic might fall within either the right or left tail of the
sampling distribution is called two tailed test.
A two-tailed test looks for any change in the parameter (which can be any change - increase or decrease).
For example, a two-tailed test would be used to test these null hypotheses: There will be no significant
difference in IQ scores between males and females, there will be no significant difference between blue
collar and white collar workers,, there is no significant difference in strength between Superman and the
average person.
The critical region (or the region of rejection) which is generally 5 per cent is kept on both sides of the
normal distribution in a two tailed test. It means that 2.5 per cent of the critical region is on the extreme
left of the normal curve and 2.5 per cent on the extreme right. The middle 95% is the acceptance region.
In a single tail test the 5 percent area would be either on the extreme left of the normal curve or on the
extreme right. The remaining 95 percent area would be the acceptance region.
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Z TEST
Applications of Z Test
Z test is used for application in various areas like,
1) Hypothesis Testing for One Proportion (π)
2) Hypothesis Testing for Two Proportions (π1 versus π2)
3) Hypothesis Testing for One Mean (µ)
4) Hypothesis Testing for Two Means (µ1 versus µ2)
5) Hypothesis Testing for Two Standard Deviations.
FORMULAE
(i) Population  (infinite) sample size may be large or small, standard deviation of the population known,
hypothesis may be one sided or 2 sided.
Z = x -  (mue)
p
n
Where,
x is sample mean
 is population mean
p is standard deviation of population
n is number of observations in the sample.
(ii) Population finite, sample size may be large or small, standard deviation of the population known,
hypothesis may be one sided or 2 sided.
Z = x -  (mue)
p x N - n
n N-1
Where,
N is number of sample in the population, n is number of observations in the sample.
Illustration: 1
A sample of 400 male students is found to have a mean height of 67.47 inches can it be reasonably
regarded as a sample from a large population with mean height 67.39 inches and a standard deviation of
1.30 inches. Test at 5% level of significance.
Ans: Z = 1.23, table value = 1.96
Illustration: 2
Suppose we are interested in a population of 20 industrial units of the same size all of which are
experiencing excessive labour turnover problem. The past records show that the mean of the distribution
of annual turnover is 320employees with a standard deviation of 75 employees. A sample of 5 of these
industrial units is taken at random which gives a mean of annual turnover as 300 employees. Is the
sample mean consistent with the population mean? Test at 5% level of significance.
Ans: Z = -.671, table value = 1.96
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Illustration: 3
The mean of a certain population process is known to be 50 with a standard deviation of 2.5. The
production manager would like to safe guard against decreasing values of mean. He takes a sample of 12
items that gives a mean of 48.5. What inference should the manager take for the production process on
the basis of sample results? Use 5% level of significance.
Ans: Z = - 2.078, table value = 1.65
Illustration: 4 – Year 2011

A manufacturer of dry cereal is producing 20gms packages of his product. The weights of the packages
are known to be normally distributed with a variance of 0.25 gms2. A sample of 49 packages shows on
average weight of 19.8gms. Test the appropriate hypothesis at 5% level of significance and discuss the
results. (8+6)
Ans: Z = - 2.8, T.V = 1.96

Ascertain the size of the sample from the following particulars:
Standard deviation of population σp = 4
Mean of population µ = 24
Mean of sample or Xs = 22 and
Level of confidence = 99%
(Z value at 99% = 2.5758)
Ans: n = 27 (approx.)

The Kanishk Yarn Trading Company claims that its product has an average breaking strength of atleast
90 lbs. The Ahmedabad weaving mills is interested in testing the Company's claim regarding the
breaking strength of the yarn. The weaving master of Ahmedabad weaving mills considers it much more
serious to buy a batch of yarn with mean breaking strength of less than or equal to 90lbs than to reject
one with a mean breaking strength of more than 901bs from the mill's past experience with this type of
cotton yarn with various cotton yarn suppliers, it was observed that the standard deviation of breaking
strength is 12 lbs. In order to test Kanishk's claim, a sample of 16 pieces of yarn was selected from a
batch of yarn supplied, and the average breaking strength was found to be 92 lbs. Given this sample
information, should the weaving master accept the Kanishk's claim? (Z0.025 =1.96; Z0.05 =1.645)
Ans: Z = .667
(iii) Hypothesis testing of difference between means when two samples are from two different
population.
Z= x1 – x2
p21 + p22
n1 n2
(iv) Hypothesis testing of difference between means when samples are taken from the same population.
Z= x1 – x2
p2 1 + 1
n1 n2
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Illustration: 7
The mean produce of coffee of a sample of 100 fields is 200 kg. Per acre. With a standard deviation of 10
kg. Another sample of 150 fields given the mean of 220 kg with a standard deviation of 12 kgs. Can the 2
samples be considered to have been taken from the same population whose standard deviation is 11 kg.
Use 5% level of significance.
Ans: Z = - 14.08, table value = 1.96
(v) Hypothesis testing of proportion.


Z=p–p
pq
n
where,
^p (p cap) is sample proportion
p is probability of happening of an event
q is probability of non happening, q = 1-p
n is number of observations in the sample.
Illustration: 8
The null hypothesis is that 20% passengers going first class. But management recognizes the possibilities
that this percentage could be more or less. A random sample of 400 passengers includes 70 passengers
holding 1st class ticket. Can the null hypothesis be rejected at 10 % level of significance.
Ans: Z = - 1.25, table value = 1.65
Illustration: 9
A certain process produces 10% defective articles. A supplier of new material claims that the use of his
material would reduce the proportion of defective. A random sample of 400 units using this new material
was taken out of which 34 were defective. Can the supplier’s claim be accepted?
Ans: Z = - 1, table value = 1.65
Illustration: 10
A sample survey indicates that out of 3232 births, 1705 were boys and the rest were girls. Do this figures
confirms the hypothesis that the sex ratio is 50:50. Test at 5% level of significance.

A committee of Ministry of Human Resource Development know that last year 30 per cent graduates
were unemployed. This year the committee discovers that 5,000 are unemployed in a random sample of
20,000 graduates. At 5% level of significance, has unemployment decreased this year? (Table value at
590 level = 1.64) (7+7)
Ans: Z = -15.43
(vi) Hypothesis testing for difference between proportions.

 
Z = p1 – p2
   
p1 q1 + p2 q2
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n1 n2
Illustration: 12
An advertising agency wants to find out if there is a significant difference in the degree of loyalty for a
given brand of cereal between men & women. A random sample of 200 men & 200 women was taken
and it was determined that 58% of women and 65 % of men showed brand loyalty. At  = 0.05, test the
null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the population proportion of men & women
who are brand loyal.
Ans: Z = 1.44
Illustration: 13
Among 60 literates 35 are employed and out of 50 illiterates, 26 are employed. Comment whether in your
opinion would further samples also show same difference in the proportion of employed persons among
literates and illiterates. Test the significance at 5% level.
Z Test (determination of sample size)
Infinite population Finite population
(1) σ known n = Z2σ2 n = NZ2σ2

E2 E2 (N- 1) + Z2 σ2
Always 2 tail
p known n = Z2pq n = NZ2pq

E2 E2 (N- 1) + Z2 pq
Illustration: 14
A research worker wants to determine the average time it takes a worker to manufacture a unit at 95%
confidence level. And the error is .50. The researcher knows from the past experience that σ is 1.6. How
many observations in a sample a researchers do take carry out the research process effectively.
Solution:
95% confidence level, .5% level of significance.
Error .50, σ = 1.6
n = Z2σ2 = (1.96)2 (1.6)2
E2 (.50)2
= 39.33 = 39 observations.
Illustration: 15 - Year 2011

A simple random sample is to be taken from a population of 50,090 sales invoices to estimate the mean
amount per invoice. The standard deviation of the population is 4,000. The allowable error is 200 and the
confidence coefficient is 90% (z = 1.64). What size of sample is appropriate?
Ans:
Branches:
Illustration: 16
The finance manager of a company feels that 55% of the branches will have good yearly collection of
deposit after introducing new interest rates. Determine the sample size such that the proportion is within
5% error at 90% confidence level.
Solution:
n = Z2pq
E2
p = .55
q = 1 - .55 = .45
E = .05
Confidence level = 90 – 100 = 10 = 1.65
(1.65) 2 x (.55) x (.45) = 269.525 = 270
(.05) 2
Illustration: 17
A simple random sample is to be taken from a population of 50,000 sales invoices to estimate the
mean amount per invoice. The standard deviation of the population is 4,000. The allowable error is 200
and the confidence coefficient is 90% (z = 1.65). What size of sample is appropriate?
Ans:
n = NZ2σ2
E2 (N- 1) + Z2 σ2
= 50000 x (1.64) 2 x (4000) 2

(200) 2 (50000 – 1) + (1.64) 2 x (4000) 2
= 50000 x (1.64) 2 x 16000000

40000 (49999) + (1.64) 2 x 16000000
= 50000 x 2.689 x 16000000

40000 (49999) + 2.689 x 1600000
= 2144000000
1999960000 + 42880000
Branches:
= 2144000000
2042840000
N = 50000 x 2.689 x 16000000

10000 (4 x 49999 + 2.689 x 1600)
215120000
199996 + 430.24
N = 1053

ABC hotel management is interested in determining the percentage of the guests of the hotel who stay for
more than 2 days.
The reservation manager wants to be 95% confident that the percentage has been estimated to be within
±3% of the true value, what is the most conservative sample size needed for this problem? (z = 1.96 for
the given confidence level of 95%)
Ans: We have been given the following:
Population is infinite
e = 0.03 (since the estimate should be within 3% of the true value)
z = 1.96 (as per table of area under normal curve for the given confidence level of 95%).
As we want the most conservative sample size we shall take the value of p = 0.5 and q = 0.5. Using all
this information, we can determine the sample size for the given problem as under:
n = Z2pq
E2
= (1.96) 2.(0.5) (l - 0.5) =106711 = 1067

(0.03) 2 0.0009
Thus, the most conservative sample size needed for the problem is = 1067.
T TEST
(i) Population , sample size small, standard deviation of population unknown.
t = x -  (mue)
s
n
s =  ( xi –x )2
n-1
* Whenever sample size is less than 30 than that will be the sample size of sample otherwise large size of
sample if greater than 30.
(ii) Population finite, sample size small, standard deviation of population unknown, hypothesis may be
one sided or 2 sided.
Branches:
t= x -  (mue)
s x N -n
n N -1
Illustration: 19
The specimen of the copper wire have the following breaking strength.
In kg. Weight 578, 572, 570, 568, 572, 578, 570, 572, 596, 544.
Test whether the mean breaking strength of the population may be taken to be 578 kg. Test at 5% level of
significance.(two sided)
Ans: T = -1.49
Illustration: 20
Palms restaurant new the railway station has been having average sales of 500 tea cups per day. Because
of the development of bus stand near by it expects to increase it sales. During the first 12 days after the
start of the bus stand the daily sales were as under: 550, 570, 490, 615, 505, 580, 570, 460, 600, 580, 530,
526. Test at 5% level of significance.
Ans: T = 3.558, table value = 1.796
Illustration: 21
The lifetime of electrical bulbs for a random sample of 10 from a large consignment gave the following
data:
Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Life in hrs. 4.2 4.6 3.9 4.1 5.2 3.8 3.9 4.3 4.4 5.6
Can we accept the hypothesis, that the average life time of bulbs in 4 hours.
Ans: T = 2.15, table value = 2.262

The increase in the price of a share on certain, days during Jan 2010 was 12, 15,11,16,14,14,and 16,
respectively. The increase is the price of another share on the same days was 8, 10, 14, 10. 13, 11 and 11
respectively. Calculate the value of 't' and comment whether the trend in the prices of two shares is
significantly different. Test at 5% level of significance.
Ans: Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference between prices of two shares.
Price of Share
Share A Share B
X1 (X1)2 X2 (X2 )2
12 144 8 64
15 225 10 100
11 121 14 196
16 256 10 100
14 196 13 169
14 196 11 121
16 256 11 121
98 1394 77 871
Branches:

Two types of drugs were used on 5 and 7 patients for reducing their weight. The decrease in the weight
after using the drugs for six months was as follows:
Drug A 10 12 13 11 14
Drug B 8 9 12 14 15 10 9
Is there a significant difference in the efficacy of the two drugs at 5% level of significance? (t.05 =2.223
at d.f. 10)
Branches:
(iii) Hypothesis testing for comparing two related samples. (Paired T Test)
Values from the two matched samples are denoted as Xi and Yi and the differences by Di (Di = Xi – Yi),
then the mean of the difference i.e.
D =  Di
n
( diff.) = D2i – (D)2.n

n-1
Branches:
Assuming the said differences to be normally distributed and independent, we can apply the paired T –
test for judging the significance of mean of differences and work out the test statistic t as under:
T=D-O
 diff./n with (n-1) degrees of freedom.
Where,
D = mean of differences.
 diff = standard deviation of differences.
N = number of matched pairs.
Illustration: 24
Memory capacity of 9 students was tested before and after training. State at 5% level of significance.
Whether the training was effective from the following scores:
Students 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Before 10 15 9 3 7 12 16 17 4
After 12 17 8 5 6 11 18 20 3
Use paired t-test
Ans: T = -1.368
Illustration: 25
The sales data of an item in six shops before and after a special promotional campaign are:
Shops A B C D E F
Before 53 28 31 48 50 42
After 58 29 30 55 56 45
Can the campaign be judged to be a success?
Test at 5% level of significance. Use paired t – test.
Ans: T = -2.784
F TEST (VARIANCE RATIO TEST)
The F test is used to test the significance of difference between two variances. The technique of F test
was originated by Prof. R. A. Fisher and Prof. George. W. Snedecor. By using the F test it is ascertained
whether the two samples can be regarded as drawn from the normal population having the same variance.
Procedure to calculate variance ratio (F)
(i) Calculation of variance of both the samples
Large size: S21 =  ( x – x1 )2

n1 - 1
Here, calculated value of variance is more.
Small size: S22 =  ( x – x2 )2

n2 - 1
Here, calculated value of variance is less.
(ii) Calculation of variance ratio (F)

Branches:
F = Large estimate of the population variance

Smaller estimate of the population variance
(iii) The degrees of freedom for the sample having larger variance is known as V1 and that of the sample
having smaller variance is known as V2
v1 = n1 – 1, v2 = n2 – 1
V1
V2
(iv) The table value from F table is obtained at 5% level. In F table the v1 is located horizontally from left
to right and v2 in the first column from up to down. The value coinciding for v1 and v2 is regarded as
table value.
(v) Decision: if the computed value is more than the table value the difference is said to be significant
otherwise insignificant.
Illustration: 26
Given is the following data regarding 2 samples:
Sample 1 20 16 26 27 23 22 18 24 25 19
Sample 2 27 33 42 35 32 34 38 28 41 43 30 37
Test using F test at 5% level of significance whether the 2 samples have been from the same population.
Ans: F = 2.14, table value = 3.07
Illustration: 27
Answer using F test whether the 2 samples have been from the same population. Test at 5% level of
significance.
Sample 1 17 27 18 25 27 29 27 23 17
Sample 2 16 16 20 16 20 17 15 21
Illustration: 28
In the following table the production of two workers A and B is shown:
Worker A 10 6 16 17 13 12 8 14 15 9
Worker B 7 13 22 15 12 14 18 8 21 23 10 17
Can these results be taken as a proof that B is more competent worker? Use F test.
Illustration: 29
Two independent samples of 6 and 8 items respectively had the following values of the variables. Do the
two estimates of population variance differ significantly?
Sample 1 40 30 38 41 38 35
Sample 2 39 38 41 33 32 39 40 34
Branches:
Chi square test
MEANING
The Chi square test is a non-parametric test where no assumption is made about the parameters of
population.
Chi square is a measure to evaluate the difference between observed frequencies and expected
frequencies to examine whether the difference so obtained is due to a chance factor or due to sampling
error.
Characteristics of chi square test

 Chi square test is useful to test the hypothesis about the independence of attributes.
 The Chi square test can be used in complex contingency tables.
 The Chi square test is very widely used for research purposes in behavioral science.
Formula to calculate chi square test
x2 = (oi – Ei)2
Ei
Where, oi = observed frequency
Ei = expected frequency
Ei = P x N
Illustration: 1
The table given below show the data obtained during outbreak of small pox:
Attacked Not attacked Total

Vaccinated 31 469 500
Not vaccinated 185 1315 1500
Total 216 1784 2000
Test the effectiveness of vaccination in preventing the attack from small pox. Test your result with the
help of x2 at 5% level of significance.
Ans: x2 = 14.642
Illustration: 2
The following table shows the condition of home and the condition of child.
Condition of Condition of child
home Clean Fairly clean Dirty Total
Clean 76 38 25 139
Not clean 43 17 47 107
Total 119 55 72 246
Do these results suggest that the condition of the home affects the condition of child. (At 5% level of
significance, the value of x2 = 5.991 for 2 differences)
Ans: x2 = 20.87
Illustration: 3
The following contingency table shows the classification of 1000 workers in a factory, according to the
disciplinary action taken by the management and their promotional experience:
Disciplinary Promotional experience Total
Branches:
action Promoted Not promoted
Offenders 30 670 700
Non offenders 70 230 300
Total 100 900 1000
Use x2 test to ascertain whether the disciplinary action taken and promotional experiences are associated
(Given of v = 1, x2 0.05 = 3.84)
Ans: x2 = 84.655
Illustration: 4
The result of survey to know the educational attainment among 100 persons randomly selected in a
locality are given below:
Education
Middle High school College Total
Male 10 15 25 50
Female 25 10 15 50
Total 35 25 40 100
Can you say that education depends on sex?
(For v = 2, x2 0.05 = 5.99) (Null hypothesis should be stated clearly)
Ans: x2 = 9.928
Illustration: 5
In a certain town the proportion of smokers was 90%. A random sample of 100 persons was taken from
the town and 85% were found to be smokers among them. By using x2 test, test whether there is
significant difference between the sample proportion and the population-proportion of smokers in the
town, (for 1 d.f. X20.05 =3.841; for 2 .d.f X20.005 = 5.991) (7)
Ans: Null Hypothesis H0: There is not significant difference between the sample proportion and
population proportion.
Smokers Non smokers Total
Population O 90 10 100
E 175 x 100 = 87.5 25 x 100 = 12.5
200 200
Sample O 85 15 100
E 175 x 100 = 87.5 25 x 100 = 12.5
200 200
Total 175 25 200
X2 = (O - E)2
E
= (90 – 87.5) 2 + (10 – 12.5) 2 + (85 – 87.5) 2 + (15 – 12.5) 2

87.5 12.5 87.5 12.5
= 0.0714 + 0.5 + 0.0714 + 0.5 =1.143
Now, for y = 1 and level of significance 5%, Given x2 = 3.841

Since, the calculated value of x2 is less than given table value of x2, therefore the null hypothesis is
accepted. Hence, it can be concluded that there is no significant difference between the sample proportion
and population proportion of smokers in the town.
Branches:
Illustration: 6
A six sided dice was thrown 792 times and the following results were obtained:
No. on dice turned up 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 100 100 200 170 110 112
Test the hypothesis that the dice is unbiased.
(The table value of x2 at 5% level of significance for 5 degree of freedom is 11.07 and for 6 degree of
freedom is 12.592)
Ans: x2 = 68.19
Illustration: 7
A dice is thrown 132 times with following results:
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 16 20 25 14 29 28
Is the dice unbiased?
Ans: x2 = 9
Illustration: 8
The following table gives the number of aircraft accidents that occurred during the various days of the
week. Find whether the accidents are uniformly distributed over the week?
Days Sun Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Total
No. of
Accidents 14 16 8 12 11 9 14 84
The table value for different degree of freedom is given below:
Degree of freedom 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5% value 3.84 5.99 7.82 9.49 11.07 18.07 14.7 15.51 16.92
Ans: x2 = 4.165
Illustration: 9
200 digits are chosen at random from a set of tables. The frequencies of the digits are as follows:
Digits 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Frequency 18 19 23 21 16 25 22 20 15
Use chi square test to ascertain the correctness of the hypothesis that the digit were distributed in equal
number in the table from which they were chosen?
Ans: x2 = 4.3
Illustration: 10
The demand for a particular spare part out of 6720 spare parts in a factory was found to vary from day to
day. In a sample study the following information was obtained:
Days Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
No. of
Parts demanded 1124 1125 1110 1120 1126 1115
Test the hypothesis that the number of parts demanded does not depend on the day of the week. Use chi
square test at 5% level of significance.
Ans: x2 = .1801

Weight in kgs of 10 students are given as 45, 35, 30, 41, 32, 60, 48, 31, 42 and 36. Can we say that the
Branches:
standard deviation of weights of all students from which the above random sample has been drawn, is
equal to 5kgs.
Test on the basis of chi-square at 5% and 1% level of significance.
Given x20.05 at 8d.f = 15.5 x20.05 at 8d.f = 20.1
At 9 d.f = 16.9 at 9 d.f = 21.7
At 10 d.f = 18.3 at 10 d.f = 23.3
Ans: Let us take the null hypothesis that standard deviation of weights of all students from which the
above random sample has been drawn, is equal to 5kgs.
x2 = 1.95

The number of car accidents per month in a certain town were as follows:
12 8 20 2 14 10 15 6 9 4
Are these frequencies in agreement with the belief that accident conditions were same during the 10-
month period?
(x2 = 16.919 for 9 d.f. at 5% level of significance)
Ans: x2 = 26.6
Illustration: 13
8 coins were tossed 256 times and the following results were obtained
No. of heads 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Observed 2 6 30 52 67 56 32 10 1
Fit a binomial distribution and then calculate the expected frequencies. Test hypothesis using chi – square
that the coins are biased. Use 10%level of significance.
Ans: 3.13
*****
Branches:
A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd Techniques of association
CHAPTER 6 TECHNIQUES OFASSOCIATION

OF ATTRIBUTES AND TESTING
Introduction
> The analysis of variance was developed by R.A. Fisher, Analysis of variance (abbreviated as ANOVA)
is useful in the fields of economics, biology, education, psychology, sociology, and business/industry and
in researches of several other disciplines. This technique is used when multiple sample cases are
involved.
> For example, the significance of the difference between the means of two samples can be judged
through either z-test or the t-test, but the difficulty arises when we happen to examine the significance of
the difference amongst more than two sample means at the same time.
> The ANOVA technique enables us to perform this simultaneous test and as such is considered to be an
important tool of analysis in the hands of a researcher. Using this technique, one can draw inferences
about whether the samples have been drawn from populations have the same mean.
> The ANOVA techniques is important in the context of all those situations where one wants to compare
more than two populations such as in comparing the yield of crop from several varieties of seeds, the
gasoline distance of four automobiles, the smoking habits of five groups of university students and so on.
In such circumstances one generally does not want to consider all possible combinations of two
populations at a time for that would require a great number of tests before we would be able to arrive at a
decision. This would also consume lot of time and money, and even then certain relationships may be left
unidentified (particularly the interaction effects). Therefore, one quite often utilizes the ANOVA
technique and through it investigates the differences among the means of all the populations
simultaneously.
> ANOVA is essentially a procedure for testing the difference among different groups of data for
homogeneity. "The essence of ANOVA is that the total amount of variation in a set of data is broken
down into two types, that amount which can be attributed to chance and that amount which can be
attributed to specified causes." There may be variation between samples and also within sample items.
ANOVA consists in splitting the variance for analytical purposes. Hence, it is a method of analyzing the
variance to which a response is subject into its various components corresponding to various sources of
variation.
> Through ANOVA technique one can, in general, investigate any number of factors, which are
hypothesized or said to influence the dependent variable. One may as well investigate the differences
amongst various categories" within each of these factors, which may have a large number of possible
values. If we take only one factor and investigate the differences amongst its various categories having
numerous possible values, we are said to use one-way ANOVA and in case we investigate two factors at
the same time, then we use two-way ANOVA. In a two or more way ANOVA, the interaction (i.e., inter-
relation between two independent variables/factors), if any, between two independent variables affecting
a dependent variable can as well be studied for better decisions.
Characteristics of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The essential characteristics of the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) may be brought about as under:
1) It makes statistical analysis of variances (i.e., squares of standard deviations) of two, or more series, or
samples.
2) It determines whether the difference in the mean values of the different samples is due to chance, or
due to any significant cause, and thereby, it reveals the true characteristics of the given series.
3) It gives the desired result by finding the appropriate variance ratio through the F-test technique.
Branches:
Applications of ANOVA
> Through this technique one can explain whether various varieties of seeds of fertilizers or soils differ
significantly so that a policy decision could be taken accordingly, concerning a particular variety in the
context of agriculture researches.
> The differences in various types of feed prepared for a particular class of animal or various types of
drugs manufactured for curing a specific disease may be studied and judged to be significant or not
through the application of ANOVA technique.
> A manager of a big concern can analyze the performance of various salesmen of his concern in order to
know whether their performances differ significantly.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Analysis of variance (abbreviated as ANOVA) is an extremely useful technique concerning
researchers in the fields of economics, biology, education, psychology, sociology, and business/ industry
and in researchers of several other disciplines.
The ANOVA technique is important in the context of all those situations where we want to
compare more than two populations such as in comparing the yield of crop from several varieties of
seeds, the gasoline mileage of four automobiles, the smoking habits of five groups of university students
and so on.
Illustration: 1
Set up an analysis of variance table for the following per acre production data for three varieties of wheat,
each grown on 4 plots and state if the variety differences are significant.
Plot of land Per acre production data

Variety of wheat
A B C
1 6 5 5
2 7 5 4
3 3 3 3
4 8 7 4

The following data relate to the production of wheat in thousand tonnes of three varieties, viz., X1, X2
and X3 on 3 plots:
Varieties
Plots X1 X2 X3
Y1 10 13 4
Y2 16 19 7
Y3 19 22 13
Is there significant difference between varieties?
Ans: As the calculated F = 3.762 < 5.143
Branches:
H0 is accepted, hence there is no significant difference between marks.
Two – way ANOVA

Two – way ANOVA technique is used when the data are classified on the basis of two factors.
For eg:
(i) The agricultural output may be classified on the basis of different varieties of seeds and also on the
basis of different varieties of fertilizers used.
(ii) A business firm may have its sales data classified on the basis of different salesmen & also on the
basis of sales in different regions.
(iii) In a factory, the various units of a product produced during a certain period may be classified on the
basis of different varieties of machines used and also on the basis of different grades of labour.
Degree of freedom (d.f) can be worked as under:

d.f for total variance = (c.r-1)
d.f for variance between columns = (c-1)
d.f for variance between rows = (r – 1)
d.f for residual variance = (c-1) (r – 1)
where,
c = number of columns
r = number of rows.
Analysis of variance table for two – way ANOVA

Source of variation Sum of squares Degrees of Mean square (MS) F - Ratio
(ss) freedom (d.f)
Between columns (Tj)2 – (T)2 (c-1) SS between columns MS between columns
treatment nj n (c-1) MS residual
Between rows (Ti)2 – (T)2 (r-1) SS between rows MS between rows
treatment ni n (r-1) MS residual
Residual or error Total SS- (SS (c-1) (r-1) SS residual
between columns (c-1) (r-1)
& SS between
rows)
Total X2ij – (T)2 (c.r – 1)
n
In the table c = number of columns, r = number of rows.
SS residual = Total SS- (SS between columns & SS between rows)
Illustration: 3
Set up analysis of variance table for the following two-way design results.
Varieties of Per acre production data of wheat

fertilizers Variety of seeds
A B C
W 6 5 5
X 7 5 4
Y 3 3 3
Z 8 7 4
Branches:
Also state whether variety differences are significant at 5% level.
Ans: F: between columns = 4, between rows = 6, table value: between columns = 5.14, between rows =
4.76

Set-up ANOVA table for the following information relating to three drugs testing to jude the
effectiveness in reducing blood pressure for three different groups of people:
Drugs
X Y Z
A 14 10 11
Group of people 15 9 11
B 12 7 10
11 8 11
C 10 11 8
11 11 7
[F0.05 (2,9) = 4.26; F0.05(4,9) = 3.63]
Do the drugs act differently?
Are the different groups of people affected differently? Is the interaction term significant?
Ans:
ANOVA table
Source of Variation SS d.f. MS F-Ratio 5% F-Limit
Between columns (i.e., 28.77 (3- 1) = 2 28.77 14.385 F (2, 9) = 4.26
between drugs) 2 0.389
= 14.385 = 36.9
Between rows (i.e., 14.78 (3 -1) = 2 14.78 7.390 F (2, 9) = 4.26
between people) 2 0.389
= 7.390 = 19.0
Interaction 29.23 7.308 F (4, 9) = 3.63
29.23* 4* 4 0.389
= 7.308 = 18.8
Within samples (error) 3.50 (18- 9) = 9 3.50
9
=0.389
Total 76.28 (18-1)= 17
* These figures are left-over figures and have been obtained by subtracting from the column total the
total of all other values in the said column. Thus, interaction SS = (76.28) - (28.77+14.78+3.50) = 29.23
and interaction degrees of freedom = (17) - (2+2+9) = 4.
The above table shows that all the three F-ratios are significant at 5% level which means that the drugs
act differently, different groups of people are affected differently and the interaction term is significant.
In fact, if the interaction term happens to be significant, it is pointless to talk about the differences
between various treatments, i.e., differences between drugs or differences between groups of people in
the given case.
NON PARAMETRIC OR HYPOTHESIS TESTING II
Branches:
RUN TEST
Run test for randomness.

The null and the alternative hypothesis in this test are as follows:
Ho: The occurrence of the runs in the given stream of symbols is random.
H1: The occurrence of the runs in the given stream of symbols is not random.
In this situation, one can approximate the sampling distribution of r to normal distribution with the
following mean & variance.
Population mean, r = 2.n1 n2 + 1

n1 + n2
Standard deviation,  r = 2.n1.n2.(2.n1.n2 - n1 - n2)

(n1 + n2)2.( n1 + n2 - 1)
Where,
n1 = frequency of occurrence of a particular symbol in the whole stream of symbols.
n2 = frequency of occurrence of another symbol in the whole stream of symbols.
r = the number of runs.
The formula for standard normal z statistic to test the significance of r is given by:
Z= r-r
r
Illustration: 1
The following is an arrangement of 25 men, M, and 15 women, W. Lined up to purchase tickets for a
premier picture show:
M WW MMM W MM W M W M WWW MMM W MM WWW MMMMMM WWW MMMMMM
Test for randomness at the 5% level of significance.
Ans: Z = - 0.94, table value = 1.96
Illustration: 2
The marketing manager of a company is keen in analyzing the outcomes of different quotations
submitted to its customers. The outcome is either winning (W) or losing (L) the order. The sequence of
outcomes of 40 different quotations are as listed below. Check whether the events of winning or losing
the orders is random at a significance level of 0.05.
WW LL WWWWWW LL WWW L WWW LL WW LL WW LLL W LL WWW LL WW
Ans: Z = - 1.069, table value = 1.96
Illustration: 3 - Year 2005, 2010

An economic researcher wants to find out if there is any pattern in arrivals at the entrance of the shopping
mall in terms of males and females arriving or whether such arrivals are simply random. One day, he
stationed himself at the entrance and recorded the gender of first 30 shoppers who came in. the results are
as follows:
MMFMFFFMMMFFMFMMFFFFMMMMMFFMMM
Use the run test for randomness at 0.05 level of significance.
Ans: Z = -1.0346, table value = 1.96
RANK SUM TESTS (U TEST)
Branches:
RANK SUM TESTS IS ALSO KNOWN AS U TEST OR WILCOXON- MANN- WHITNEY

TEST.
Wilcoxon- Mann- Whitney test (or U – test): This is a very popular test among the rank sum tests. This
test is used to determine whether two independent samples have been drawn from the same population.
U = n1. n2 + n1 (n1 +1) – R1

2
Where,
U = measurement of the difference between the ranked observations of two samples.
R2 = sum of the ranks assigned to the values of the second sample.
R1 = sum of the ranks assigned to the values of the first sample.
n1& n2 = sample sizes
In applying U test
Ho – the two samples came from identical population.
Ha – the means of the two populations are not equal.
The means of the ranks assigned to the values of the two samples should be more or less the same.
Mean =  u = n1. n2
2
and standard deviation (or standard error)
u = n1. n2 (n1+ n2 +1)

12
Upper limit =  u + µ + 2a
Lower limit =  u - µ - 2a Acceptance region
Illustration: 1
The values in one sample are 53, 38, 69, 57, 46, 39, 73, 48, 73, 74, 60, & 78. In another sample they are
44, 40, 61, 52, 32, 44, 70, 41, 67, 72, 53 & 72.
Test at 10% level of the hypothesis that they come from populations with the same mean. Apply U – test.
Ans: U = 54.5,  u = 72,  u = 17.32

A manufacture wants to test the Hypothesis that the mean life two brands of machines used are equal.
The life time is measured by the number of operating hours between the overhauls. The manufacturer
keeps overhaul statistics
on all his machines. A random sample of 15 machine gives the following details: Operating hours
between overhauls:
Brand X: 1050, 1150, 850, 800, 1000,1350, 1100, 1300,1450, 900,1200, 1250, 1550, 825, 650.
Brand Y: 1170, 970, 880,1410,700,775,940,1650,950,1190,600, 1600,975, 450,1290.
Using Mann = Whitney test, will you conclude that the lifetimes of two brands are equal? (14)
Ans: U = 98, Uu = 112.5, σu = 24.1, Z = 1.96
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Illustration: 3
A researcher wants to hypothesis that the mean life time of two brands of bulbs is equal. A random
sample of 10 bulbs from each brand give the following results:
Sr.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Brand A 100 125 80 110 130 140 95 116 75 85
Brand B 118 92 142 86 150 68 162 98 136 148
Use rank sum test the hypothesis that the mean life time of two brands of bulbs are equal. Use 5% level
of significance.
Ans: Z = 1.96, R1 = 89, µ = 50, σ = 13.23, U = 66
Kruskal-Wallis Test – H Test

Kruskal-Wallis test was developed by Kruskal and Wallis jointly and is named after them. Kruskal-
Wallis test is a non-parametric (distribution free) test, which is used to compare three or more groups of
sample data. Kruskal-Wallis test is used when assumptions of ANOVA are not met. ANOVA is a
statistical data analysis technique that is used when the independent variable groups are more than two. In
ANOVA, we assume that distribution of each group should be normally distributed.
In Kruskal-Wallis test, we do not assume any assumption about the distribution. So Kruskal-Wallis test is
a distribution free test. If normality assumptions are met, then the Kruskal-Wallis test is not as powerful
as ANOVA. Kruskal-Wallis test is also an improvement over the Sign test and Wilxoson's sign rank test
which ignores the actual magnitude of the paired magnitude.
Hypothesis in Kruskal-Wallis Test

Null Hypothesis: In Kruskal-Wallis test, null hypothesis assumes that the samples are from identical
populations.
Alternative Hypothesis: In Kruskal-Wallis test, alternative hypothesis assumes that the sample comes
from different populations.
1) In Kruskal-Wallis test, we assume that the samples drawn from the population are random,
2) In Kruskal-Wallis test, we also assume that the cases of each group are independent,
3) The measurement scale for Kruskal-Wallis test should be atleast ordinal.
Procedure for Kruskal-Wallis Test

1) Arrange the data of both samples in a single series in ascending order.
2) Assign rank to them in ascending order. In the case of a repeated value, assign ranks to them by
averaging their rank position.
3) Once this is complete, ranks or the different samples are separated and summed up as R1 R2 R3 etc.
4) To calculate the value of Kruskal-Wallis test, apply the following formula:
k
H = 12 Ri – 3 (n + 1)
N(n + 1) ni
i=1
Where,
H = Kruskal-Wallis test
n = Total number of observations in all samples
Ri = Rank of the sample
Kruskal-Wallis test statistics is approximately a Chi-square distribution, with k-l degree of freedom
where ni should be greater than 5. If the calculated value of Kruskal-Wallis test is less than the chi-square
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table value, then the null hypothesis will be accepted. If the calculated value of Kruskal-Wallis test H is
greater than the Chi-square table value, then we will reject the null hypothesis and say that the sample
comes from a different population.
Illustration: 4
A researcher intends to compare the education and teaching standards of three business schools in a city
with the following average marks of 20 students of the respective schools
X 65 84 74 72 56 70 68
Y 63 69 71 53 59 64 49
Z 79 43 67 57 60 76 -
Test the hypothesis using Rank sum test that there is no difference in the performance of the students of
various business schools. Use 10% level of significance. Ans: 2.820
Illustration: 5
Agribusiness researchers are interested in determining the conditions under which Christmas trees grow
fastest. A random sample of equivalent-size seedlings is divided into four groups. The trees are all grown
in the same field. One group is left to grow naturally, one group is given extra water, one group is given
fertilizer spikes, and one group is given fertilizer spikes and extra water. At the end of one year, the
seedlings are measured for growth (in height). These measurements are shown for each group. Use the
Kruskal-Wailis test to determine whether there is a significant difference in the growth of trees in these
groups. Use a = 0.05
Group 1 (Native) Group 2 (+ Water) Group 3 (+ Fertilizer) Group 4 (+Water and Fertilizer)
8 10 11 18
5 12 14 20
7 11 10 16
11 9 16 15
9 13 17 14
6 12 12 22
Ans: 16.77
Sign test
The sign test is one of the easiest parametric tests. Its name comes from the fact that it is based on the
direction of the plus or minus signs of observations in a sample and not on their numerical magnitudes.
The sign test may be one of the following two types: (a) One sample sign test (b) Two sample sign test.
(a) One sample sign test: The one sample sign test is a very simple non- parametric test applicable when
we sample a continuous symmetrical population in which case the probability of getting a sample value
less than mean is1/ 2 and the probability of getting a sample value greater than mean is also 1/ 2. To test
the null hypothesis  = Ho against an appropriate alternative on the basis of a random sample of size ‘n’,
we replace the value of each and every item of the sample with a plus (+) sign if it is greater than Ho,
and with a minus (-) sign if it is less than Ho. But if the value happens to be equal to Ho, then we simply
discard it. After doing this, we test the null hypothesis that these + and – signs are values of a random
variable, having a binomial distribution with p = 1/ 2*. For performing one sample sign test when the
sample is small, we can use tables of binomial probabilities, but when sample happens to be large, we use
normal approximation to binomial distribution. Let us take an illustration to apply one sample sign test.
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Illustration: 1- Year 2010
Suppose playing four rounds of golf at the city club 11 professionals totaled 280, 282, 290, 273, 283,
283, 275, 284, 282, 279, and 281. Use the sign test at 5% level of significance to test the null hypothesis
that professional golfers average Ho = 284 for four rounds against the alternative hypothesis Ho < 284
Illustration: 2
On 10 occasions Mr X has to wait 5,7,3,6,6,5,7,5,2,8 minutes for the metro that he takes to reach his
company. Test the hypothesis that on an average Mr X does not have to wait for more than 5 minutes to
catch the metro train. Use sign test at 5% level of significance.
Ans: 1.86
(b) Two sample sign test (or the sign test for paired data): The sign test has important applications in
problems where we deal with paired data. In such problems, each pairs of values can be replaced with a
plus (+) sign if the first value of the first sample (say X) is greater than the first value of the second
sample (say Y) and we take minus (-) sign if the first value of X is less than the first value of Y. in case
the two values are equal, the concerning pair is discarded. (In case the two samples are not equal size,
then some of the values of the larger sample left over after the random pairing will have to be discarded).
Illustration: 3
The following are the numbers of artifacts dug up by two archaeologists at an ancient cliff dwelling on 30
days.
By X – 1 0 2 3 1 0 2 2 3 0 1 1 4 1 2 1 3 5 2 1 3 2 4 1 3 2 0 2 4 2
By Y - 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 1 1 0 2 2 6 0 2 3 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 0
Use the sign test at 1% level of significance to test the null hypothesis that the two archaeologists, X and
Y, are equally good at finding artifacts against the alternative hypothesis that X is better.
Illustration: 4
In a manufacturing firm goods produced by 12 workers in a week before and after holidays are given as
follows:
s.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Before 90 80 95 100 88 84 90 69 101 98 96 85
After 86 77 87 92 79 80 93 79 98 102 98 81
Use sign test to test the hypothesis that there is no effect of holidays on the productivity of the workers
against the alternate hypothesis that the productivity has increased after holidays
Ans: 1.18
SPEARMANS RANK CORRELATION

When the data are not available to use in numerical form for doing correlation analysis but when the
information is sufficient to rank the data as first, second, third, and so fourth, we quite often use the rank
correlation method and work out the coefficient of rank correlation. In fact, the rank correlation
coefficient is a measure of correlation that exists between the two sets of ranks.
Coefficient of rank correlation
rs = 1 - 6d2
n(n2 – 1)
where,
rs = coefficient of rank correlation
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n = number of paired observations
 = notation meaning ‘the sum of’
d = difference between the ranks for each pair of observations
H0 = the correlation is not significant
Ha = the correlation is significant
Illustration: 1
The following are ratings of aggressiveness (X) and amount of sales in the last year (Y) for eight
salespeople. Is there a significant rank correlation between the two measures? Use the 0.10 significance
level.
X 30 17 35 28 42 25 19 29
Y 35 31 43 46 50 32 33 42
Ans: r = .8095, table value = .6190
Illustration: 2
A plant supervisor ranked a sample of eight workers on the number of hours of overtime worked and
length of employment. Is the rank correlation between the two measures significant at the 0.01 level?
Amount of overtime 5.0 8.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 7.0 1.0 6.0
Years employed 1.0 6.0 4.5 2.0 7.0 8.0 4.5 3.0
Ans: r = .185, table value = .8571
Illustration: 3
The occupational safety and health administration (OSHA) was conducting a study of the relationship
between expenditures for plant safety and the accident rate in the plants. OSHA had confined its studies
to the synthetic chemical industry. To adjust for the size differential that existed among some of the
plants, OSHA had converted its data into expenditures per production employee. The results follow:
Expenditure by chemical companies per production employee in relation to accidents per year
Company A B C D E F G H I J K
Expenditure $60 $37 $30 $20 $24 $42 $39 $54 $48 $58 $26
Accidents 2 7 6 9 7 4 8 2 4 3 8
Is there a significant correlation between expenditures and accidents in the chemical - company plants?
Use a rank correlation (with 1 representing highest expenditure and accident rate) to support your
conclusion. Test at the 1 percent significance level.
Ans: r = -0.86, table value = .7455
*****
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A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd Research Report
CHAPTER 7 RESEARCH REPORT PREPARATION

RESEARCH REPORT
Introduction
After the entire hard work researcher have put into designing research, collecting, analysing the data and
testing hypotheses, it is time to start communicating researcher results. This is a critically important final
step in the research process. Without proper communication research findings will not be known to those
who could benefit from it.
Research report is the written way of communicating the results of an investigation. It is a document
which reflects about how the research is conducted, the care that has been exercised throughout the study
and the findings in a manner that can be utilised for decision-making.
It is observed that executives are rarely interested in the methodology adopted by the researcher in the
investigation; they are interested only in the final results. From their viewpoint, the research report is the
written presentation which the executive see about a project carried out by the researcher but initiated by
the decision maker (executive) and it conveys the information desired by the decision maker in an
understandable form.
A research report is a written document specifying the purpose, scope, objective(s), hypotheses,
methodology, findings, limitations and finally recommendations of a research project to others.
The researcher has to convince the client (and others who may read the report) that the research findings
can be acted on for their own benefit.
Characteristics of Good Research Report

Characteristics of a good research report are discussed below:
1) Accuracy: Information presented in reports should be accurate. Inaccurate information may often land
the managers in trouble. The report must present information as accurately as possible.
2) Simplicity: A good report is written in simple and in an unambiguous language. It is a document of

practical utility; hence it should be grammatically accurate, brief and clear.
3) Clarity and Completeness: The report should be complete in all respects. There should be no room
for ambiguity. Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. Report writers must proceed
methodically. They should make their purpose clear, define their sources, state their findings, and finally
make necessary recommendations. They should divide their report into short paragraphs with headings,
and insert other suitable signposts for making the report clear.
4) Brevity: Executives do not find sufficient time to read lengthy reports. Therefore, the reports should
briefly reflect the essential points. Brevity should not be achieved at the cost of clarity. Nor should it be
at the cost of completeness. Sometime detailed discussion of facts is needed. Then this discussion should
not be evaded.
5) Appearance: The arrangement, organisation, format, layout and make-up of a report should be
pleasing and as far as possible, eye-catching.
6) Comprehensibility and Readability: Reports must be easy to read and understand. They must avoid
technical language as far as possible. The writer must present the facts through elegant and grammatically
correct English.
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7) Reliability: Reports should be reliable and should not create an erroneous impression in the minds of
readers either due to oversight or neglect. The facts presented in a report should be relevant. While it is
essential that every fact included in a report has a bearing on the central purpose, it is equally essential to
see that all the relevant information should be included, irrelevant facts make a report confusing;
exclusion of relevant facts makes it incomplete and is probable to mislead.
8) Economy: Report writing should not be a costly exercise. The most economical methods and standard
quality must be employed while conveying the matter.
9) Timelines: To be useful and purposive, reports should reach the readers well in time. Any delay in
submission of reports makes the preparation of reports a futile exercise and sometimes obsolete too.
10) Logical Content: The content of the report must be presented in a logical manner. The facts must be
reported in an unbiased manner. Distinctive points must bear self-explanatory headings and sub-
headings. The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential for a report. Since reports invariably lead to
decision- making, inaccurate facts may lead to unsuccessful decisions.
Types of Research Report

The types of report are as follows:
1) Technical Report: This report assumes the readers have a background in research methodology and
are interested in the detail of the research design, sampling design, statistical methods, etc. The readers
are interested in a full presentation and a detailed discussion of each of the steps in the research project.
They have the knowledge to be able to evaluate the appropriateness and accuracy with which each step
was carried-out. The writer can assume that the technical language of research design and analysis will be
understood by the reader.
If a technical report is prepared, then it should present a detailed account of each step in the project
including copies of questionnaires and perhaps computer printouts of results. This would be especially
needed where statistical tests were performed on the data. This type of report is most likely to be used
when it is going to become a part of a series of studies (referred to as tracking studies) so the
methodology can be duplicated in subsequent projects.
2) Popular Report: This type of report is generally designed for non-technical users like executives,
administrators, etc. It gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The emphasis is also given on
practical aspects and policy implications. The format of this report is different from that of a technical
report. There can be a liberal use of margins and blank spaces. The style may be more journalistic, but
precise. While writing it, possibly it is made easy to rapid reading and quick comprehension.
3) Interim Report: This report is published when there is long time lag between data collection and the
presentation of the results in the case of a sponsored project. In such a case, the study may lose its
significance and usefulness. This report is short and may contain either the first results of the analysis or
the final outcome of the analysis of some aspects which are completely analysed. The interim report
contains a narration of what is completed so far and its results are given. It presents a summary of the
findings of that part of analysis, which has been completed.
4) Summary Report: This report is generally prepared for the use of general public. When the findings
of a study are of general interest, a summary report is desirable. It is written in non-technical and simple
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language. It also contains large number of charts and pictures. It contains a brief reference to the
objective of the study, its major findings and their implications. It is a short report which can be
published in a newspaper.
5) Research Abstract: It is a short summary of the technical report. It contains a brief presentation of the
statement of the problem, objectives of study, methods and techniques used and an overview of the
report. A brief summary of the results of the study can also be added. This abstract is primarily meant for
the convenience of examiner, who can decide whether the study belongs to his area of interest. Results of
a research can also be published as articles in research journals. A professional journal may have its own
special format for reporting research. Thus, research results can be reported in a number of ways. In
academic fields, the usual practice is to write the technical report and then prepare several research
papers.
In practical field and problems having policy implications, it is more common to write a popular report.
Researchers conducted on behalf of government or private or public organisations are usually presented
in the form of technical report.
Layout of Research Report

1) Title Page: This page contains the title of the report, which must be short, specific and precise. The
title must be explanatory as its main function is to indicate what is contained in the research project. A
well- defined title immediately gets the prospective reader's attention. The Title page should indicate the
topic on which the report has been prepared- the person or agency who has prepared it, the person or
agency for whom it has been prepared and the date of submission (or completion) of the report. If it is
intended for the attainment of some degree it should also be specified on title page.
In addition to the title, the title page should include the following - the name of the researcher and the
research institution (in the case of an external consultant); the name of the enterprise and/or person for
whom the research was undertaken; and the place and date of the report.
2) Table of Content: This lists the discussion points or sections as they appear in the report with their
page references. The headings of the sections and subsection in the table of content must correspond to
the heading in the report.
3) List of Tables and Graphs: If tables and figures are used in the report, they are indicated separately
with their page references.
4) Proposal and Letter of Authorization: The proposal contains the research objectives, the research
plan and the project's cost and duration. Including the proposal and letter of authorization in the research
report refreshes management's memory, as it may have been a few weeks or even months since the
marketing manager authorized are project. It also acts as a yardstick for assessing the value of the
research project. If the proposal is very long, an excerpt should be included in this section with the full
proposal in annexure.
The letter of authorization is a letter authorizing the research project, which the researcher receives at the
beginning of the research project. The letter includes details of the person responsible and the resources
available for the project. The researcher does not write this letter. It is written by the marketing manager
who orders the research.
5) Executive Summary: Most marketing managers or decision-makers require the research report to
include a one- or two-page summary specifically for the use of management. The executive summary is
often the most important part of the research report, as most members of management read only this
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section, especially if an oral report supplements the written report. An executive summary is a short
synopsis of the contents and purpose of the research project.
A good summary contains the following aspects:
i) Scope of the marketing problem, research objectives, a short description of the sample and the data-
gathering methods.
ii) Results of the various elements of the study.
iii) Interpretation of results, conclusions and findings.
iv) Recommendations (if required).
This summary should be between 100 and 175 words. Although the summary precedes the contents of
the report, it must be written after the research report has been compiled.
6) Introduction: The main body of the research report must begin with an introduction. The introduction
provides the reader with the background information needed to understand the rest of the report. The
scope of the introduction depends on the readers' knowledge of the research project and the number of
different readers of the report - the more diverse the readership, the more detailed the introduction should
be. The introduction tells the reader about the extent of the marketing problem in the broad context and
the purpose hypotheses of the research project. Additional background information about the product or
service concerned and the marketing problem must be provided. If applicable, definitions of certain terms
can be included in this section. Information about previous research into the marketing problem must also
be included in the introduction, e.g., past research finding and the circumstances that gave rise to the
present study.
Having read the introduction, the reader must know what the report is about and the purpose, need and
importance of the research project. The reader must be made aware of the total research problem and the
related sub-problems, as well as the relationship between the research project and related studies done
previously.
7) Methodology: The objective of this section is to describe the research design, the sampling method,
and the methods used for gathering and analysing data. The various methods must be clearly described
without using too many technical terms, as it is important to use terminology that the reader will
understand. Not too much or too little detail should be given. Explanations of complicated formulae and
techniques should appear in the annexure.
The researcher must explain to the manager the main points of the research method and give reasons for
selecting the specific method. The main points include - questionnaires; sample size and sampling
method; types and sources of secondary data; and the method of analysis. The start and finish dates of the
primary steps in the research process must also be given. The purpose is to provide readers with
sufficient technical background so that they appreciate the quality of the gathered data and the research
findings.
The following aspects are generally discussed in the methodology section of the research report:
i) Research Strategy: A description of the research strategy used and why the specific design was
implemented. The researcher must indicate whether the research was exploratory, descriptive or causal,
and why the specific strategy was appropriate for the research survey.
ii) Data-Collecting Methods: All applicable information about the method used to gather the data. The
researcher must indicate whether the data was collected from primary or secondary sources and what type
of data-collecting method was used - survey, observation or experimentation. The technique used must
also be shown, e.g., personal interviews, postal questionnaires. A copy of the questionnaire or
observation form should be included in the annexure.
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iii) Sample: This discussion must answer the following basic questions - Who was the population? What
sample frame was used? What sample units were used? Which and how many respondents were involved
in the research project? What selection method was used to obtain a representative sample? Other
demographic characteristics, such as the sex and age, and any additional relevant information about the
sample must also be provided.
iv) Fieldwork Procedures: This section is important for determining the degree of accuracy of the
results. It deals with what and how of data collection. The researcher must indicate the number and type
of field workers used the type of training and supervision provided, and how the fieldwork was controlled
and managed.
v) Analysis: A description of the statistical techniques used to analyse the collected data. Complicated
techniques and formulae must be explained in the annexure.
vi) Results: A discussion of the researcher's interpretation of the results, deductions and generalisations.
Dealing with the research results is the largest [art of the research report. The results must be presented in
a logical sequence to facilitate the decision-making process. The findings must be linked to the research
objectives and to the initial marketing problem. If the purpose of the research was to test a specific
hypothesis, the findings must prove or disprove the hypothesis. The research results can be presented in
the form of tables, graphs and other figures - tables are the numerical presentation of data, while graphs
and other figures present the data in visual form.
vii) Limitations and Shortcomings of the Results and Findings: No research is one hundred per cent
correct and each research project is subjected to certain limitations. The results are only an estimate of the
truth with a greater or lesser degree of probability. The research report must mention the limitations and
shortcomings that affect the validity of the results and final conclusions. Limitations can be related to
sample errors and sample units, as well as respondents who did not want to cooperate during the research
project. The researcher must not harm the credibility of the entire research project by over- emphasising
these shortcomings and stumbling blocks. However, mentioning the limitations gives the reader the
opportunity to judge the validity of the research results.
8) Conclusions and Recommendations: The conclusions are drawn by inference, either inductive or
deductive, from the findings. The conclusions verify or deny the premises or hypotheses upon which the
investigation has been conducted. The recommendations concerning the action to be taken follow the
conclusions. Where recommendations involve policy decisions, some researchers prefer to report only
conclusions and leave recommendations to those at the policy-making level of management. Whether this
researcher recommends actions or not, it is within his or her authority to make recommendations on plans
for further investigation of this or allied problems.
9) Appendix: It provides materials supplementary to those given in the body of the report. Generally, the
appendix material contains detailed and/or expanded information, such as detailed computations from
which the tables in the report are generated, a copy of the questionnaire used in gathering the data,
interviewer instructions, detailed statistical tables, calculations used to support the sample size chosen,
and so on.
10) Bibliography and References: The bibliography contains the detailed information on books,
journals and other materials, showing the title of the books/reports used in the preparation of the reports,
names of authors, publishers, the year of publication and, if possible, the page numbers. A reference list
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is a subset of bibliography including details of all the citations used in a literature survey and elsewhere
in the research report, arranged in alphabetical order of the last names of the author.
Preparation of Research Report: Steps in Writing Research Report
Research report is the written way of communicating the results of an investigation. It is a document
which reflects about how the research is conducted, the care that has been exercised throughout the study
and the findings in a manner that can be utilized for decision-making. It is observed that executives are
rarely interested in the methodology adopted by the researcher in the investigation; they are interested
only in the final results. From their viewpoint, the research report is the written presentation which the
executive see about a project carried out by the researcher but initiated by the decision maker (executive)
and it conveys the information desired by the decision maker in an understandable form.
Report writing is an art, which must be learnt through hard work, practice and effort. The information
and recommendations placed before the management are of little value unless they assist in making
judgments and lead to decisions. Therefore, a report should be written very carefully so as to stimulate
thought and lead to action. Report writers should concentrate on the collection of relevant data,
organizing the data and arriving at a conclusion. The contents of the report play a very important role in
stimulating action.
Once clear about the purpose of writing a report, the persons for whom it is meant, the facts to be
examined, the facts to be included, the time at disposal and knowledge about the type of report one is
going to write, it is time to start the work. The following five steps are suggested to write a report:
1) Investigating the Sources of Information: Investigating the sources of information is a kind of

spadework. It is to be done right in the beginning. The extent of investigation will, of course, decide the
length and importance of the report. Major sources of information are company files, personal
observation, interviews, letters, questionnaires and library research.
2) Taking Notes: In the course of investigations, the writer keeps on taking notes of anything that
appears to be related to the subject. He might not analyse them simultaneously but record them for later
use. As the writer keeps turning them in his mind over and over again, a kind of pattern starts emerging
and he begins to be clear about what is relevant and what is not.
3) Analysing the Data: Next it is the time to analyse the collected data in the light of the pattern that has
evolved. A lot of data will have to be rejected while a need might be felt to collect more data. The final
pattern will emerge at this step. The writer should never hurry through this step, since this is the most
important stage in writing a report.
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4) Making an Outline: Once the final pattern of the report has taken shape in the writer's mind he should
prepare an outline to write the report. In this outline the problem is stated, the facts are recorded, they are
briefly analysed, and the logical conclusion is arrived. An outline is not essential, but it has been found
extremely helpful in writing a systematic report.
5) Writing the Report: The last step is that of writing the report. It will need a constant shuttling
between the outline and the notes. First a rough draft of the report is prepared. Then it is revised, pruned
and polished. If the writer has some more time at his disposal, he will find it advantageous to come back
to his rough draft after, say, a couple of days. This short interval will make his revision really
meaningful. The writer should also be careful that the language of the report is simple, unambiguous,
coherent and free from grammatical errors. It is now time to type it out in a proper form and submit it.
Precautions in Preparing Research Report
1) Concise and Complete: While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary
greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to cover the subject but
short enough to maintain interest. Keep it Short and Simple (KISS) formula should be used.
2) Maintain Interest: A research report should not be dull; it should be such as to sustain reader's
interest.
3) Avoid Technical Jargons: Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research
report. The report should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible. This, in other words, means
that report should be written in an objective style in simple language, avoiding expressions such as "it
seems, "there may be" and the like.
4) Explanatory: Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and as
such the report must provide a ready availability of the findings. For this purpose, charts, graphs and
statistical tables may be used for the various results in the main report in addition to the summary of
important findings.
5) Objective Layout: The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in
accordance with the objective of the research problem.
6) Free from Bias and Errors: The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be
prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition of report writing such as the use of
quotations, footnotes, documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes and the
like.
7) Logical Presentation: The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It must
reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of analysis relating to the research problem fit well.
8) Original and Specific: A research report should show originality and should necessarily be an attempt
to solve some intellectual problem. It must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the
store of knowledge.
9) Recommendations for Follow-up: Towards the end, the report must also state the policy implications
relating to the problem under consideration. It is usually considered desirable if the report makes a
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forecast of the probable future of the subject concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs to
be done in that particular field.
10) Incorporate Technical Appendices: Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical
data in the report
11) Bibliography: Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must necessarily be
given.
12) Proper Indexing: Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must be
prepared and appended at the end.
13) Enticing Appearance: Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or
printed.
14) Mention Limits and Constraints: Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various
constraints experiences in conducting the research study may also be stated in the report.
15) Reflect the Research Duties: Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods
employed and the analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the beginning of the report in
the form of introduction.
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A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd Bibliography & Annexure
CHAPTER 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ANNEXURE

IN THE REPORT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Introduction
Bibliography-sometimes called "works cited", "works consulted", or "References" - usually appears as an
alphabetical list of sources at the end of a written work (e.g., book, book chapter, or article). It identifies
the sources the author used in their research and writing, which may include books, journal articles,
reports, interviews, websites, video or audio recordings, etc.
A bibliography is a list of sources in which each item has been supplied with a brief description
explaining its content and significance. It helps the reader to determine the usefulness of a source and
lays the groundwork for future research.
The bibliography contains the detailed information on books, references, journals and other
materials, showing the title of the books/ reports used in the preparation of the reports, names of authors,
publishers, the year of publication and, if possible, the page numbers. In addition, similar information is
given in respect of articles/ papers. The bibliography should be arranged in an alphabetical order. The
proceedings of the committees and references to the relevant portion of the findings may be given in this
section.
Reference lists, where researcher lists the authors whom he has cited in his research, are
commonly required in disciplines that use in-text referencing. Many lecturers cross-mark the in-text
references against the reference list.
Significance of Bibliography
1) Helps in Checking the Sources: Bibliography helps in checking consulting or verifying and so that it
makes apparent that one did serious research.
2) Gives Credit to the Author: The main purpose of a bibliography entry is to give credit to other
authors whose work has been consulted in your research. Another purpose of a bibliography is to make it
easy for a curious reader to find the source you've used.
3) Shows the Hard Work and Originality: References show the hard work of the author. It is not easy
to write this part of research paper. Bibliography is the important part of research paper writing. It shows
the originality of research work.
4) Shows the Oldness of Information: How old is the information? Information does change. So, those
copyright dates in bibliography entries have a certain importance. Old does not mean it is not valuable,
but the applicability is checked through bibliography.
5) Open Communication Environment: Bibliography is an open communication environment between

man and research report, between present and past, also possessing the ability of transmitting
bibliographical messages which can determine the acceleration of innovation in the miraculous world of
the research.
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6) References for Latest/ Updated Books: Bibliography is the important part of research paper writing.
It shows the originality of research work and key to describe that research was genuine. References show
the hard work of the author. It is not easy to write this part of research paper.
7) Provides Reliable Information: Bibliographies can organize citations in a helpful manner and make
it possible to find relevant information quickly. They may include valuable information from sources not
covered by databases (eg. chapters in books, government documents, conference proceedings,
dissertations, primary sources, etc.). The best bibliographies provide subject grouping to give some
indication of the schema of the discipline with a keyword index for quick access.
Procedure of Preparation of Reference and Bibliography

The procedure for preparation of bibliography is as follows:
Step 1: Gather all Sources: Gather all of the sources that the researcher has used for research paper and
place them together on table.
Step 2: Create A Notecard for Each Book: Create a notecard for each book use as a source in research
paper. Different professions use different bibliographic formats for research citations. For example,
humanities research follows formats established by the Modern Language Association, while various
professions follow the format established by the American Psychological Association (APA). These
organisations publish style books that explain their formats in detail. Although bibliographic styles vary,
citations for books typically follow this basic format, including punctuation, Author's last name, first
name, title of the book, city of publication, Publication, year of publication.
Step 3: Create A Notecard for Each Newspaper and Magazine: Create a notecard for each newspaper
and magazine use as a source. These sources are typically cited in the following format:
Author last name, first name. "Article title - subtitle." Title of newspaper or magazine (underscored Or
italicised). Day, month, year of publication - page number of article.
Step 4: Create a Notecard for Each Website: Create a notecard for each website use as a source. These
sources are typically cited in the following format:
Author last name, first name: "Title of website article." Website name (underscored or italicised). Date
and year the article was created. Date viewed the website. <website address>
Keep in mind that all websites are different and some will not provide all of the information above. Note
the information that is available and consult instructor.
Step 5: Arrange in Order: Arrange in alphabetical order, using the last name of the source authors.
Step 6: Create Bibliography Page: Type "Bibliography" in boldface print at the top centre of page.
Some styles may require a different title, such as "Works Cited." Include a page number for bibliography,
which will be the last page of research paper.
Step 7: List all Sources in Order: List all of sources in alphabetical order. Typically, the first line of
each citation will start at the left margin of the page. Subsequent lines will be indented five spaces.
Guidelines for Using Bibliography

Here are some norms related to bibliography writing:
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1) Same Treatment throughout Report: The most important rule in preparing any bibliography/in-text
references or reference lists is to always be consistent. All in-text reference or reference list entries for the
same type of information source should be treated the same way throughout the report.
2) Collecting Information to Use in Report: As researcher find information that he want to use, it is a
good idea to record the source(s) of the information in full. It takes less time to type-out the bibliographic
details or to copy and paste them into an electronic document in full the first time (even if researcher
decide later not to use it), than to try to find the details at the last minute on the day when the report is
due.
A suggestion is to use a manila folder, set of plastic sleeves, large envelope, etc., to store photocopied
references in and to use a computer folder to store all online resources, including their bibliographic
details.
It is a good idea to note where researcher found source as well as its call number in that library. This
information is not included in the bibliography or reference list with the report, but will help researcher to
find the material again in that other library if required.
In the case of an online resource, bibliographic details refers to information like authors) of the resource,
year of publication, title of the resource, database provider or sponsor of the webpage, day and month the
resource was first viewed, and URL (webpage address).
3) Placing of Bibliography: Provide either a bibliography or a reference list at the end of the report. The
bibliography or reference list is an alphabetically-arranged list of the bibliographic details gathered.
4) Provide Sufficient Information: Provide sufficient information to identify the bibliographic unit
easily for the purpose of the bibliography and needs of the intended user.
5) Always be Consistent: Consistently follow a recognized standard bibliographic form. Examples of

these standards include, but are not limited to, those described in Chicago Manual of Style, MLA Style
Manual, or the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.
6) Accuracy: Ensure that citations are correct and free from typographical errors. The researcher should
also ensure that information provided in annotations and elsewhere is factually accurate and
grammatically correct.
7) Format of the Work: Produce the bibliography with clear and appropriate format and typeface.
Produce printed volumes strong enough to withstand anticipated use. Design the bibliography to keep its
price within the means of potential users without sacrificing important features that facilitate its use.
ANNEXURE/APPENDIX
Introduction
This is the last section of the report. An annexure or appendix gives supplementary information which
supports the body of the report but which cannot be given within it.
Essentially, an appendix or annexure should be used to remove from the main text all information
which is not needed by the majority of the users of the report. Human nature being what it is and report
users being as busy as they are, the shortest report usually wins in attracting attention and also in being
read as opposed to being glanced at and forgotten. If the main text is uncluttered by detailed statistics,
maps, explanations of technical terms, or experimental data, it will be kept as short and therefore as
readable, as the material allows.
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An annexure, then, is a good place for background information which most readers will take for granted
but which a few need to be told. It is excellent for supporting statistics, and diagrammatic material which
is not needed as the report is read. It is an ideal place for lists of symbols, technical terms, and
abbreviations which are familiar to some but not all readers. If few readers know them, they may be
better placed near the beginning of the report.
As in many aspects of report presentation, tone (getting it right for the reader) is all-important. Readers
may feel patronized if too much is explained and bewildered if too much is taken for granted. Putting
helpful back-up material into an appendix can satisfy all parties.
This is particularly important when the readers have varied expertise. The engineer may not want
complex technical material to be interwoven with details of costing, but both technical and financial
readers will be happy to find the latter in an appendix. The research scientist may be fascinated by the
experimental details and will be happy to find them in an appendix, while the report is primarily used by
the marketing people who want results, not laboratory tests. Appendices are the report writer's friends,
but while they are developing, so is the main text of the report.
Annexure is where researcher store materials that support the research but which are inappropriate to
include in the body of the report. However, include only selected material that directly supports report.
Examples of such materials include:
1) Relevant letters to participants and organisations (e.g., regarding the ethics or conduct of the project).
2) Details of questionnaires, surveys, or other relevant instruments that were developed for the purpose of
the study.
3) Background reports or raw data.
4) Figures or images (e.g., pictures, graphs, diagrams, and tables) which researcher writes about in essay.
They can either be put in the text, near the appropriate paragraph or at the end. Researcher should always
refer to the figure when he is writing about it.
Components of Annexure
Appendices and figures are optional blocks of information at the end of the essay. Appendices give the
reader additional, but not essential facts and explanations. For example, if researcher refers to a theory,
case history, lesson plan, biography, or other extra material in the body of essay, but do not want to
explain it in detail, researcher can put it in an appendix and simply write appendix includes some other
essential components of report structure these are:
1) Glossary: Use a glossary to define terms for secondary readers. Arrange terms in alphabetical order.
Use italics or underlines for terms that the glossary will define. Footnote the first italicised or underlined
term in the text and key readers to the location of glossary, where that term and all future underlined or
italicised terms will be defined. Use a reverse indent for each definition and treat each definition as a
separate paragraph.
2) Index: Index lists topics alphabetically and guides the reader to various places that discuss certain
subject matter in the report. Only in very long reports index is required. The report will have a contents
page and it may have an index. It is possible to improve the presentation further by making it even easier
for readers to find their way around the report. In reports in which detailed structure is very important and
highly-specific selective reading is expected, both paragraph numbers and page numbers can be shown.
Moreover, both sequences of numbering should be shown in the chapter headings, at the section level
within the chapters and the sub-sections.
3) Bibliography and References: A bibliography - sometimes called-"works cited", "works consulted",

or "references" - usually appears as an alphabetical list of sources at the end of a written work (e.g., book,
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book chapter, or article). It identifies the sources the author used in their research and writing, which may
include books, journal articles, reports, interviews, websites, video or audio recordings, etc. All
departments have different guidelines as to how references are to be presented. It is important to check
the preferred format, style of references, and presentation requirements in one's own department.
Reference lists, where researcher lists the authors whom he has cited in his paper, are commonly required
in disciplines that use in-text referencing. Many lecturers cross-mark the m-text references against the
reference list.
Significance of Annexure
Researcher should include appendices to support work. These help clarify and add power to findings
within the main report. Significance of annexure is as follows:
1) Area for Storing Information: Appendices are used when the incorporation of material in the body
of the work would make it poorly structured or too long and detailed. The appendices are used as an area
for storing information which is important to the arguments raised in the research but, because of its
length, detail or complexity would otherwise interrupt the flow of arguments in the research.
2) Supports Materials for Research Report: Appendices are used for incidental or supporting materials
that are relevant to the findings of the report and important to some readers but not necessarily to all. Use
appendices to expand, highlight, and detail, but do not repeat what said in the report. Label the
appendices Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on.
3) Increases Credibility: Annexure that gives a better understanding of the report. By including
specifications in an appendix, add credibility and understanding to something that referenced in report.
For example, if researcher has written a report about gas-efficient vehicles, audience may find it
interesting to read the specifications for gas-efficient and non-gas-efficient vehicles. This can help
illustrate differences and similarities between the two and may help the reader understand more difficult
concepts within report.
4) Provides a Detailed Description: Include tables, questionnaire and charts in an appendix, and readers
may be able to see the correlations for them and respond genuinely to report. Such material might include
detailed descriptions of equipment, relevant mathematical proofs, research questionnaires or a detailed
description of a cited author's intent. For example, including transcripts of any important interviews
conducted, the reader can flip to them if they want more information from a particular source.
Guidelines for Preparing Annexure
1) Well-Structured and Clearly Referenced: Appendices should be well-structured and clearly

referenced in the text of the research paper. The format of the appendix can be based on a style manual,
such as the APA manual, or upon the style of word processing software, such as Word.
2) Add Additional Documents: Data, charts, questionnaires or other information include in the appendix
for providing more detail or attaching a report in its entirely. Summary information goes in the text of the
paper.
3) Reference Provide for Appendix: Appendices may precede or follow the reference list. An appendix
includes the actual data referenced in the research paper. Include the appendix only if reference it in the
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paper. Reference helps to summarise the information in the text and then add a phrase such as "see
Appendix C for the survey in its entirety."
4) Accordance with the Appropriate Style: Prepare the appendix page in accordance with the
appropriate style manual. Generally, researcher set up the margins in accordance with the style manual.
For example, 1- inch top, bottom, left and right margins and type Appendix at the top centre of the page.
The appendix should be either numerical or alphabetical (Appendix A or Appendix I), should have page
numbers and be cantered, from top to bottom, on the page. Appendices follow the bibliography or works
cited pages.
5) Well Placed in Research Report: For hard copies, print the appendix pages and place them after the
works cited portion of the research paper. Each appendix must begin on a new page. The page number(s)
of the appendix/appendices will continue on with the numbering from the last page of the text and must
be listed in the table of contents (if used).
6) Lettering or Numbering: They must be allocated letters, Annex A, B, C, etc. Alternatively they may
be given Arabic numbers. Letters and Roman numerals have the advantage that they do not get muddled
with paragraph numbers. Care should be taken with Roman numbering in reports with numerous
attachments, as many junior clerical staff is not familiar with many Roman numerals. The letters (or
numbers) must be allotted in the order in which they are mentioned in the text as this will enable the
reader to keep moving his book-mark or thumb down through the attachments as he reads. Spurious
numbering of attachments is misleading and unhelpful.
7) Mentioning: They must be mentioned in the report itself. They are supplementary to the main core of
the report. They may, perhaps, deal with specialist or esoteric matters. Thus as they sit on the fringe of
affairs, if the reader's attention is not drawn to them he may never see them. A note in brackets may be
used.
8) Listing: They must be listed in or immediately after the table of contents. If there is no list of contents
they should be itemized at the foot of the report. Apart from being a guide to the reader, such a list acts as
an instruction to the functionary who staples or binds the report.
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Introduction
Conclusions should be drawn with direct reference to the objectives of the study. The readers should be
able to read the objectives. When they turn to the conclusions section, they should-be able to find specific
conclusions relative to each objective. If, as sometimes happens, the study does not obtain satisfactory
data from which to draw a conclusion relative to an objective, this should be acknowledged rather than
disguised.
While it is almost always necessary for the researchers to draw conclusions, it is not always possible or
advisable for them to make recommendations. On occasions the researchers may be specifically asked
not to make recommendations. In other situations where the researchers have worked on one problem but
have limited knowledge of the company's background and general operating policies, they would be
unwise to recommend definite courses of action even if asked to do so. Making recommendations
assumes considerable knowledge of the total picture, including the resources of the firm and all the
alternative courses of action. Often research workers do not have this knowledge.
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Writing a conclusion is the final part of the research paper, drawing everything together and tying it into
the initial research. The conclusion of the research paper should tie up all of the trains of thought that
researcher presented in the paper and to show where they might ultimately lead. It is not, however, the
place to introduce new claims or information that researcher have not presented anywhere else in the
paper.
There are several approaches that researcher could take in writing the conclusion to the research paper
other than to refer back to introduction.
1) Researcher could summarize the main points but if he uses this method then be sure to make the
summary interesting rather than a just list of points.
2) Present a bold statement that takes the topic to a deeper meaning and state the overall importance of
what researcher have said in the paper.
3) Conclude the paper by restating what researcher have found, acknowledge that there is more to be
explored on the topic and briefly describe the issues that remain,
Techniques for Drawing Conclusion

Conclusions use three techniques, alone or in combination:
1) Frame: This conclusion refers to an image, comparison, story, and question or quote from the
introduction.
A frame acts like a bookend since the image or story is referred to in both the introduction and the
conclusion. But in the conclusion, the reference gives a new perspective.
2) Expansion: This conclusion takes the reader beyond the ideas in the essay. This additional step relates
closely to the essay ideas but encourages the reader to think about them differently. Several strategies
will do this:
i) Reflection: Offer a thoughtful statement
ii) Question: Ask a question to make the reader think
iii) Call to action: Suggest reader take action regarding topic
iv) Judgment: Give your opinion about topic
v) Illustration: Show how topic has affected you
3) Summary: This conclusion works well for long, complicated essays. Restating the main points
reminds the reader of the ideas covered in the essay. Argument essays or research papers often use
summarizing conclusions. Even if a summary is used, the expanded conclusion can give the reader a
different perspective.
Aspects of Drawing Conclusion

Drawing conclusions, typically presented in these discussion section of a research paper or presentation.
This step includes several aspects:
1) Summaries and Explain: The researcher should summarize and explain the results of the study, and
this discussion should address whether the results were expected and present thorough explanations of
the study's results.
2) Compare the Results: The researcher should compare the results with results from previous research
in the area as identified in the literature review earlier in the research process. The researcher should ask
himself that 'Did the results of the study confirm or refute previous research?'
3) Implications of the Study: The researcher should present implications of the study, both theoretical
and practical i.e. what do the results of the study mean for research in this area? What can sport industry
professionals learn from the results?
4) Discussion and Conclusion: The discussion and conclusion sections of the research process typically
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provide suggestions for future research in the topic area.
Guidelines for Drawing Effective Conclusion
1) Stick with a Basic Synthesis of Information: The most basic conclusion is the summary closing,
which is very similar to the paper's introduction. Since this sort of conclusion is so basic, it is vital that
aim to synthesize the information rather than merely summarizing it. Instead of merely repeating things
already said, rephrase thesis and supporting points in a way that ties them all together. By doing so,
researcher make research paper seem like a "complete thought" rather than a collection of .random and
vaguely related ideas.
2) Close with Logic: If research paper presented multiple sides of an issue, use conclusion to state a
logical opinion formed by evidence. Include enough information about topic to back the statement up but
do not get too carried away with excess detail.
3) Speculate: If research did not provide with a clear-cut answer to a question posed in thesis, do not be
afraid to indicate as much. Restate initial hypothesis and indicate whether still believe it or if the research
performed has begun swaying opinion. Indicate that an answer may still exist and that further research
could shed more light on the topic at hand.
4) Pose a Question: Instead of handing the reader the conclusion, researcher is asking the reader to form
his or her own conclusion. Ask a question that will directly get purpose of the paper. Make sure that the
question can be answered by the evidence presented in paper. If desired, researcher can briefly
summarise the answer after stating the question. Researcher could also leave the question hanging for the
reader to answer, though.
5) Make a Suggestion: Researcher could provide reader with a recommendation on how to proceed with
further research. Even without a call to action, still make a recommendation to reader. For example, if
writing about a topic like third-world poverty, various ways for the reader to assist in the problem
without necessarily calling for more research.
6) Bring things Full Circle: Tie research paper together by directly linking introduction with conclusion.
There are several ways to do this.
i) Ask a question in introduction. In conclusion, restate the question and provide a direct answer.
ii) Write an anecdote or story in introduction but do not share the ending. Instead, write the conclusion to
the anecdote in the conclusion of paper.
iii) Use the same concepts and images introduced in introduction in conclusion. The images may or may
not appear at other points throughout the research paper.
7) Consider Using a Quotation: Use a fitting quotation on the topic at hand to provide one final, easy-
to- remember piece of evidence that supports overall research. The quotation should usually be one from
research. It may even be something already stated in paper. Researcher could also use a related quotation
from a famous individual or known expert in the field even if researcher did not use material from that
individual in any other part of paper.
SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS TO The CONCERNED PERSONS
Introduction
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While it is almost always necessary for the researchers to draw conclusions, it is not always possible or
advisable for them to make recommendations. On occasions the researchers may be specifically asked
not to make recommendations. In other situations where the researchers have worked on one problem but
have limited knowledge of the company's background and general operating policies, it would be unwise
to recommend definite courses of action even if asked to do so. Making recommendations assumes
considerable knowledge of the total picture, including the resources of the firm and all the alternative
courses of action. Often research workers do not have this knowledge.
In this section, researcher finally has the opportunity to present and discuss the actions that future
researchers should take as a result of the Project. A well-thought-out set of recommendations makes it
more likely that the organisation will take the recommendations seriously. Ideally researchers should be
able to make a formal recommendation regarding the alternative that is best supported by the study.
Present and discuss the kinds of additional research suggested by your Project. If the preferred alternative
is implemented, what additional research might be needed? Research recommendations produce a
summary of what is to be expected from the research. It tells the goal of the research and the research
methodology that the researcher has thought of to arrive at the destination. It talks about the scope and
importance of the chosen subject and how it will add value in the existing store of knowledge.
The final stage is the researcher's recommendation based upon the results, depending upon the field of
study. This area of the research process can be based around the researcher's personal opinion, and will
integrate previous studies. For example, a physicist might postulate that our picture of the structure of an
atom should be changed. A researcher could make suggestions for refinement of this experimental
design, or highlight the interesting areas for further study. This final piece of the research is the most
critical and pulls together all of the other findings. The area in a research paper that cause intense and
heated debate amongst scientists is when drawing conclusions. It is critical in determining the directions
taken by the scientific community but the researcher will have to justify his findings.
Research investigations and in-depth studies provide new knowledge and experience to a researcher. This
in turn would require a researcher to have a degree of expertise and insight, so as to enable him to suggest
some guidelines to all those interested. Further, a researcher gains a measure of confidence and certainty
in his research findings, so as to make recommendations.
Purpose of Suggestions and Recommendations

Recommendations for further research include the following:
1) Provide Solution for Problem: The recommendations section of any report is important because it
calls people to action based on the evidence that has been gathered and analysed in the report. It needs to
be actionable, specific and make sense as a solution to the problems detailed in the report. Some readers
will skip the report and turn directly to the recommendations section, which represents the essence of the
report's work.
2) Provide Change or New Idea: Researcher expected to make suggestions about how work can be
improved based on the findings, whether there are areas that deserve further investigation.
Recommendations could be for change, improvement or new ideas to improve such areas as service,
productivity or performance. They can be listed one at a time (often numbered). Continue to explore the
demographic changes in our society and tie them more closely to global changes; identify which
strategies are particularly effective in obtaining top level management support for diversity efforts.
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3) Provide Recommendation to Sponsor and Other Researcher: Recommendations fall into two
categories
- The first is recommendations to the study sponsor, i.e., what actions do they take based upon the data.
The second is recommendations to other researchers. There are almost always ways that a study could be
improved or refined. For example, what would change if to do study over again? These are the
recommendations to other researchers.
4) Provide Suggestion for Further Study: Recommendations emerge out of conclusions and helps in
providing cases for further research on same area. These are actually suggestions for action in an applied
research. The researcher may present several alternatives with justification. In academic research, the
recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the subject
area.
Components of Suggestions and Recommendations

There are several parts of suggestions and recommendations in research which are as follows:
1) Restatement of the Problem: Theoretical papers normally end by a restatement of the problem under
investigation and a brief summary of the proposed solution(s) discussed. This is a short reiteration of the
problem.
2) Description of Procedures: This is a brief reiteration of important elements of the design of the study.
3) Major Findings: The final results from the analysis are presented, the hypothesis stated, and the
decision about the rejection or the failure to reject the hypothesis is given.
4) Recommendations for Further Investigation: From the knowledge and experienced gained in
undertaking this particular study. In this step researcher discuss how might the study have been improved
or what other possible hypotheses might be investigated.
Guidelines for Effective Suggestions and Recommendations

Recommendations, like Objectives, should be SMART, i.e., specific, measurable, achievable, result-
oriented and time-bound:
1) Specific: Researcher should state the method for implementing your recommendation. Business
recommendations should be legal, especially regarding any punishment of staff. Recommendations
should be suitable for the company culture; e.g. it may not be a good idea to suggest training courses for
staff on Sundays. Like most formal business writing, recommendations should be clear, concise, and
correct. For example, company should improve staff morale by setting up a suggestion scheme, then
rewarding and implementing good suggestions.
2) Measurable: Although some things in business are difficult to measure, such as reputation, goodwill,
knowledge and quality, your recommendations will be more persuasive if they are measurable. For
example, company can increase sales by spending 10% more on advertising. According to our experience
with our recent advertising campaigns, this will generate an extra 15% in sales, rather than company
should increase sales.
3) Achievable: Recommendations should not involve too little time, or too much money, labour,
facilities or risk. For example, Organisation should re-train sales staffs who consistently does not meet
sales targets rather than re-train all sales staff is not an achievable recommendation by researcher.
4) Result-Oriented: The recommendation should provide good results for stakeholders. For example,
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Company should set up procedures so that new salespeople are not allowed to serve customers until they
have finished their training, and new salespeople should always be accompanied by an experienced sales
person for the first month of their service.
5) Time-Bound: The recommendation should set realistic deadlines for completion of suggestions. For
example, Salespeople should not serve customers until they have finished their training rather than the
salesperson should not serve customers.
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Branches:
Z test (Normal Probability Distribution)
Z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2703 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3780 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4884 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.498 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990
Branches:
(1) Vidhyadhar Nagar (2) Mansarovar (3) Lal Khothi 9.1
T Test
Branches:
Chi-Square Test
Branches:
F-test 5%
Branches:
F-test 1%
Branches:
Spearmans Rank Correlation
Branches:
.-
v RoilNo., 13MBtxx 6lq TotalPrinted Pages:f
-v
-
fAl t 2M5106
- ----- I
I. B..I Qem.
U I M-206A fi) (Main/Back) Examinarion, Juty . 2014
AI Research tuleihods in Management'
6l
Time:3 Hoursl-
[Total Marks:70
[Min. Passing Marks: 28
(1) TT'te question paper is d.iuid.ed. in two sections.

(2) There are sections A and, B. section A contains 6 questions
out
af uthich the candidate is required, to attempt any 4 questions.
Section B contain short case studjt / applicatlion base 1 questions
which is compulsory.
(3) All questions are carrying equal marks.
2. NIL
SECTION - A
Describe different types of Research in brief. Define the main

problems which are encountered by a researcher in the business
research. n4 0Rtr ED
UC l+Tl t, N
FuruEtrT nloAr 8+6
qr
Saqq 5q ;zL
t'..*1I' what is the significance of sample selection in Research ? Describe
and di-qtinguish probability and non-probabfity sampling.
6+8
'Processing and analysis of data implies Editing, coding,

classification and Tabulation". Describe these operations in brief,
pointing oui ihe importance of each in context cf research study.
t4
2M5106r lffiiltgryillilll]illtliltuililt 1 IContd...

.W,/+///,t Write short note on the following :
(a) Different sources of Secondary Data.

(b) SPSS and Its use in Data Analysis.
8+6
A consumer goods manufacturing company wants to test

whether its three salesmen X, Y and z tendto make sales of same
size or they differ in their selling ability as measured by the
average size of their sales. During the last week out of 12 sales
calls X made -1, Y made 3 and z made b. The following are the
weekly sales record of the three salesmen in 100.
fn OR e
trA)eATi o N)
Purrrre€T trr. o Re
qgTqqs qs34'
Determine whether the three salesrnen's average sales differ in

size, taking 5% level of sigrrfficance. Table value of F at 0.05 level
and 2 and g d.egree of freedom is 4.26.
14
,1,
t",1,fi' Give the format of Research Report in brief describing its element
with example.
t4
SECTION -B
/'
,.4' The following table gives the number of good and defective parts
'\*/" produced by each of the three shifts in a factory. using a b% Ievel
of significance find if there is any association between the shit and
the quality of the part produced.
Given value of X2 at bYo level of significance is 5.gg1. '-',- -,
shift Good Defective Total (- " \,' '> -)-u i: '
Day 900 130 1030 1 : ; - :':';1": ":'i
-:':'' j
Evening 700 170 870 / ''. ! .'.'1,'"'l
Night 400 200 600
Total 2000 500 2500
t4
iltlftillt iltil ilEiltfit[ Iilt

In5106
ll[l 2 22,10
RollNo. Total No of Pagecr ffi
2M5106
M. II. A, II Sem. (Mnin / Bnck) Ilxum., July'August 2015
M-206 Research Methods in Mnnagement
Time: 3 Hours Maxlmum Marks: 70

Min. Passing Marks: 28
Instructions to Candidates :
(i) The question paper is divided in two sections,
(ii) There are sections A & B, Section A contains 6 questions out af

which the caididate is required to attempt any 4 questions,
Section B contains short case study / application based Question
whichis compulsory,
(iii) All questions carry equal marks. pt"iNHHT
tul**f;
2. NIL ln-q $ $ $ ri 5 J
1. NIL {,
spcTIoIY-s,
,/l
qly'l What do you mean by research? Explain various types of research" t7l
(b) What is research problem? Define the main issues wtrich should receive the
attention of the researcher in formulating the research problem. Give suitable
. /l examples to elucidate your points. Ul
//\
Q.Z7Bnefly describe the different steps invoived in a research process. Discuss the
\'/ different methods which are adopted for thd purpose of Research Design. U41
Q.3 (a) What do you mean by 'sampling'? State the various methods of sampling. U)
(b) Design a questionnaire to study the buying behaviors of consurners in a shopping
mall" t7l
[2Ms1o6] Page 1 of3 1246al

Q,4 (a) "Ptocessittg of' clltu irnplies editing, eoding, elnssifipution und tubulation",
Describe in brief tlrese l'our operntions'pointing out the significnnee df eaeh in
context o1' research study,

t7l
(b) Write shorf notes on:
1, Use of SPSS in dura malysis
t3I
2, Parametric aneJ non parnnrcBic te$t$ t4I
/l
/
the data given holow about the trsEtment of 250 patients suffering from a
!y'ron
disease, state whetlrer the ncw seetmsnt [s superior to the conventional treatment :( for
degree of freedom * l, chi- ${gwro S pmoenu3.S4} l1+1
Trnarmsnt
ffilt$uffi ,ffiiffiffi! fds!

New
'lj .' ,
i [ffi 30 170
i'; , i,,r
Conventional 60 20 80 fry5fl ndoftE
Total 200 50 250 rAj r,4"/A')b"d
ae
The sales data of an item in six shops before and after a special promotional campaign
ftre &s under:
Q$w A B C D E F
.Before 53 28 31 48 50 42
Uampatgn
After 58 29 30 55 56 45
campaign
't:'
I
.::j
Can the campaign be judged to be a success? (5% significance level, table value "+
=2.57) ::irn
l;.il
-,4
*
,:,;jii
*;}l
,Hg
i.ifi
[?M5,106] Page 2 of3 1246al
,EJS
,!.-,
,,iffi
r:i*
i"B
lffi
aydshort notes on:
a. Laygtrt of Research Report t7l

b. Bibliography and Annexure in the report t7l
Q.7 Tg,;dsess the significance of possible variation in porformance in tr certain test

,#::n
between the convent schools "of a city, & common tost was given to, a number of
>y'"
students taken at random from the senior fifth class of each of four school concerned.
The results are given below. Make an analysis of variance of data"
(Table value=3.24) t14l
School
A B C D
o
() t?, \u,I t8 13 {,& q
10 11 .t a.! i2 \qt4 e 8l
t2 e .6t 16 2& Lz tq Ll
8 14 l8u 6 -34 16 2st

7 46 8 6.1 15 )-Lf
SD cf T.rtt I
Pl :t',1rPT n{SftH
r,';.iigIit]5$S
i.. ,::\i".li\/dwffi$ \aPf
t2q
ztq(
t\\\
[2Ms105] Page 3 of3 124681

\0
Roll No. Total No of Pages: tr
o Ltvt1to6
F.{
tn
M. B. A. II
Sem. (Nlain / Back) Exam., June-July 2016
M-206 A Research Methods in Management
N
=
Time: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 70

(i) The question paper is divided in two sections.

(ii) There are sections A & B. Section A coniains 6 questiotns otut of
which the candidate is required to attempt any 4 questions.
section B contains short case study / appliaation based question
which is..compulsory.
(iii) All questions carry equial marks.
SECTION ,,A
Q. 1 (a) Explain the concept of research and its application in various functions of
management. Ul
(b) What are the"different types of business problems encountered by the
researcher? , L|l
Q.2 What do you mean by research design? Explain various methods of research
design. tr4l
Q.3 (a) What do you understand by primary and secondary data? Explain the various
methods of collection of primary data and sources of secondary data. I7l
(b) What is questionnaire? What is difference
-b-9tye'elgg.e$iglgaigtmf,rchedule?
What preeautions should be taken in dfifting a good questionnaire? 171
Q.a (a) Explain sub-divided bar diagrams and Pie-Diagrams with illustration and their
(b) Distinguish between parametric and non-parametric tests. Give advantages of a
non-parametric test. l7l

lzMs106l Page 1 ofZ 1242ol
\
eL,s'&
Q.5 (a) What are the precautions should be taken in preparing the research report. t7)
(b) Write a short note on thesis. U1
Q.6 (a) A certain medicine given to each of the 12 patients,tpsulted in the following
increase of blood presspre. Can it be concluded that the medicine will in general
be accompained'by an increase in blood pressure?
-1, +3, 0,'+6, '2, +1, +5, 0, .+4. Ul
, (t. 05 tor df. = 11is2.201) +5, +2. +8,
.'(b)r+low many pairs of items should be included in a sample so that for r = +.42, the
1-/'' 6dlculated value of-t may be mo{e tndiz.lzl 17)
OR
The marks obtained in an examination follow the normal distribution with.mean 180
and standard deviation 40. If 10,000 students appeared at the examination. U41
(a) Calculate the number of students scoring betryeen 140 and 150 marks,
(b) Lowest marks of 1000 toppers
(c) Highest marks of 500 worst performers.
lZ(P=0.4)-+ 1.281
SECTION B
Caqg Siudv
a;Ahe following table gives the yields on 15 sample fields under three varieties of seeds
(vtz A,B,C): t14l
AB C
20 ** 18 !'} Y 25 {, 1'f
T*
L,{
2L url I 20 Ll r',' 28 -1
dY
z3 ( "i 1 17 -*,;' tl 22 L{ fr Ll
rut&f's
16 rl16 25 ils 28'-'[ {'.'l
20 {,0} 15 $&.f'
L-t 32 i {r"} tI
Test at 5Vo level of significanQe whether the average yields of lard under different
: varieties of seed show. Significant differences (Table value of F at 5 7o level for Y t = 2
and Yz= 12 - 3.88)
[2Ms 106] Page 2 ofZ 1?42ol
I
VIDEO AVAILABLE FOR
WWW.MOREEDUCATION.IN ALL PRACTICAL & THEORY SUBJECT RTU MBA CLASSES SINCE 2005
Roll No. Total No of Pages= p
2Nt5 106
M.B.A. Ir-Sem (Main lBack) Exam., May - z0l8
M-206A Research Methods in Management
Time: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 70

(i) The question paper is divided in two sections.
(ii) There are sections A & B. Section A contains 6 questions out of which the
candidate is required to attempt any 4 questions. Section B contains short
case study / application based question which is compulsory.
(iii) All questions carry equal marlcs.
1. NIL 2. NIL
SECTION -A
Q./a) Discuss the vaiious methods of research.
171
O) MORE EDUCATION 9829959536

Briefly describe the different steps involved in research process. t7l
'a\,-'l,lhat
are the important concepts relating to research design? Explain. t7)
*ut do you mean by Sample? Discuss the various types of Sampling

Y
techniques. t7l
short notes on the following:
fWrite [5+5+4-14]
Primary and Secondary data.
lzMs106l Page 1 of 3 [2e00I
JAIPUR-VIDHYADHAR NAGAR 418 MANSAROVAR PLAZA PRATAP NAGAR

VIDEO AVAILABLE FOR
Q.4 What is testing of hypothesis? Explain how it is useful for illustrating a research
problem with examples. 14+10= l4l
Q.5 (a) What is Chi-square test? Explain the significance in statistical analysis of any
i
research proble-m. U)
(b) Suppose that the thickness of a part used in a semiconductor is its critical
dimension and that measurements of the thickness of a random sample of 18 such
parts have the variance s2=0.68, where the measurements are in thousandths of an
inch. The process rs consrdered

aa.
to be under control if the variation of the
thickness is given by a variance not greater that 0.36. Assuming that the
measurements constifute a random sample from a normal population, test the null
-hypothesis o2=0.36 against the alternative o40.36 at the cx=.05 significance
MORE
level.
EDUCATION 9829959536 U)
{d*
Wrafiraft the layout of Research Report. ,; u4)

{
SECTION. B
t14l
y Case Study-
A common admission test was conducted in four colleges. 5 students were selected at
random from each college and the marks scored by them are given below. Make an
analysis of variance.
[2Ms1o6] Page 2 of3 [2eool
qld'e--
t

VIDEO AVAILABLE FOR
("o l'
\__
Sample X1 SampleX2 Sample X3 Sample Xa
15 20 11 14
18 24 15
20 25 L7 zs
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.:
t3 \.'.
;
24 18 t9
t3 13 18 zzt[ul
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MORE EDUCATION 9829959536
Page 3 of 3 [2e0ol
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A unit of Realwaves (P) Ltd

I have the pleasure of presenting this study material to you. It

I wish you a very happy study time.

2 Process of Research And Research Design 2.1

3 Sampling And Collection of Data 3.1

4 Analysis of Data 4.1

5 Estimation Theory and Hypothesis Testing 5.1

6 Techniques of association of Attributes & Testing

7 Research Report Preparation 7.1

8 Bibliography and Annexure in the Report 8.1

Application of Research in Functions of Management

2) Diagnosing and Assessing Problems or Opportunities: After an organisation recognizes a problem

1) On the Basis of Application: On the basis of application research is of two types:

iii) Causal/Experimental Research: Although experimental research is primarily possible in areas of

5) Other Types of Research

Types of Business Problems Encountered by the Researcher

9) Lack of Scientific Training in the Methodology of Research: There is a paucity of competent

Problem & Precautions to the Researchers

1) Systematic Study: A systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before

Significance of Research in Business

4) Assisting Managers in the Decision-Making Process: Business research is necessary to assist

CHAPTER 2 PROCESS OF RESEARCH AND

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Research process consists of a number of closely related activities.

F = Feedback (helps in controlling the sub system to which is transmitted)

Working hypotheses can be developed by using the following approach:

(b) Summary of findings: A statement of findings and recommendation in non-technical language

FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

REQUIREMENTS FOR A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

(i) QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Cause (independent variable) Effect- outcome (dependent variable)

Cause effect diagram

(e) Experimental: Experimental research or intervention approach, the researcher manipulates a

Study population (Sampling)

Sample population (Randomization)

Experimental, or study group control or comparison group

First data collection First data collection

Period of interventional manipulation no intervention manipulation

Last data collection Last data collection

Before and After with control design

(ii) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE METHOD

QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

CHAPTER 3 SAMPLING AND

METHODS OF SAMPLING / VARIOUS TYPE OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Non- probability sampling methods Probability sampling methods

Judgment sampling Sampling or unrestricted

A. Non- probability sampling methods:

(ii) Convenience sampling: A convenience sample is obtained by selecting ‘convenient’ population

Nature of Probability Sampling

The nature of probability sampling can be described as follows:

3) Sophisticated: However, probability sampling is sophisticated and requires statistically trained

4) Permits Generalisation: The major advantage of probability sampling is that it permits

Advantages of Probability Sampling

5) Easy: It allows easy data analysis and error calculation.

Disadvantages of Probability Sampling

B. Probability sampling methods

(ii) Restricted random sampling: