Basic Research For Improvement of Road Development Projects by Japan's ODA in African Countries - Ethiopia, Ghana, Tanzania

Basic Research for Improvement of Road
Development Projects by Japan’s ODA

in African Countries
- Ethiopia, Ghana, Tanzania -
Site Survey Report
March 2013
JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY
GL
Eight-Japan Engineering Consultants Inc.
JR
Oriental Consultants Co., Ltd. 13-005

Site Photos in Ethiopia
1) NR No.3 (Phase I section by Japanese ODA)
Good condition with respect to large number of heavy Adopted concrete pavement at Bus Bays
vehicles
2) NR No.3 (Phase II section by Japanese ODA)
Damaged section where has large catchment area, it Damaged section where is identified at cut area, it
may be responded by ground water. may also be responded by ground water.
3) NR No.3 (Phase III section by Japanese ODA)
Flow rutting was identified at lowland in Abay, Flow rutting at sharp curve might be caused by side
because of high temperature and heavy vehicle with slip of rear tires.
low speed.
E ‐ i
Site Photos in Ethiopia
In several portion, pavement was destroyed because Heavy vehicles hauling lime-stone have been passing
small and/or large scale land-slides have been in Abay. Travelling speed is lower than walking
occurring in Abay speed.
4) NR No.1
Large number of flow rutting is identified on Bypass for NR No.1 is under construction by Chinese
climbing lane in lowland located around 1,000m in contractor.
height.
5) Weighbridge on NR No.1
Axle load check has been strictly doing in Axle load is measured by each axle, regulated value
cooperation with police. for front and rear axle is 8ton and 10ton a axle,
respectively.
E ‐ ii
Site Photos in Ghana
1) NR No.1 (Accra – Tema Highway)
Four-lane concrete pavement which is improved under Good condition after completion is kept by optimum
leadership of the first president maintenance.
2) NR No.1 (George Bush Highway)
Six-lane road financed by Millennium Challenge Adopted concrete pavement at Bus Bays
Corporation (MCC)
3) NR No.1 (Suburban Area)
Shoulder pavement destroyed by traffic for small Four-lane road with wide median strip which has
access road, because of thin layer (DBST) center drainage facilities
G ‐ i
Site Photos in Ghana
4) NR No.8
Reappeared pot hole on repaired section Trace of repair at sag point
New As binder course under construction by Japanese New surface As pavement under construction by
ODA, qualities such as flatness are high. Japanese ODA, As content of 5.1% is relatively high.
5) Tema Weighbridge
Layout of Tema weighbridge is same as highway parking Not each axle but total weight is measured at
in Japan. weighbridge.
G ‐ ii
Site Photos in Tanzania
1) Kilwa Road in Dar es Salaam (Improved by Japanese ODA)
Flow rutting with large scale on outside lane of Bus Bay along Kawawa road, Semi-flexible pavement
carriage way was adopted for huge number of buses.
Center drainage on median strip, drainage system was Large pot hole and flow rutting on straight section
carefully designed. This phenomenon may be caused from thin layer with
flow rutting.
Side drainage was filled with water because of Same as left photo. Downstream side of crossing pipe
breakage of crossing pipe. was blocked with broken piece of pavement.
T ‐ i
Site Photos in Tanzania
2) Challinze-Tanga Road (Rehabilitated by DANIDA)
Pavement slip was occurred at interlayer between new Same as left picture
surface and old surface. Thin new surface of 4cm may
be caused this slip.
3) Kibaha-Challinze Section (Rehabilitated by TANROADS)
Long flow rutting on Kibaha-Challinze section. It A line of heavy vehicles on Kibaha-Challinze

occurred after repair work by own budget. section.(from Dar es Salaam to outside)
4) Kibaha Weighbridge
Weighbridge is located on both side of road. Under measuring, Axle load is measured by each axle.
T ‐ ii
Table of Contents
Page
1. Outline of the Basic Research

1.1 Background ················································································· 1- 1
1.2 Objectives ··················································································· 1- 2
1.3 Target Countries ············································································ 1- 3
1.4 Site Survey Schedule ······································································ 1- 4
2. Pavement Technology in Japan
2.1 Types and Applicable Conditions of Pavement ········································ 2- 1

2.2 Transitions in Pavement Design Methods in Japan ···································· 2- 6
2.3 Structural Design of Asphalt Pavement ················································· 2- 9
3. Applicable Standards in the Target Countries
3.1 Applicable Design Standards in the Target Countries ································· 3- 1

3.2 Related Survey Standards in the Target Countries ····································· 3- 2
3.3 Asphalt Blend Design ····································································· 3- 4
4. Conditions and Causes of Pavement Failure

4.1 Failure Conditions ········································································· 4- 1
4.2 Projected Causes of Failure ······························································· 4- 2
4.3 Implemented Pavement Failure Countermeasures ····································· 4- 14
Annex：Pavement Design Method in Japan (TA method)

図表一
【 Table 】
Table 2-1. The kind of pavement and a classification ·············································· 2- 2
Table 2-2 Summary and application of concrete pavement ········································ 2- 3
Table 2-3. Type of asphalt mixture ···································································· 2- 4
Table 2-4. The type of surface course mixture and characteristic and main use point·········· 2- 5
Table 2-5. Concept of performance code ····························································· 2- 7
Table 2-6. Output of performance and the design of the pavement ······························· 2- 8
Table 2-7. Example of the elastic modulus and Poissons ratio ··································· 2- 10
Table 3-1. Geometric structural standard ····························································· 3- 1
Table 3-2. The pavement design method of survey target countries ······························ 3- 1
Table 3-3. Drainage method of survey target countries ············································ 3- 2
Table 3-4. Standard of the traffic volume survey in Ethiopia ······································ 3- 3
Table 3-5. Standard of the traffic volume survey in Ghana ········································ 3- 3
Table 3-6. Standard of the traffic volume survey in Tanzania ····································· 3- 3
Table 3-7. Subgrade surveyof target survey countries ·············································· 3- 3
Table 3-8. Mix design method for asphalt composite··············································· 3- 4
Table 3-9. Application condition of Refusal Density（Ethiopia） ······························· 3- 4
Table 4-1. Failure cause of the asphalt pavement (assumption) ································· 4- 2
Table 4-2. National highway traffic volume of Ethiopia ··········································· 4- 4
Table 4-3. Results of WT test ·········································································· 4- 4
Table 4-4. Measurement result of the surface of the pavement temperature ····················· 4- 5
Table 4-6. Possibility of a plasticity index (PI) and the expansion································ 4- 11
Table 4-7. Plasticity index (PI) and shrinkage limit and expansion degree ······················ 4- 11
Table 4-8. The control situation of the overloading vehicle ······································· 4- 14
Table 4-9. Use example of such as the modified asphalt in survey target country ·············· 4- 15
Table 4-10. The dynamic stability that was used by an expressway project in Ethiopia ······· 4- 16
Table 4-11. Black cotton soil measures example in Ethiopia ······································ 4- 19
Table 4-12. Countermeasure standards for black cotton soil in different countries ············· 4- 20
【 Figure 】
Figure 2-1. Flow of the pavement design ···························································· 2- 8

Figure 2-2. Structure design of asphalt pavement ··················································· 2- 9
Figure 4-1. The overloaded actual situation in the TEMA observatory ·························· 4- 3
Figure 4-2. Relations of pavement temperature and the dynamic stability ······················ 4- 6
Figure 4-3. Tanzania:Trunk road test results（AC-20） ········································ 4- 7
Figure 4-4. Ethiopia:Trunk road testresults（AC-20） ·········································· 4- 7
Figure 4-5. Flow of water affecting the pavement ·················································· 4- 9
Figure 4-6. Flow of the water at Sag point(Mechanism of the pavement failure) ············· 4- 9
Figure 4-7. The pumping phenomenon ······························································· 4- 10
Figure 4-8 Condition of the soil and consistency limit ············································· 4- 13
Figure 4-9. Design example of the base course drainage in the United States ·················· 4- 18
Figure 4-10. Change standard typical cross section················································· 4- 18
【 Photograph 】
Photograph 2-1 Asphalt pavement (left) and concrete pavement (right) ······················· 2- 1
Photograph 2-2.Dense graded mixture ······························································· 2- 5
Photograph 2-3.Porous asphalt mixture ······························································ 2- 5
Photograph 2-4.Construction example of the Semi-flexible pavement··························· 2- 6
Photograph 4-1. Groundwater flowing down from the mountain side ·························· 4- 1
Photograph 4-2.Water in base course.Damage is seen in both sides across the bridge. ······ 4- 1
Photograph 4-3. For example rutting caused by fluidization of the surface course. ··········· 4- 1
Photograph 4-4. The truck which it is fully loaded with charcoal (Ghana) ···················· 4- 3
Photograph 4-5. Dump to be fully loaded with limestone, and to run (Ethiopia) ············· 4- 3
Photograph 4-6.Ssmall curve radius. ································································ 4- 5
Photograph 4-7. The speed is less than 5km/h. ···················································· 4- 5
Photograph 4-8. Etiopia: Rural trunk road ·························································· 4- 8
Photograph 4-9. Etiopia:Rural trunk road ·························································· 4- 8
Photograph 4-10. Ghana：Rural trunk road(2007) ··············································· 4- 8
Photograph 4-11. Ethiopia：Urban trunk road ······················································ 4- 8
Photograph 4-12. Ethiopia：Rural trunk road ······················································· 4- 8
Photograph 4-13. Tanzania：Rural trunk road ······················································ 4- 8
Photograph 4-14. The asphalt pavement that muddy water eructs by pumping ··············· 4- 10
Photograph 4-15. Black cotton soil in Ethiopia ····················································· 4- 11
Photograph 4-16. Black cotton soil（Dry） ························································· 4- 11
Photograph 4-17. Black cotton soil(Condition is before immersion in water) ·············· 4- 11
Photograph 4-18. Typical early case of the pavement failure by black cotton soil ············· 4- 12
Photograph 4-19. Highway section of the same area as photograph ······························ 4- 12
Photograph 4-20. Parking and stopping of the large car in the shoulder ························· 4- 12
Photograph 4-21. The passing vehicle which running a shoulder. ······························ 4- 12
Photograph 4-22. Mozyo axle load observation station ············································ 4- 14
Photograph 4-23. Tema axle load observation station(Ghana) ··································· 4- 14
Photograph 4-24. Trunk road （Reinforced concrete pavement）（Ghana） ·················· 4- 15
Photograph 4-25. Trunk road：Roller compacted concrete pavement(RCCP) ················· 4- 15
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO ：American Association of State Highway FS ：Feasibility Study

and Transportation Officials GA ：Grant Agreement
AC ：Asphalt Concrete GCW ：Gross Combined Weight
AfDB ：Africa Development Bank GDP ：Gross Domestic Product
As ：Asphalt GHA ：Ghana Highway Authority

BBR ：Bending Beam. Rheometer GNI ：Gross National Income
BS ：British Standard GVW ：Gross Vehicle Weight
CBR ：California Bearing Ratio HDM ：Highway Development and
CIA ：Central Intelligence Agency Management
CML ：Central Material Laboratory HIPCs ：Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
Co ：Concrete HWL ：High Water Level
DANIDA ：Danish International Development ITP ：Inspection and Test Plan

Agency IRF ：International Road Federation
DBM ：Dense Bitumen Macadam IRI ：International Roughness Index
DBST ：Double Bitumen Surface Treatment ISOHDM ：International Study of Highway
DCP ：Dynamic Corn Penetration Development and Management System
DD ：Detail Design HGV ：Heavy Goods Vehicle
DFR ：Department of Feeder Roads JICA ：Japan International Cooperation Agency
DMS ：Detail Measurement Survey JIS ：Japan Industrial Standard
DS ：Design Standard JTF ：Joint Task Force
DS ：Dynamic Stability JV ：Joint Venture
DSR ：Dynamic Shear Rheometer LCC ：Life Cycle Cost
DT ：Direct Tension MDL ：Maximum density line
DUR ：Department of Urban Roads MGV ：Medium Goods Vehicle
EN ：Exchange of Note NEXCO ：Nippon Expressway Company
ERA ：Ethiopian Roads Authority NMT ：Non-motorized Traffic
ERCC ：Ethiopian Roads Construction NTP ：National Transport Policy

Corporation OD ：Outline Design
ESAL ：Equivalent Single Axle Load ODA ：Official Development Assistance

EU ：European Union ORN ：Overseas Road Note
FAR ：Federal Acquisition Regulation PAV ：Pressure Aging Vessel
FIDIC ：Fédération Internationale Des PFI ：Private Finance Initiative

Ingénieurs-Conseils PG ：Performance Grade
PI ：Plasticity Index
PI ：Professional Indemnity UEMOA ：Union Economique et Monetaire Ouest
PIARC ：Permanent International Association of Africaine
Road Congress UN ：United Nation
PMA ：Polymer-modified Asphalt VEF ：Vehicle Equivalent Factor
PSI ：Present Serviceability Index VHGV ：Very Heavy Goods Vehicle
PQ ：Pre-qualification VMA ：Voids in Mineral Aggregate
QAM ：Quality Assurance Manual WB ：World Bank

QAP ：Quality Assurance Plan WC ：Wearing Course
QC ：Quality Control WT ：Wheel Trucking
RCCP ：Roller－compacted Concrete for

Pavement
RD ：Rate of Deformation
RFI ：Request for Inspection
RRL ：Road Research Laboratory
RSDP ：Road Sector Development Programme
SA ：South Africa
SATCC ：Southern Africa Transport and

Communications Commission
SBS ：Styrene-butadiene-styrene
SCS ：Soil Conservation Service
SGC ：Superpave Gyratory Compactor
SHRP ：Strategic Higway Research Program
SN ：Structure Number
TANROADS：Tanzania Road Authority
TICAD ：Tokyo International Conference on

African Development
TOR ：Term of Reference
TPB ：Treated Permeable Base
TRH ：Technical Recommendations for

Highways
TRL ：Transport Research Laboratory

TRRL ：Transport and Road Research
Laboratory
TSDP ：Transport Sector Development

Programme
TSIP ：Transport Sector Investment Programme

Basic Research for Improvement of Road Development Projects by Japan’s ODA
1. Outline of the Basic Research
1.1 Background
It is commonly recognized in African countries that the transport sector is still underdeveloped.
Delays of development in this sector are one of the major barriers to economic growth and one
of the reasons for poverty. For this reason, development of the transport sector for transfer of
people and goods is an absolutely necessary condition for sustainable development and growth.
In particular, there is a high demand (need) for road improvement regardless of economic level.
Given this background, improvement of international roads, major urban roads and regional
roads has been promoted by continuous efforts of respective countries, and with cooperation of
development partners.
The Japan (JAPAN) is one of the major donors that have contributed to road development in
African countries. The road projects under Japan’s grant aid scheme are highly valued from the
aspects of quality control, schedule control and safety control due to the use of Japanese
standards in general.
In addition, JAPAN has continuously convened the Tokyo International Conference on African
Development (TICAD). Notably at TICAD IV in 2008, JAPAN committed to double the rate of
Official Development Assistance (ODA) for African countries until 2012. Under this
momentum, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the implementing arm of Japan’s
ODA, has been actively extending assistance for African countries, and road development /
improvement projects are given high priority.
In the operation of Japan’s ODA, it is important to assure a suitable level of product quality. In
this regard, any project should start with proper understanding of local conditions. Weather
conditions (temperature, rainfall, etc) and road management conditions (safety rules, over
loading, etc) in African countries are sometimes more severe than those observed in Japan.
Level and frequency of road maintenance are typically not the same as in Japan.
Under these conditions and in this construction environment:
A) Technical know-how and/or standards for design and construction based on experience in
Japan may not be applicable as defined, due to significant deviation of surrounding
environment such as weather conditions, soil conditions, axle load (control), traffic manner,
maintenance. Thus, standards for design, construction and quality control should be
carefully chosen to suite major local conditions, and various local expertise accumulated
based on past experiences and experiments must be sufficiently utilized.
B) Implementation system for construction works should be adequately organized by the

contractor/consultant with proper understanding of local resources such as sub-contractors.
1-1
C) Procurement of materials and equipment should also be arranged in accordance with actual
production and delivery conditions on site (in Japan, delivery networks of materials and
equipment are highly developed and such supply is usually quite predictable in terms of
schedule and quality).
Of these points, A) can be commonly applied in the design and execution stages of road
improvement projects under Japan’s ODA. Therefore, in order to address this, Basic Research is
aimed at collecting country-specific (indigenous) and useful information on above A).
Note: This Research is solely meant for collection of locally available data, knowledge and
know-how related to road construction (pavement). The output of this Research is expected to
contribute to capacity development of JICA staff, and betterment of product quality of road
development projects under Japan’s ODA. There is no function of project formulation.
1.2 Objectives
The objectives of this Research are as follows:

To study road conditions from the viewpoint of road surface by comparing Japan’s ODA
projects with similar type of projects executed by the government and other donors, in
order to grasp what design, construction and maintenance will achieve in the road
conditions after completion.
To compare the said road projects by analyzing the effects of differences between both
projects in project cost items (unit cost), contract conditions, design conditions and
specifications, etc.
To confirm the countermeasure and/or action for early damage of pavement from the
viewpoint of axle load, bituminous material (use of improved asphalt) and so on.
For these objectives, the Research team visited related ministries, road authorities, local
governments and donors for the following surveys.
To assess the present status of the road sector via questionnaires and interviews of
stakeholders (including the private sector).
To comprehend the policies and strategies of major donors regarding road sector
development in the target country.
To collect project data and conduct road condition surveys on actual road development
projects completed by both Japan and other donors in order to compare construction
costs, contract conditions, design specifications and so on.
Note: Among many research items, the following are particularly focused;
1-2
- Standard applicable to pavement structure design and design parameters such as reliability,
- Countermeasures for flow rutting of asphalt pavement from following viewpoints of:
over loading prevention (specific actions) ,
asphalt mix design with use of refusal density and Superpave (use of Gyratory
compactor) , etc,
combination use of mechanical test such as creep test, wheel trucking test and
LCPC test etc
change of pavement materials such as modified asphalt binder, cement concrete,

and semi-flexible pavement, etc
revision of pavement design standard or specification
- Standards applicable to drainage design and countermeasure for climate change (torrential
rain)
- Countermeasures applicable to problem soil such as expansive soils and dispersive soils, etc.
- Determination method of defect after completion (such as flow Rutting).
1.3 Target Countries
The following three countries have been selected as the focus of the Research, as these countries
are major recipient countries in the road sector from Japan and other donors:
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Republic of Ghana
United Republic of Tanzania
Towards the above goal, the Research team will visit various organizations in both public and
private sector in target countries.
1-3
1.4 Site Survey Schedule
1） 1st Site Survey Schedule
TANZANIA
No. of Day Date Research Items

1 5/10 (Thu) Leave for Tanzania
2 5/11 (Fri) Arrival at Tanzania
3 5/12 (Sat) Survey for city roads (urban rods)
4 5/13 (Sun) Survey for city roads (urban rods)
5 5/14 (Mon) AM: Meeting with JICA Office
PM: Hearing to TANROADS
6 5/15(Tue) Hearing to EU, DANIDA, WB
7 5/16(Wed) Hearing to local consultant and contractor
8 5/17(Thu) Hearing to Dar es Salaam University
Hearing to Central Laboratory
9 5/18(Fri) Hearing to Japan’s ODA Project
10 5/19(Sat) Hearing to Asphalt Plant
11 5/20(Sun) Data Collection
12 5/21(Mon) Reporting
13 5/22(Tue) Report to JICA Office and TANROADS
GHANA

14 5/23(Wed) Arrival at Ghana
15 5/24(Thu) AM: Meeting with JICA Office
PM: Hearing to GHA
16 5/25(Fri) Survey for Japan’s ODA Project (R1)
17 5/26(Sat) Hearing to Japan’s ODA Project (R8)
18 5/27(Sun) Survey for regional roads
19 5/28(Mon) Survey for city roads (urban rods)
20 5/29(Tue) Hearing to EU, WB, ADB
21 5/30(Wed) Hearing to local consultant and contractor
Hearing to Asphalt Plant
22 5/31(Thu) Data Collection and Reporting
23 6/1(Fri) Report to JICA Office and GHA
24 6/2(Sat) Reporting
ETHIOPIA

25 6/3(Sun) Arrival at Ethiopia
26 6/4(Mon) AM: Meeting with JICA Office, EOJ, JICA Expert
PM:ERA HQ, ERA Central Region Office
27 6/5(Tue) Survey for Japan’s ODA Project (Phase 1,2,3,4)
28 6/6(Wed) Survey for Trunk Road (after Phase 4 by WB, Chinese Contractor)
Hearing to Japan’s ODA Project (Kajima)
29 6/7(Thu) AM: Hearing to EU
Hearing to local consultant and contractor
PM: Survey for Trunk Road (Mojo-Awash by EU)
30 6/8(Fri) AM: Hearing to AACRA (Addis Ababa City Road Authority)
Hearing to ERA (Axle Load Department)
PM: Survey for Trunk Road (Addiss – Tamabel by GOE)
1-4
*As pavement and countermeasure for BCS)

31 6/9(Sat) Survey for city roads (urban rods)
32 6/10(Sun) Reporting
33 6/11(Mon) AM: Hearing to WB, ADB
PM: Hearing to Asphalt Plant
34 6/12(Tue) Hearing to Japan’s ODA Project (Awash Bridge)
35 6/13(Wed) Data Collection
36 6/14(Thu) Data Collection & Reporting
37 6/15(Fri) Report to JICA Office and ERA
38 6/16(Sat) Leave for Japan
39 6/17(Sun) Arrival at Japan
2） 2nd Site Survey Schedule
TANZANIA

1 8/19(Sun) Leave for Tanzania
2 8/20(Mon) Arrive at Tanzania
AM: Hearing to TANROADS
3 8/21(Tue)
PM: Hearing and discussion with Local Consultant
AM: Data collection from TANROADS
4 8/22(Wed)
PM: Hearing to the contractor for New Bagamoyo Road
AM: Survey for Kilwa Road
5 8/23(Thu) PM: Survey for New Bagamoyo Road
PM: Discussion with JICA
6 8/24(Fri) Survey for Chalinze-Tanga Road (DANIDA Project)
7 8/2(Sat) AM: Hearing and discussion with project manager for Chalinze-TangaProject
ETHIOPIA

8 8/26(Sun) Arrive at Ethiopia
AM: Discussion with JICA
9 8/27(Mon)
PM: Hearing and discussion with Local Consultant
10 8/28(Tue) Survey for NR No.3 (Phase I, II, III by Japan’s ODA)
11 8/29(Wed) Survey for NR No.3 (Phase I, II, III, IV by Japan’s ODA)
AM: Hearing to AACRA
12 8/30(Thu) PM: Hearing and discussion with ERA
PM: Reporting to EOJ
AM: Survey for Addis-Adama Highway
13 8/31(Fri)
PM: Data collection from ERA
14 9/1(Sat) Reporting
GHANA

15 9/2(Sun) Arrive at Ghana
AM: Discussion with JICA
16 9/3(Mon)
PM: Data collection and hearing to Local Consultant
AM: Data collection and hearing to GHA
17 9/4(Tue)
PM: Data collection and hearing to Local Consultant
18 9/5(Wed) Survey for city roads (e.g. George Bush HW)
AM: Reporting
19 9/6(Thu)
PM: Leave for Japan
20 9/7(Fri) Transit
21 9/8(Sat) Arrive at Japan
1-5
1-6
2. Pavement Technology in Japan

2.1 Types and Applicable Conditions of Pavement
(1) Types of Pavement
It is difficult to uniformly categorize types of pavement because descriptions and terms differ
according to the surface course materials, construction methods, functions and locations. In
practical terms, pavement can be broadly divided into asphalt pavement and concrete pavement.
Asphalt pavement refers to cases where the surface course is composed of asphalt mixture,
while concrete pavement refers to cases where the surface course is composed of cement
concrete.
These two types differ in terms of not only the surface course but also thinking on load
propagation. In the case of asphalt pavement, each course bears the stress and successively
dissipates the load, whereas in the case of cement concrete pavement, concrete plates on the
surface course bear the load, while the ground underneath the plates mainly serves to uniformly
support the surface course and secure easier execution. Due to these features, cement concrete
pavement is described as rigid pavement, while asphalt pavement is called flexible pavement.
Photograph2-1 Asphalt pavement (left) and concrete pavement (right)
Pavement is also divided into various types according to the blend, construction method and
anticipated functions. Table 2-1 shows types of pavement classified according to the surface
course materials, blend and construction method and function.
In terms of surface course materials, pavement is divided into the above-mentioned asphalt
pavement and cement concrete pavement as well other types. These can be classified according
to the type of binder used to bind the aggregate, and they are the most recognizable and
common category judging from surface observation too.
2-1
Classifications based on blend and construction method are also deeply related to pavement
categories that have special functions and structures, and classifications are made according to
the type of asphalt, method of blending, method of load dissipation and existence or not of
reinforcing bars in concrete and so on.
Categories of asphalt pavement are as follows. Recycled asphalt pavement, which is made
from modified straight asphalt, and modified asphalt pavement, etc. differ according to the type
of asphalt. Rolled asphalt pavement and porous asphalt pavement are classified according to the
blend. Meanwhile, full-depth asphalt pavement and composite pavement are classified
according to structure. Semi-flexible pavement is an intermediate type of pavement that utilizes
the flexibility of asphalt mixture and the rigidity of cement concrete, however, because the base
material is asphalt mixture, it is classed as asphalt pavement.
Turning to cement concrete pavement, this is classified according to whether or not the
concrete plates contain iron or reinforcing bars, etc. Compacted concrete pavement is a category
based on the construction method, while composite pavement is a category of cement concrete
pavement based on structural characteristics, although the differences are not always clear.
In terms of functional classification, pavement is classified mainly according to the functions

that are required but categories do not indicate specific pavement types. Examples of functional
categories include pavement that is resistant to flow rutting, which is the biggest problem on
trunk roads, pavement that resists the abrasion that accompanies use of slip prevention measures
such as spiked tires and chains, etc. during the winter, drainage pavement that is designed to
quickly remove rain water and also reduce noise (as a secondary function), and light-colored
pavement, which is intended to improve visibility in driving.
Table2-1. The kind of pavement and a classification

Classification of surface course Work of pavement Classification of function
Asphalt pavement Recycle asphalt pavement Plastic flow resistant
Modified asphalt pavement pavement
Porous asphalt pavement Wear resistance pavement
Rolled asphalt pavement Low noise pavement
Full depth asphalt pavement Drainage asphalt pavement
Permeable pavement
Bright color pavement
Composite pavement Semi‐flexible pavement
Cement concrete pavement Colored pavement
Unreinforced concrete pavement Safeguard pavement
Reinforced concrete pavement
Continuously reinforced concrete
pavement（CRCP)
Roller compacted concrete
pavement(RCCP)
Precast concrete pavement
Others Neat pavement
Plastic wastes pavement
Blocks pavement
Source: Based on Journal of Pavement Engineering (Japan Society of Civil Engineering, 1995)
2-2
(2) Main Functions and Applications of Concrete Pavement
Concrete pavement has cement concrete pavement plates for the surface course and is more
rigid than asphalt mixture course. Accordingly, it is referred to as rigid pavement as opposed to
asphalt pavement, which is called flexible pavement. The features of concrete pavement are as
follows:
Initial construction cost is expensive because large machinery and curing are required;
however, because the pavement lasts a long time and entails low maintenance costs, its
total cost over the long term is low.
Noise and vibration are more likely to occur due to the rough face finishing and joints for
preventing slips.
Since there is no permanent deformation of the road surface or degradation of materials,
the road life is long.
Repairs are relatively complicated and take a long time (days).
Source: Fundamentals of Pavement Engineering (Japan Society of Civil Engineers）
In Japan, car ownership mushroomed and road construction was rapidly promoted from the
1960s. As a result, asphalt pavement (including basic pavement), which incurs low construction
costs and allows roads to be quickly opened to traffic, was increasingly adopted, while the share
of concrete pavement decreased. Moreover, use of concrete pavement was increasingly avoided
due to the issues mentioned above.
Table 2-2 indicates the outline contents and applications of the main types of concrete
pavement.
Table 2-2 Summary and application of concrete pavement

Type of concrete pavement Summary of Structure Applocation for japan
Reinforced concrete pavement Put a joint appropriate distance. It is generally applied at a
And put a dowel bar and thai bar in the joint and general road, the pavement
connect each concrete slub. in the tunnel, yard
The most common concrete pavement pavement.
Continuously reinforced Instead of putting a transverse joint, It scattered There are the application
pavement cracking by the rebar that setted a vertical direction, results in some sections of
and keep continuity as the pavement. the Japanese Expressway .
Characteristic.
Run characteristics
Abbreviation of the maintenance work of the joint
Roller compacted concrete Constructs a concrete of dry consistency with a little It is applied partly on a
pavement(RCCP) unit weight of water by the same machine of normal local container yard, a tank
asphalt pavement. way.
There are extremely few
Characteristic applications on the general
Construction speed is fast road.
Curing time is short.
Early traffic opening and Term of works
shortening.
Precast concrete pavement Produces a concrete slab by factory beforehand and There are the results in
the joining, unification at site. some sections of MLIT, but
there is extremely few it
Composite pavement Surface course or base course is an asphalt mixture. There are the application
It puts a cement slab under the asphalt mixture. results in some sections of
Life period is longer than normal asphalt pavement Second Tomei Expressway,
Chugoku Expressway.
Sorce：Creat by study team
2-3
(3) Main Functions and Applications of Asphalt Pavement
Asphalt pavement is generally constructed by carrying heated asphalt mixture manufactured

in an asphalt mixture plant to the work site by dump truck, and leveling and compacting it by
using machinery. The features of asphalt pavement are as follows:
Because the construction machinery is compact and conducts rapid work with no need for
curing, road can be opened to traffic at an early point. Accordingly, the construction cost
is relatively cheap.
Because forming is simple, good road flatness can be achieved and noise is also relatively
small.
Because the asphalt mixture tends to deform in high temperatures, it soon becomes rutted
and loses its flatness, so its service life is short. It is not suited to airport aprons or freight
yards and so on where heavy loads are left static for extended periods.
Because the pavement can be repaired using simple methods, it is suited to places that
have underground structures.
Source: Fundamentals of Pavement Engineering (Japan Society of Civil Engineers）
1) Asphalt mixture
Table 2-3 shows categories of asphalt pavement. The “Pavement Construction Handbook
(2006)” prescribes the following types of asphalt mixture as standard according to the area of
use.
Table 2-3. Type of asphalt mixture
Area General area Area with severe winters

Base
Coarse graded asphalt mixture （20）
course
Dense graded mixture（20mm,13mm） Dense graded mixture（20mmF,13mmF）
Fine graded asphalt mixture （13mm） Fine and gap graded asphalt mixture (13mmF)
Surface Dense and gap-graded asphalt mixture （13mm） Fine graded asphalt mixture （13mmF）
course Coarse graded mixture（13mm） Dense and gap-graded asphalt mixture （13mmF）
Porous asphalt mixture （20,13）

Note1 :( ) Maximum size
Note2:”F” uses a lot of fillers
Note3: Gap-graded asphalt is the thing that a particle size is discontinuous.
Sorce：Pavement construction manual（Japan Road Association,2006）
Also, Table 2-4 shows the main types, characteristics and areas of use of surface course
mixture.
2-4
Table 2-4. The type of surface course mixture and characteristic and main use point
Characterstic Mainuse point
Plastic flow resistant
Steep grade slope

Water resistance,
Area with severe

crazing-resistant
Wear resistance
Skid resistance
General area
Permeable
winters
Asphalt mixture
Dense graded mixture（20mm,13mm）＊＊
Fine graded asphalt mixture （13mm）＊
Dense and gap-graded asphalt mixture （13mm）＊＊
Dense graded mixture（20mmF,13mmF）＊
Fine and gap graded asphalt mixture （13mmF）＊
Fine graded asphalt mixture （13mmF）＊

Dense and gap-graded asphalt mixture
＊＊
（13mmF）
Coarse graded mixture（13mm）＊
Porous asphalt mixture （20mm,13mm）＊＊

Note1: The ○ mark of the characteristic column shows that it is superior to ②dense graded mixture.
The no mark shows the equal ,△ mark is inferior.
Note2: △ The mark may use modified asphalt to improve a characteristic.
Note3: The steep grade is considered to be 9% of vertical section.
Sorce：Pavement construction manual（Japan Road Association,2006）
The following sections show commentaries and photographs of dense graded mixture and
coarse graded mixture.
Photograph2-2. Dense graded mixture Photograph2-3. Porous asphalt mixture
＜Dense graded mixture ＞
Dense graded mixture is most commonly used as a heated asphalt mixture for surface course.
Out of the heated asphalt mixture types, this indicates asphalt in which 35~50% of composite
particles can pass through a 2.36 mm sieve.
2-5
＜Coarse graded mixture ＞
In heated asphalt mixture, which is composed of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, filler and
asphalt, mixture that contains large porosity is generically referred to as coarse graded mixture.
In a narrow sense, coarse graded mixture refers to asphalt in which 15~30% of composite
particles can pass through a 2.36 mm sieve and the mix design has been set based on the
Marshall stability test.
＜Porous asphalt mixture ＞
Porous asphalt mixture is a type of the aforementioned coarse graded mixture. This is used as
the surface and binder course of drainage pavement and roadway permeable pavement.
(4) Functions and Applications of Semi-flexible Pavement
Semi-flexible pavement consists of loose graded semi-flexible pavement asphalt mixture with
high porosity, permeated with permeable cement milk, and it has flow-resistance, light coloring
and oil-resistance, etc. Its features and applications are as follows.
Semi-flexible pavement is a durable type of pavement that combines the flexibility of
asphalt pavement with the rigidity of concrete pavement.
Semi-flexible pavement can be applied to locations such as intersections, bus terminals
and toll booths, etc. where performance is required in terms of flow-resistance,
oil-resistance, light coloring and landscape. It is also applicable to locations such as
factories and gasoline stations where oil-resistance and fireproof performance is required.
Photograph2-4. Construction example of the Semi-flexible pavement
2.2 Transitions in Pavement Design Methods in Japan
(1) From specification code to performance code
Before June 2011: specification code

There was no unified standard any higher than the level of notification, and design and site
pavement works were implemented based on the Asphalt Pavement Guidelines (Japan Road
Association).
2-6
Pavement design: Design based on the TA method (pavement thickness, pavement

composition)
Pavement works: The client orders pavement upon stipulating the specifications
(pavement section, materials, etc.)
June 2011 onwards: performance code
Meanwhile, revisions effected under the performance code were as follows. According to the
standard in the case where performance code is fully introduced (corresponding to performance
code (3) in Table 2-5) since the design method is not limited, any design method can be used so
long as it guarantees performance.
Introduction of performance code (not limiting the design method): Through
prescribing only performance indicators (fatigue failure wheels, etc.), a degree of
freedom was imparted to the design method that was conventionally conducted by the
TA1 method, enabling cost cutting and new technology to be introduced.
Introduction of lifecycle cost thinking in the design period (not limiting the design
period): The design period is currently basically designed as 10 years, however, by
setting this while giving overall consideration to in-service management costs and
impacts on road traffic and roadside areas during construction, improvement of
durability and cost cutting are promoted and congestion can be addressed.
Setting of pavement performance indicators: In order to secure the safe and smooth
traffic of vehicles, the performance index (fatigue failure wheels, plastic deformation,
flatness, amount of permeating water) that the roadway and side belt need to possess is
designed.
Table 2-5. Concept of performance code
Specification Performance Performance Performance
code code(1) code(2) code(3)
performance
-
code
Result form
Rule Rule decided not limiting
Quality
beforehand
Construction
Rule Rule partially not limiting
method
Design
TA method TA method not limiting not limiting
method
Performance code(1): It prescribes the pavement of the previous specifications code with the
performance.
Performance code(2): It prescribes the performance of the completed pavement, but a design
method and the construction method do not limit it
Performance code(3): It prescribes only performance of the completed pavement, but does not
prescribe result form and quality of each layer.
Sorce：Creat by study team
It is scheduled to successively move from performance code (1) to (3), but currently
performance code (1) is the mainstream.
1
TA method: From the roadbed design CBR and design traffic volume, the equivalent converted thickness of asphalt
pavement is determined and, even if the materials used in each course are different, the asphalt pavement is designed
so that the target converted thickness is not undercut. This method was established as a unique pavement technical
standard of Japan in reference to AASHTO. (See the attached materials).
2-7
(2) Flow of pavement design
The flow of pavement design indicated in the pavement design manual is as follows.
Source: Study team creat it based on Pavement design manual

Figure 2-1. Flow of the pavement design
Within the flow up to deciding the pavement composition, it is necessary to set design
conditions and consider “performance indicators” in the road design stage. The pavement design
categories, pavement performance and design outputs are indicated in the following table.
Table 2-6. Output of performance and the design of the pavement

Classification Example of the performance of the pavement Output of design
①Specifications materials of
Plastic deformation resistance surface course
Flatness,Permeability, ②Thickness of surface course
Conducting Performance of
Drainage characteristics,
Road Design surface course ③Use materials of the base course
Noise reduction
Sliding resistance ④Thickness of the base course
⑤Construction method
Pavement composition
①Number of a layer compositing
Fatigue Fracture Resistance pavement
Structural Performance of
Permeability
Design pavement structure ②Materials of each layer
Others
③Thickness of each layer
④Strength for concrete
Source：Manual for Design and Construction of Pavement （Japan Road Association,2006）
In conducting road design, since the used materials greatly impact performance, it is
necessary to select materials that enable the set performance indicator values to be obtained.
Accordingly, consultants in design work in Japan generally use the standard pavement
composition prescribed by the ordering party according to the design CBR and traffic volume
categories.
2-8
2.3 Structural Design of Asphalt Pavement
(1) Structural design method
Structural design can be performed either empirically or theoretically. In the empirical design
method, the target TA is set according to the design traffic volume, and the pavement structure is
set in order to satisfy this. In contrast, the theoretical design method entails using wheel load
and number of wheel passes to calculate the compressed warp and 49 kN converted number of
wheel passes and set the pavement structure that satisfies the fatigue failure number of wheel
passes.
Source:Creat by study team based on pavement design manual

Figure2-2. Structure design of asphalt pavement
2-9
As was mentioned previously, through switching to the performance code, any design method
can be used so long as performance is guaranteed. However, in terms of actual operation, design
based on the TA method is still the mainstream when provisional applications are also included.
Reasons for this are as follows:
The TA method has been devised in consideration of numerous cases and actual
performance in Japan, and it is stable and easy to understand.
There is no method whereby the ordering party can check cross sections designed based on
the multi-layer elasticity theory in the design stage (there is not enough actual experience).
Providing that it is after completion, reverse analysis can be conducted by FWD (Falling
Weight Deflectometer) test, etc.
The scope for setting material conditions (elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio) used in the
multi-layer elasticity theory is broad, so the validity cannot be confirmed. According to the
actual pavement design execution guidelines too, it “is important to conduct follow-up
survey of post-construction serviceability concerning the permissible scope and width of
these settings.”
Table 2-7. Example of the elastic modulus and

Poissons ratio of materials to use for each pavement layer
Material Elastic modulus（MPa） Poissons ratio
Asphalt mixture 600 ～ 12,000 0.25 ～ 0.45
Concrete for
25,000 ～ 35,000 0.15 ～ 0.25
pavement
Stabilization 1,000 ～ 15,000 0.10 ～ 0.20
with cement Estimate from compressive strength 0.15 can use as representative value
100 ～ 600
0.25 ～ 0.45
Gravel material Estimate from other dynamic test
0.35 can use as representative value
results
Subgrade＊ 10 x CBR 0.35
*：Reference RR91/243 Department of Transport （South Africa）

Since the TA method also includes a lot of empirical elements, in spite of its drawbacks in
that it cannot be immediately applied to new materials (pavement sheet, etc.) and new methods
(composite, etc.), it is likely to remain the mainstream method in Japan for the forseeable future
until enough experience of applying design using multi-layer elasticity theory has been
accumulated.
2-10
3. Applicable Standards in the Target Countries

3.1 Applicable Design Standards in the Target Countries
(1) Geometric Structural Standard
Geometric structural standard is a standard for designing roads so that traffic safety and
comfort or the configured service level are satisfied while paying attention to economy. In Japan,
the government order on road design standards prescribes the most important road structure
geometric standards such as road width, building clearance, alignment, visual distance,
intersections and connections, etc. together with the road standard. Moreover, in the target
countries of the study too, the following geometric structural standards, which are similar to
those in the government order on road design standards, exist.
Table 3-1. Geometric structural standard

Target country Japan Ethiopia Ghana Tanzania
・Road Structure Ordinance
(government ordinance based on the road
Design standard law) Geometric Design Road Design Draft Road
・A commentary and use Road Structure Manual Guide Manual
Ordinance
・The above is a government ordinance. Ministry of
Origin of ・"A commentary and the use" are Japan Ethiopian Roads Ghana Highway Communications
publication Road Association. Authority Authority and works
the year of revision 2004 2002 1991 1989
publication
(2) Pavement design standard
The following table indicates the pavement design standards that are used in the target
countries. Concerning Ethiopia and Tanzania, where the specification design method is applied,
because the specifications of used materials are stipulated, it is necessary to confirm by
materials survey that the prescribed materials can be acquired.
Table 3-2. The pavement design method of survey target countries

Target countries Japan Ethiopia Ghana Tanzania
Pavement Design Pavement and
Pavement Design
Design standard Manual Pavement Design Manual 2002 Manual 1998 Material Design
（2006,Feb） Manual 1999
Application
limit ― 30 x 106 ―
（Cumulation 50 x 106
axle load）
Performance design Experiential design Specification
Design method Specification design method
method method（AASHTO） design method
If it satisfy required During the revision of the standard There is the revision Does not
performance, it use that out of an application limit to plan of the standard, correspond to
what kind of design corresponding with the evolution of for new pavment rigid pavement of
method. the pavement technology for the material (modified
For reference, the change of social conditions, asphalt) and test the concrete
Remarks experiential design expansion of the road maintenance, method pavement.
method ( TA method), increase of the traffic volume. (Superpave,WT
the theoretical design (Going to publish it as an edition in examination).
method (Multi layer 2011. Draft version is completed It is going to be
elastic Analysis) are now.) decided formally by
listed. the end of this year
3-1
(3) Drainage design standards
Pavement drainage is an extremely important factor in pavement design. Because lack of

drainage facilities is one cause of pavement failure, it is important for roads (pavement) to
install appropriate drainage facilities. The following table shows the drainage design standards
that are used in each country.
Table 3-3. Drainage method of survey target countries

Target countries Japan Ethiopia Ghana Tanzania
Drainage works Drainage Design Highway Drainage
Design standard Manual 1987(Japan Manual 2002 Manual (Second ―
Road Association) (Currently revising) Edition)
① Rational method ① Rational ① Rational ① Rational
method method method
Calculation ② SCS Synthetic ② The Natural ② The TRRL East
method of Unit Resources and African Flood
run-off Hydrograph Conservation Model
Service
Methods
Reference of note ① ＜ 0.5km2 ① ＜ 25.0km2 ① ＜ 1.0km2
Application of
② ＞ 0.5km2 ② ＞ 25.0km2 1.0km2＜②
catchment area
＜200km2
Drainage works Short time rainfall of Short time rainfall of About around Dar es
Manual 2-1-2 area is shown by a area(14 area) is Salaam, we can
Intensity of graph in a manual shown by a graph in obtain it from the
Rainfall according to the a manual . weather station of
probability year. the Dar es Salaam
Airport.
Application of The rainfall uses a Short time reinfall I East African Flood
Catchment area is less Log PearsonIII type. was shown in Model is an effective
than about 40km2 . It is recommended "Maximum Rainfall method in the inland
A surface layer that I calculate rainfall Intensity-Duration of the East Africa, but
condition and the rain of each probability Frequencies in there is the opinion
condition of the year. However, it is Ghana" (1974), and that it is not suitable
catchment area are limited when rain data the it were made for for the use in the coast
available to the same more than ten years. about 40 years ago. place with much
Note
condition, 200 km2 rainfall.
degree.( Technical
Criteria for River
Works: Practical Guide
for Planning)
When we use it in the
area over 200 km2, it is
necessary to be careful.
3.2 Related Survey Standards in the Target Countries
(1) Traffic volume survey
① Ethiopia
The pavement design manual in Ethiopia stipulates that traffic volume survey and axle load
survey be implemented for each project. It stipulates that surveys are conducted seven days
running and that at a 24-hour survey be conducted on at least one day. Moreover, in Ethiopia,
because the traffic volume fluctuates greatly, it is recommended that traffic survey be
implemented a number of times per year. Concerning the axle load survey too, the manual
3-2
recommends that it be implemented under the same conditions as the traffic volume survey.
Table 3-4. Standard of the traffic volume survey in Ethiopia

Traffic volume survey of continuation seven days ( at
Traffic volume least one day 24 hours) and Axle load survey are
carried out several times in a year.
survey It is decided by discussion about the application of
axle load of an investigated overloading vehicle.
② Ghana
The pavement design manual in Ghana stipulates that traffic volume survey be implemented
for each project, and that the survey be implemented on a total of three days (12 hours),
specifically two weekdays and one holiday. It has no stipulation concerning axle load survey,
although it requires that the standard car model-separate axle load coefficients indicated in the
design manual are used.
Table 3-5. Standard of the traffic volume survey in Ghana
Traffic volume survey of continuation seven days and
Traffic volume Axle load survey of 4 days are carried out.
(The seasonal variation uses data of GHA.)
survey It is decided by discussion about the application of
axle load of an investigated overloading vehicle.
③ Tanzania
The Field Testing Manual 2003 in Tanzania stipulates that axle load survey and OD survey
be implemented for each project. It requires that the surveys as a rule are implemented 24 hours
a day for seven consecutive days. However, it states no contents concerning seasonal
fluctuations. Concerning the axle load used in design, the manual stipulates that consideration
also be given to overloaded vehicles.
Table 3-6. Standard of the traffic volume survey in Tanzania
Traffic volume survey of continuation seven days(24
Traffic volume hour) are carried out.
survey It prescribes that reflect for a design of axle load of an
investigated overloading vehicle
When the ratios of the large-sized
Note vehicle(accumulation axle load over 13t) are more
than 50%, It will consider a traffic class separately.
(2) Roadbed survey
Concerning survey of roadbed strength too, the standards according to each country’s survey
system are prescribed as follows.
Table 3-7. Subgrade surveyof target survey countries
Turget survey
Standard of subgrade strength survey
countries
CBR of laboratory：1 sample/km
Ethiopia Soil test：500m pitch
Contents of soil tesr：Consistency limit, grade etc
New construction road
Laboratory test：4 sample/km (trunk road)
Ghana It is reduced the number of the samples in the
collector or feeder road
Existing road
FWD test：Max50m pitch（with DCP）
3-3
CBR of laboratory：2sample/km（trunk road）、

Tanzania 1sample/km（other）、1sample/2km（gravel road）
Soil test：4sample/km（trunk road）、2sample/km
（other）、2 sample/km（gravel road）
3.3 Asphalt Mix Design
(1) Blend design method for asphalt composite
The target countries use the Marshall test, which is widely used throughout the world, as well
as the following asphalt composite blend design methods.
Table 3-8. Mix design method for asphalt composite

Turget survey countries Blend design method
Ethiopia - Refusal Density
Ghana - Superpave
- Refusal Density
Tanzania
- Superpave
① Ethiopia
According to the findings of the ERA hearing, use of “Refusal Density” is prescribed
according to categories of traffic volume within the road design standards. The conditions for
applying the “Refusal Density” according to the road design standards are as follows:
- The area concerned is subject to high temperatures.
- The section concerned is used by heavy vehicles.
- Traffic on the section is continuous.
- Heavy vehicles stop and drive slowly on the section.
The following table shows the concrete traffic volume classes for using the refusal density.
Table 3-9. Application condition of Refusal Density（Ethiopia）

Design Traffic
< 1.5 1.5 - 10.0 > 10.0 Severe Sites
(106 ESA)
Traffic classes Tl,T2,T3 T4,T5,T6 T7,T8 -
Minimum stability
3.5 6.0 7.0 9.0
(kN at 600C)
Minimum flow (mm) 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4
Compaction level
2 x 50 2 x 75 To refusal To refusal
(Number of blows)
出典：ERA Pavement design manual 2002
However, on checking the actual conditions of use with local consultants, they suggested that
asphalt blending based on refusal density has so far not been actually implemented. Concerning
the reason why, they suggested that because there is no stipulation in the standard works
specification, although it is necessary to make a statement in particular specifications, nobody
until now has compiled particular specifications taking that into consideration.
② Ghana
3-4
According to the GHA (Ghana Highway Authority), until now only blend design based on the
Marshall test has been implemented, however, “Superpave” has been used in the recent
Konongo-Kumasi Road rehabilitation project and Route 1 Project (George Bush Highway).
Moreover, the GHA test facility has introduced a gyratory compacter for use with Superpave,
and it has established a setup whereby the GHA itself can conduct tests. At the current time,
there are no clear stipulations concerning the adoption of Marshall test and Superpave, however,
these items will be reflected in revisions of the pavement design standards that are scheduled in
future.
Moreover, in order to confirm the flow-resistance of asphalt, the GHA plans to purchase a
wheel tracking test machine.
③ Tanzania
According to the Central Material Laboratory (CML) of Tanzania, which is a component

organization of TANROADS, blend design based on the Marshall test is common, while the
“Pavement Design Standards” stipulate blend design that uses “Refusal Density” for the
following kinds of roads:
- Uphill roads where the vertical gradient is more than 6%
- Sections where vertical gradient of 4% or more continues for at least 1 km
- Approaches to large intersections
- Routes in all major cities
- Sections of continuous traffic, and areas where vehicles run at low speeds for reasons other
than those stated above
Moreover, Superpave is used in DANIDA projects.
3-5
4. Conditions and Causes of Pavement Failure
4.1 Failure Conditions

In hot and humid areas in Africa and Asia, forms of pavement failure that are no longer seen
in Japan are frequently observed on roads that have been constructed under Japanese ODA.
Have such problems been conventionally attributed to improper maintenance, or are there
numerous ways in which design and execution can be improved?
Concerning why such failures do not occur in Japan, the following explanation can be given.
First, on the types of arterial roads on which large size trucks run in Japan, thickness of the
asphalt course including asphalt stabilization reaches 20~30 cm, the roads structurally have
ample durability, modified asphalt is used when the need arises, and maintenance is also carried
out in an organized manner. Meanwhile, in developing countries, the asphalt course is no thicker
than 10 cm, use of modified asphalt is limited, and roads are frequently designed and
constructed without giving adequate consideration to the subbase drainage.
Typical forms of failure in such regions include rutting caused by fluidization of the surface
course, subbase failure caused by the impact of groundwater, and structural failure arising from
insufficient bearing force. (See Photographs 4-1, 4-2 and 4-3).
Photograph 4-1. Photograph 4-2.

Groundwater flowing down from the mountain side Water in base course is mainly saturated in the sag part
becomes the pavement failure of the mountain side of the vertical section, becomes the pavement failure.
carriage way. Damage is seen in both sides across the bridge.
Improvement of the drainage by upsizing of the gutter
or the Calvert setting is necessary.
Photograph 4-3.
For example rutting caused by fluidization of the
surface course. Rrutting is remarkable partly in the
steep gradiant section, because run speed becomes the
super low speed.
4-1
4.2 Projected Causes of Failure
(1) Classification of causes of pavement failure

The causes of pavement failure are often complex in nature and it is extremely difficult to
limit failure to just one cause. For example, rutting can be caused by both internal factors and
external factors. Internal factors are inherent factors in the asphalt mixture itself and include the
quality and quantity of asphalt, type of aggregate, grading and porosity, etc., while external
factors comprise traffic volume, traffic load, temperature, pavement structure and so on. The
following table, which shows the causes of pavement failure, has been compiled in reference to
site surveys, domestic tests and existing literature, etc., although caution is required because it
does not represent all the causes.
Table 4-1. Failure cause of the asphalt pavement (assumption)

Type of failure Main phenomenon (damage) Main origin
・Excessive traffic volume and traffic load
・Low speed heavy vehicles
Rutting by
Lateral move of the asphalt mixture ・Long-term high temperature
fluidization
・Mixture defects*
・Construction defects **
Rutting by Settlement of trace
・Bearing capacity shortage of subbase
settlement （with Crack）
（Problematic soil）
・Influence of the groundwater（Drainage）
・Bearing capacity shortage of subbase and base
Crack Crack of Hexagonal pattern course（Drainage）
・Fatigue of the pavement(life)
・Influence of the groundwater（Drainage）
・Tack coat defects
・Long-term high temperature
Stripping Stripping of the pavement
・Thin surfacing
・Influence of excessive external force as hitting
the brakes
Corrugation Ruggedness of such as the wave ・Mixture defects*
Level difference Across the structure ・Construction defects **
・Bearing capacity shortage of subbase and base
The loss of a pothole and the course（Drainage）
Other
pavement ・Surface water and groundwater (drainage)
・Behavior of the vehicle
* Mixture defects：Excessive quantity of asphalt,Viscous lack,It is excessive for fine grain,Lack of air void etc.
**Construction defects ： Poor quality control of the As mixture,Lack of compaction of each pavement
layer,Temperature management,Adhesion failure etc.
(2) Excessive traffic load (overloading)

In the target countries of the study, vehicle limit values are prescribed under the respective
road traffic laws. Vehicles that go over the load limits are subject to control as overloaded
vehicles. The running of overloaded vehicles is deeply related to failure of paved roads. Figure
4-1 shows the results of aggregating data on overloading obtained from Tema observation point
(National Highway 1) in Ghana. According to this, the ratio of overloaded vehicles in Ghana is
around 30% on average.
4-2
（Number）
4,000
3,500
3,000 24%
32%
（Legal）
29%
31%
2,500 32% LEGAL
28%
30%
32%
27%
2,000
28%
24%
1,500 40%
40%
（Illegal）
ILLEGAL
1,000
500 43%
57%
Jan-2011 Feb-2011 Mar-2011 Apr-2011 May-2011 Jun-2011 Jul-2011 Aug-2011 Sep-2011 Oct-2011 Nov-2011 Dec-2011 Jan-2012 Feb-2012 Mar-2012
Figure 4-1. The overloaded actual situation in the TEMA observatory
Photograph 4-4. The truck which it is fully loaded with Photograph 4-5. Dump to be fully loaded with
charcoal, and goes to the capital(Ghana) limestone, and to run(Ethiopia)
(3) Excessive traffic volume (sudden increase in traffic volume)
Comparison of the results of recent traffic volume survey and the traffic volumes that were
predicted at the time of survey is indicated below for Kilwa Road in Tanzania and Highway 3 in
Ethiopia. Traffic volume on Highway 3 in Ethiopia is based on the results of survey
implemented during the detailed design in the fourth trunk road rehabilitation project (Japanese
grant aid).
4-3
Table 4-2. National highway traffic volume of Ethiopia

　　　　　　　Unit ：Number／Day・both direction
Year Car Mini bus Large bus Truck Truck Trailer Total（Large） Remark
1994 105 87 47 181 30 258 actual value（ERA)
2000 111 92 50 191 32 273 predictive value
2004 48 191 47 286 actual value（ERA)
2005 51 204 50 306 predictive value
2009 243 146 114 274 73 461 actual value（ERA)
2010 259 159 124 297 79 500 predictive value
2011 250 276 129 478 129 736 actual value（JICA)
On both of these roads, measured traffic volume after the roads have gone into service is far
higher than the volume projected during the design stage. The reasons for this are that not
enough consideration was given to the volume of traffic transferring from other roads and the
increase in traffic volume arising from economic growth and so on.
(4) Impact of low speed heavy vehicles
In the site surveys, numerous slow-moving large-size vehicles were observed (see
Photographs 4-6 and 4-7). It was confirmed that these vehicles run at speeds of no higher than
20 km/h, and that this sometimes falls as low as 10 km/h or less on steep inclines. It is estimated
that such vehicles impart greater damage to pavement than vehicles running at normal speeds of
40 km/h or more. Low speed heavy vehicles are not very conspicuous in Japan, however, they
are commonly seen in developing countries.
Accordingly, we conducted wheel tracking tests in Japan in order to ascertain the impact of
low speed heavy vehicles.
Table 4-3. Results of WT test

Running Dynamic Coefficient
As Surface load Deformation
speed* Stability variation
Type
Examination Ground
（%） (回/分) (回/mm) (%) (mm/min)
wheel load (KN) pressure(MPa)
Standard 686 0.63 42 492 18.4 0.085
980** 0.121
5.3 Heavy 0.90 42 348 17.7
(About 1.4times）（About 1.4times）
Low 21 0.143
686 0.63 294 6.8
speed （0.5 times）（About 1.7times）
* Running speed: The loading running speed is prescribed to run the same speed which of 22cm central
part of sample test piece.
42+-1 times/m are the standard values.
This value applies an examination standard of British RRL(Road Research Laboratory).
(Not clear of the assumption of the running speed.)
* * Limit value of the testing equipment
According to the test findings: when running speed is reduced to half (161.0
mm/sec 80.5 mm/sec), the test wheel load time is multiplied by two (0.14sec 0.27sec) and
the deformation rate (RD) increases by approximately 1.7 times (0.085 mm/min 0.143
4-4
mm/min); and when the load is increased by 1.4 times (0.63 Mpa 0.90 Mpa), the
deformation rate (RD) increases by approximately 1.4 times (0.085 mm/min 0.121 mm/min),
and it is thought that the deformation rate is proportional to the load. Therefore, it is guessed
that asphalt pavement deformation is greatly influenced not only by the vehicle weight but also
by the running speed.
Photograph 4-6. Photograph 4-7.

The speed is less than 10km/h because it is the small The speed is less than 5km/h. This is because it is fully
section of a vertical gradient is around 7%, and small loaded with crushed stone and vertical gradient is
curve radius. around 10% .Asphalt begins to flow on a passage line
of the right tire.
(5) Pavement temperature issues
Observation of the pavement surface temperature was carried out in the target countries, and
the results are indicated below. The measurements were conducted three times at the same time
of day.
Table 4-4. Measurement result of the surface of the pavement temperature
Measurement point：Site 1 of rural trunk road (Ethiopia)

Assay date：2012/8/28
Assay time： 14:30～16:30　Weather：Rain to cloudy
Time 14:30 14:35 14:40 15:10 15:30 15:40 16:00 16:10 16:30
Distance from Start point 700m 1200m 3200m 4900m 10500m 12000m 14000m 17800m 19500m
Elevation 2410m 2375m 2253m 2135m 1760m 1636m 1493m 1177m 1070m
1 25.6 25.4 43 48.7 48.4 48.6 48.6 48.4 44.6
Measurement 2 25.2 25.2 43.9 49.1 48.6 48.8 48.4 48.4 44.8
3 25.5 26.4 44.9 49.1 48.4 48.9 48.5 48.9 44.7
Average（℃） 25.4 25.7 43.9 49.0 48.5 48.8 48.5 48.6 44.7
Measurement point：Site 2 of rural trunk road (Ethiopia)

Assay date：2012/8/29
Assay time： 11:00～12:30 Cloudy to fine
Time 11:15 11:30 11:40 11:45 11:52 12:10 12:20 12:25 12:30
Distance from Start point 39600m 38000m 34000m 32000m 29100m 25300m 22000m 21550m 20000m
Elevation 2445m 2407m 2120m 1997m 1823m 1513m 1261m 1215m 1070m
1 36.9 38.1 37.2 48.6 51.1 54.5 58.9 57 61.6
Measurement 2 37.1 38.2 36.9 48.4 51.6 54.3 57.8 57.2 59.8
3 36.8 38.2 37 48.5 51.6 55.1 58.3 58.1 60.5
Average（℃） 36.9 38.2 37.0 48.5 51.4 54.6 58.3 57.4 60.6
4-5
As a result of the measurements, road surface temperatures in excess of 60 were observed

in Ethiopia. In Japan, pavement temperatures in excess of 60 are basically not projected.
(Even the wheel tracking test is conducted at 60 , while temperature in the test machine cannot
be raised to 60 or over).
Concerning the relationship between pavement temperature and strength (DS value) of
asphalt pavement (using straight asphalt), the following relational expression has been obtained
based on wheel tracking tests:
Log10 (DS) = 8.656 – 0.07095T – 0.2285P
DS: Dynamic stability (times/mm)

T : Temperature ( ）
P : Contact pressure (kgf/cm2）
Source: Q&A on Pavement Technology (Volume 7, top)
A graphic representation on this relational expression is shown in Figure 4-2. According to

this, as opposed to the DS value of 864 times/mm in the regular test temperature (60 ),
strength drops to 382 times/mm (44%) and 382 times/mm (20%) in temperatures of 65 and
70 respectively. This indicates that asphalt pavement becomes more prone to rutting when
there are consecutive days of high temperatures.
(Times/mm)
回/mm DS（回／mm）
(Times/mm)
100000
22678
10000 10020
4427
1956
1000 864
382
169
100
10
1
30 40 50 60 70 80 ℃
Figure 4-2. Relations of pavement temperature and the dynamic stability
(6) Grading distribution of aggregate
Trunk road Rehabilitation Project (both grant aid projects of the Japan), unexpectedly early
failure of pavement (mainly flow rutting) was observed. Accordingly, core sampling was
implemented and comparison was carried out on the properties of the asphalt mixture.
The following sections show the grading test results and Superpave control points on both
roads. According to the results, the filler part of both roads (fine particles that pass through a
0.075 mm sieve) shows a fine particle distribution close to the upper value of the control point.
Even in Japan, the amount of aggregate passing through a 2.5 mm sieve is known to have an
4-6
impact on flow rutting, and it is generally recognized that rutting can be controlled the smaller
this figure becomes. In cases of aggregate composed of grading of 2.5 mm or more, it has also
been reported that the rutting depth becomes smaller the more that crushed stones of 5~13 mm
are used. In the Ethiopia Trunk Road Rehabilitation Project indicated in Figure 4-4, data on
sections that are in good condition after going into service are stated for comparison, and it can
be seen that the sections in poor condition have a fine grading distribution. It is guessed that
such asphalt mixture is inferior in terms of flow resistance particularly in the local environment
that is characterized by low speed heavy traffic and high road surface temperatures.
100 19, 100 26.5

19 25, 100
90 12.5, 90 19, 90
13.2
80
70
60 4.75
50 2.36, 49
2.36
40
30
0.6
Urban trunk
キルワ道路 road
0.3 2.36, 23
20
Control Point
制御点(下限) (lower limit)
0.15
10
0.075, 8
0.075 Control Point
制御点(上限) (upper limit)
0.075, 2
0
0.05 0.5 5 50
Figure 4-3. Tanzania:Trunk road test results（AC-20）
100 19, 100 26.5

19 25, 100
90 12.5, 90 19, 90
13.2
80
70
60
4.75
50 2.36, 49
40
2.36 Bad condition
状態不良
30
0.6
Good condition
状態良好
2.36, 23
20 0.3
Control Point
制御点(下限) (lower limit)
0.15
10 0.075
0.075, 8
制御点(上限)
Control Point (upper limit)
0.075, 2
0
0.05 0.5 5 50
Figure 4-4. Ethiopia:Trunk road testresults（AC-20）
(7) Structural failure
4-7
The photographs indicated below show pavement suffering from structural failure. The cases
shown in Photographs 4-8~10 are caused by poor drainage, those shown in 4-11~12 are caused
by problematic soil (black cotton soil), and that shown in 4-13 is thought to be caused by poor
cohesion between pavement courses.
Photograph4-8. Etiopia:Rural trunk road Photograph4-9. Etiopia:Rural trunk road

Pavement was failure because bearing capacity is Pavement was failure because bearing capacity is down
down by influence of the water at sag point. by influence of the groundwater from mountain side.
Photograph4-11. Ethiopia：Urban trunk road

Photograph4-10. Ghana：Rural trunk road(2007)
Under the influence of black cotton soil, Rutting
Intensive section of the surface water
occurred on the surface.
Photograph4-12. Ethiopia：Rural trunk road Photograph4-13. Tanzania：Rural trunk road

Typical early case of the pavement failure by black Tack coat defects. Pavement exfoliates for heavy
cotton soil（Vertical rutting of pavement edge） vehicle load
4-8
Road drainage is broadly divided into surface drainage and underground drainage. In this
study, as a typical form of pavement failure arising from water, failure caused by groundwater
in cutting sections and around sags was observed in numerous locations. Such failures can be
predicted in advance, and they can be addressed by taking the kind of measures described later
upon conducting economic examination. In addition, another cause of failure is weakening of
the subbase and roadbed arising from surface water flows and inundation in low-lying areas.
Figure 4-15 shows the water flows that have the potential to impact road pavement.
Figure 4-5. Flow of water affecting the pavement
Specifically, there are cases where insufficient depth of side ditches with respect to
groundwater on the highland side causes the groundwater to infiltrate the subbase and weaken it,
cases where rising groundwater level during the rainy season and water flowing inside the
subbase rises in sag sections and thus weakens the subbase, and so forth (see Figure 4-16).
Figure 4-6. Flow of the water at Sag point(Mechanism of the pavement failure)
In the case of subbase, in particular the crusher run, the coefficient of permeability is around
10-3, and if rainwater or groundwater flows into the subbase from outside, it is estimated that the
said water will reach saturation point in a single rainy season 1 . Because water-saturated
subbases bound by layers with extremely low coefficient of permeability, i.e. asphalt on the top
and roadbed on the bottom, even the smallest amount of deformation caused by surface load
will give rise to a pumping phenomenon whereby the saturated water inside the subbase moves
while dragging particles along. Once small cracks appear on the surface, the pressurized water
1
Assuming that water flows into sags in the road longitudinal direction, in the case of a 5% gradient and coefficient
of permeability of 10-3 (cm/sec), it is possible that the subbase will become saturated over up to 100 m, although this
will also depend on the porosity of the base course.
4-9
gushes out and rapidly causes critical failure (see Photograph 4-14 and Figure 4-17).
Photograph4-14.
The asphalt pavement that muddy water eructs by pumping from base course.
Condition of dry season (unsaturation) Condition of wet season (saturation)
Figure 4-7. The pumping phenomenon
(8) Problematic soil (black cotton soil)
Black cotton soil is black-grey colored swollen soil that is widely found over East Africa. In
the dry state, this soil is hard and has good bearing capacity, however, when its water content
increases, it becomes clayey and swells and thus totally loses the strength it had during the dry
season. When the soil dries from the wet state, contraction cracks appear, making this an
extremely troublesome material for road construction. In terms of the AASHTO soil
classifications, black cotton soil is classed as A-7-6. Moreover, numerous research studies have
so far been conducted, yielding know-how such as that described below. Soil that is especially
prone to swelling has been known to undergo volumetric transformation of more than 30%.
4-10
Table 4-6. Possibility of a plasticity index (PI) and the expansion

Possibility of expansion Plasticity index（PI）
Low 0-15
Middle 10-35
High 20-55
Very high >35
Sorce：Trunk road rport of Ethiopia
Table 4-7. Plasticity index (PI) and shrinkage limit and expansion degree
Plasticity index Rate of changeof the volume Expansion
Shrinkage limit
（PI） (%)Load：1psi degree
>35 <11 >30 Very high
25-41 7-12 20-30 Hign
15-28 10-16 10-30 Middle
<18 >15 <10 Low
Sorce：Trunk road report of Ethiopia
Moreover, the form of road failure caused by black cotton soil shows a distinct pattern: first,
vertical cracks appear on the pavement edges and from there the pavement failure spreads.
Photograph4-15. Black cotton soil in Ethiopia Photograph4-16. Black cotton soil（Dry）
Photograph4-17. A test specimen of 20mm of the black cotton soil expands to 35mm 96 hours later(Condition is
before immersion in water)
4-11
Photograph4-18. Typical early case of the pavement Photograph4-19. Highway section of the same area as
failure by black cotton soil（initial stage） photograph(2010 photography)
(9) Shoulder pavement failure
Failure of shoulder pavement frequently occurs on sections where low-cost pavement is

used for dust control. Particularly in urban and suburban areas where the traffic volume is
heavy, pavement is often damaged when cars try overtaking on the shoulder or enter the road
from the roadside.
Photograph4-20. Photograph4-21.
Parking and stopping of the large car in the shoulder The passing vehicle which running a shoulder.
(10) Knowledge obtained from other site surveys (pavement failure)
Other opinions concerning pavement failure that were obtained in the site survey hearings
are as follows.
・ In light of experience of the early failure of surface course, there is thought to be a

problem with tack coat. In areas of high temperatures, melting of tack coat must be
taken into account.
・ Failure is sometimes caused by inadequate geological survey. Particularly in Dar es
Salaam, since it is possible that valley sections were previously used as waste dumps, it
is important to confirm strength by boring survey in addition to CBR survey.
・ Using good quality materials is the way to ensure the quality of pavement. Specifically,
4-12
a lot of failure is caused by using materials with high PI (plasticity index). (The
plasticity index (PI) is an important element in determining the quality of subbase
materials, etc. Generally speaking, deterioration of strength caused by water absorption
is more extreme the higher the plasticity index becomes).
Figure 4-8 Condition of the soil and consistency limit
・ In asphalt mixture, the grading distribution of aggregate often determines the quality of
the mixture.
・ It is important to consider weather conditions when selecting asphalt binder. In areas of
high temperature, consideration should be given to using binder with higher viscosity
(60/70 or 35/50). Also, use of modified asphalt with added polymer should be
considered.(See Table 4-10)
・ In Ghana, GHA (the client) didn’t grant permission to use asphalt binder imported from
a French affiliated petroleum company, citing poor product quality as the reason. This
company also exports asphalt binder to Tanzania.
・ In consultant works supervision, similar to project managers, it is important to assign
experienced materials engineers throughout all processes. Moreover, it is important to
implement stringent process control.
4-13
4.3 Implemented Pavement Failure Countermeasures
(1) Overloading countermeasures
All the target countries are striving to crack down on overloading, which imparts a lot of
damage to pavement. In the background to this, many donors that conduct assistance in the road
sector are requesting it, and there are even cases where loans are made conditional on taking
measures to address the overloading issue. The following table shows each country’s measures
to deal with overloading.
Table 4-8. The control situation of the overloading vehicle

Ethiopia Ghana Tanzania
It is set up nine places of axle load In Ghana, management of axle load In Tanzania, They carry out the
observation station by the trunk is carried out by GHA. overloaded control at axle load
road. There is axle load observation observation station of 20 places.
The observation is carried out for 24 station of 14 places now. The observation is carried out for 3
hours. It is going to be added sequentially change 24 hours.
They are planning three places of in future.
enlargement and carrying out the The observation is carried out for 24
investigation by the consultant now. hours.
They carry out a round-table They are introducing mobile axle
conference regularly and aim at the loadmeasurement vehicle
overloaded vehicle reduction. corresponding to a new system by
support of WB now.
Photograph4-22. Mozyo axle load observation station Photograph4-23. Tema axle load observation station
(Ghana)
4-14
(2) Failure countermeasures based on pavement type and blend design method
As a result of the site surveys, it was found that modified asphalt (plant mix type) and
concrete pavement are used on important traffic sections in order to boost the fluidity resistance
of asphalt in the target countries.
Table 4-9. Use example of such as the modified asphalt in survey target country
Country Type of pavement Note

Reinforced concrete pavement The expensive concrete pavement has
- Bus stop（Japanese grant aid） not been adopted until recently because
- Power station access road (China) supply of the cement had a problem.
Semi‐flexible pavement However, three places of cement
- Parking and stopping area（Japanese grant aid） factories were built by Chinese fund.
Ethiopia
Modified Asphalt Therefore, supply of the cement was
- National route 1 project (China) stable, and an amount of money fell
- Awash Bridge（Japanese grant aid） greatly more.
The adoption of the concrete pavement is
pushed forward from now.
Reinforced concrete pavement Modified asphalt is used on the main
- Akura-Tema Road（1964） national highway.
- Bus stop on the trunk road On the George Bush HW (MCA) of ,
Interlocking pavement Modified asphalt with beads is used.
Ghana
- Point that a large car runs at low speed (Tollgates) A major oil company is going to begin
Modified Asphalt supply of the modified asphalt, and
- George Bush HW（MCA） supply does not have the problem.
- Other trunk road
Roller compacted concrete pavement(RCCP) Becausea specialtechniqueis necessary
- Tanzam HW（Japanese grant aid） forrepairas for the concrete pavement
Modified Asphalt according tothe hearing toTANROAD, it
- Chalinze-Tanga Road（DANIDA） is difficultto adoptit.
- Nelson Mandela Road（EU） In addition, supply has a problem even if
Tanzania
- Kilwa Road（Japanese grant aid） they adopt concrete pavement because
there is little fee for use of the cement.
(Now building rush, cement is given
priority to big building of the cement fee
for use.)
Photograph4-24. Trunk road （Reinforced concrete Photograph4-25. Trunk road：Roller compacted

pavement）（Ghana） concrete pavement(RCCP)（Tanzania）
4-15
Modified asphalt is asphalt in which properties have been improved through adding polymer,
rubber and other modifiers to regular straight asphalt, and using such asphalt makes it possible
to reduce rutting of roads.
RCCP pavement is a type of concrete pavement. Ultra-hard mixed concrete is laid with an
asphalt finisher and compacted by roller compaction. Because reinforcing bars are not used in
this method, work can be executed faster and roads can be opened to traffic quicker than in the
case of regular concrete pavement.
In addition to the above methods for reducing pavement failure based on pavement materials,
there are cases where performance standards are set based on the dynamic stability (DS) (see
Figure 4-10), while there are examples such as Superpave and Refusal Density where measures
are taken based on the blend design. Refusal Density has already been applied in a number of
funded assistance projects.
Table 4-10. The dynamic stability that was used by an expressway project in Ethiopia
Pavement Surface corse 4cm：AC-13（50# (40/60)、Modified material for fluidity

composition;（Main resistance）
line） Base corse 6cm：AC-20 (50# (40/60)、Modified material for fluidity
resistance（Steep gradient section*）
Base : 16cm-17cm：HMAM**-25 (50# (40/60)
Sub-base 32cm：Crushed stone for mechanical stabilization
*Maximum gradient5%
**HMAM: High Module Asphalt Macadam
Use cement concrete pavement at the tollgate.
Method of Mixture Marshall test
design
The dynamics Surface corse（AC-14） Base corse（AC-20） Base（HMAM）
examination standard 2800 2800（Modified） 2800
value（Dynamic 1000（Not modified）
stability）
Unit：times／mm
(3) Rutting countermeasures
A common example of failure is rutting caused by fluidization. Assuming areas of high

temperatures, rutting arises from the fluidization of asphalt mixture. Even under the same
temperature and traffic conditions, rutting sometimes occurs in certain areas but not in adjoining
areas for the reasons described below. The recommended countermeasures for such problems
are also described. Out of these factors, the Study Team considers and to be the most
important.
4-16
① Inappropriate grading distribution of aggregate … Cases that mainly arise out of quality
control are due to excessive fine particles (2.35 mm or less).
(Countermeasure) Tightening of quality control
② Amount of asphalt, amount of air …This is a design issue. The optimum amount of asphalt
according to the Marshall Law is larger than values obtained from Superpave and Refusal
Density.
(Countermeasure) In the case of asphalt based on the Marshall method, examine the
adoption of Refusal Density. Doing so makes it possible to mesh the aggregate.
The surest way to adjudicate the effects of such measures is to confirm the dynamic
stability (DS) by means of wheel tracking test. In Japan, DS of 3,000 times/mm is adopted
on important traffic routes. In cases where reference values are not satisfied by this test, if
possible it is effective to use plant-type modifier in order to secure the strength of asphalt.
③ Aggregate particle shape issue … There are cases where the round shape of natural sand
aggregate particles is a cause of fluidization. (Countermeasure) Check the shape of sand
particles.
④ Asphalt needle penetration … In areas where the surface temperature is high, if

procurement is possible, it is desirable to adopt low-penetration asphalt upon confirming the
feasibility of execution.
(4) Structural failure countermeasures
In the target countries of the Study, concerning structural failure of pavement, failure caused
by insufficient bearing force due to water inside the subbase was found to be common. In order
to prevent such failure, it is important to prevent rainwater and groundwater from flowing into
the subbase and to expedite the drainage of any water that does flow in. The following
paragraphs describe countermeasures focusing primarily on subbase water drainage. Also, steps
concerning the distinctive black cotton soil of this area are described in section (5).
Generally speaking, groundwater drainage aimed at reducing the groundwater level is

installed in order to prevent weakening of road body, roadbed and subbase. However, in order
to examine underground drainage measures, it is essential to implement groundwater survey at
least two times, once in the rainy season and once in the dry season. According to the results of
hearings with consultants concerning underground drainage facilities in Ethiopia, the following
steps are taken in order to grasp groundwater flows.
・ Information is obtained from local residents and local office employees concerning the
flow trends of rainwater, etc. Also, hydrological engineers conduct site confirmations.
Also, test pits are excavated and boring is conducted if necessary.
4-17
Concerning road drainage issues, the concept of subbase drainage is widespread in Western
countries. This method entails using highly permeable subbase materials and using the subbase
as a drainage layer for draining water to the roadside. This subbase drainage method is referred
to as TPB (Treated Permeable Base) and a similar approach is also indicated in the SATCC and
Road Note 31.
Figure 4-9. Design example of the base course drainage in the United States2
In the project (Japanese grant aid) currently being implemented in the target country ,
permeable subbase is extended to the road shoulder with a view to improving the horizontal
drainage efficiency.
Materials application example to a shoulder part

Type to use base equal materials for the shoulder
Merit: It is strong for the water which invaded it within pavement
Demerit: Cost is high
①Limitation of the coverage (only sag part)
②When borrow procurement includes limitation, it is effective
③Careful about the water from a gutter of the super elevation
: Base material
: Equal to base material
: Sub-base material
Figure 4-10. Change standard typical cross section
2
This is a common practice in the United States. Drainage sewers are installed in cuttings on the mountain side, and
banking on the valley side is made by laying subbase materials through the shoulder. (However, in cases where the
shoulder is wide or it is desired to achieve certain drainage, sewers are installed in the longitudinal direction on the
mountain side too. Incidentally, stabilization of the shoulder materials includes graded crushed stone). In order to
effectively facilitate subbase drainage, it is necessary to secure permeable materials such as crusher run or gravel for
the base course (usually the lower base course), while drainage to the sides should be installed especially along the
longitudinal gradient base (although it is not necessary in all sections). Similar contents are also stated in Japanese
road earth and drainage works guidelines.
4-18
However, in the surveys conducted in both the rainy season and dry season, it was extremely
difficult to fully grasp the actual groundwater conditions, so it is considered more valid to
implement monitoring during the works period while examining countermeasure works.
(5) Countermeasures to problematic soil (black cotton soil) in the target countries
In Ethiopia, black cotton soil is distributed over almost the entire country and is a major
hindrance to road construction. Accordingly, the ERA manual proposes the following
countermeasures: alignment improvement (avoiding areas of black cotton soil),
excavation/soil replacement (replacing black cotton soil with good quality materials along the
road route), limestone stabilization (stabilizing by mixing lime into the black cotton), and
minimization of water content changes (implementing measures to prevent water
infiltration). Out of these, excavation/soil replacement is the most effective method, and it is
recommended that this is applied as much as possible. Table 4-11 shows the black cotton
countermeasures that have been adopted in recently completed projects and projects currently
being implemented.
Table 4-11. Black cotton soil measures example in Ethiopia

Road Control strategy
National road A Replasement 800mm
Replasement 500 – 1500mm

National road B
Setting of the wall with the low density polyethylene sheet.
Replasement 1000 – 3000mm

National road C
Reinforcement of the wall with the sheet for block of water.
National road D Replasement 800 – 1500mm
Replasement of 1,000mm by high quality materials.(more than CBR5)

Standard of ERA Black cotton soil remained in the lower layer, it take a measures what does
not have to change a moisture content.
In Tanzania too, black cotton soil is distributed all over the country and it frequently
becomes a problem in road construction works. Accordingly, black cotton countermeasures are
stipulated in the TANROADS pavement design manual. In the said manual, black cotton soil is
classified according to the coefficient of expansion, and countermeasures are proposed
accordingly.
Table 4-12 shows the countermeasure standards for black cotton soil in different countries.
4-19
Table 4-12. Countermeasure standards for black cotton soil in different countries
Target country Recommended measures plan
Zimbabwe Replacement 700mm
Kenya Replacement 1000mm
Case study in India Replacement 1000mm
SATCC Replacement 1000mm
United States of America Replacement1500mm(Max)
(6) Shoulder pavement measures
Concerning the composition of pavement on road shoulders, the optimum pavement structure
needs to be selected upon considering the transit area (suburban, etc.), the volume of pedestrian
(bicycles) and vehicle traffic, vehicle behavior (shoulder driving or not), and road access from
the roadside and so on. In Ghana, where the study was implemented, an internal notice
recommends that asphalt concrete is used as the shoulder pavement on trunk roads. Meanwhile,
in Tanzania, use of crushed stone shoulder is not recommended on paved roads for the
following reasons:
・ In order to maintain appropriate performance of roads, excessive maintenance is

required.
・ There is greater risk of water flowing into the pavement structure.
・ Unpaved shoulders compromise traffic safety.
・ Height differences between the paved main road and crushed stone shoulders cause
additional risk.
4-20
Annex
Pavement Design Method in Japan (TA method)
This asphalt pavement design method entails stipulating the equivalent converted thickness of
asphalt pavement and ensuring that the converted thickness doesn’t drop below the target even if the
materials used in each course are different. This method has been established as a unique pavement
technology standard in Japan.
This design method was introduced in the Asphalt Pavement Manual that was issued in 1961. It
entails seeking the total thickness of pavement from the daily vehicle traffic volume and design CBR,
and it was developed by Professor Harumi Takeshita when he reworked the CBR design curve of the
American military Corps of Engineers. In 1962, following 10 years of hard work and massive
investment, the AASHO road test results were published. This design method entails seeking the
equivalent converted thickness (TA) from the design CBR and wheel load, and professor Takeshita
reworked the relational expression according to actual conditions in Japan. When the guidelines were
revised in 1967, a design method for seeking the equivalent converted thickness (TA) from the design
wheel load and design CBR was introduced and, because the conventional method for seeking the total
pavement thickness was experiencing no particular problems, this was retained for checking the total
pavement thickness. As a result, the TA-CBR method, which is the core pillar of pavement design in
Japan, was established and it was used up to revision of the guidelines in 1992.
In the guidelines revision of 1992, through prescribing the minimum thickness in each subbase layer,
assuming that balanced pavement composition is adopted, the 4/5H provision (requiring that at least
4/5 of the calculated value is satisfied in the total pavement thickness) was removed, and the currently
used design method based on TA only was adopted. Figure 1 shows the design flow.
A-1
Figure-1. Concrete procedure of the structure design by the TA method
A-2
1) Number of wheel passes causing fatigue failure
Fatigue failure refers to pavement damage resulting from cracking caused by repeated load, and the
number of wheel passes causing fatigue failure refers to the “number of times required for pavement
cracks to appear when wheel load of 49 kN is repeatedly exerted on the road surface). Standards
figures for the number of number of wheel passes causing fatigue failure are specified as follows
according to the pavement design traffic volume.
Table-1. The number of wheel passes pavement failure

Design daily Volume for pavement* Number of wheel passes causing fatigue
Classification
（unit／day・direction） failure（times／10 year）
N7 Over 3,000 35,000,000
N6 1,000～3,000 7,000,000
N5 250～1,000 1,000,000
N4 100～250 150,000
N3 40～100 30,000
N2 15～40 7,000
N1 Under 15 1,500
*：Average traffic of the heavy vehicles in the design period of the pavement
Moreover, in cases where the traffic volume and wheel load during the design period are separately
configured, the cumulative 49 kN converted wheel passes are sought using the following expression:
4
m pj n
N 49 Nj N ( N 49 365 ai )
j 1 49 i 1
i
N49 : 49 kN converted wheel passes per direction per day

Pj : Representative value of wheel load in the scope of wheel load at point J
m : Number of the scope of wheel load (j = 1～m)
Nj : Passing number at Pj
N : Cumulative 49 kN converted wheel passes in the design period, and necessary number of wheel passes
causing fatigue failure
n : Design period
ai : Rate of increase in wheel load passes after “i” years with respect to N49 (i = 1～n)
2) Design in consideration of reliability
With respect to the degree of reliability configured by the road manager, the required equivalent
converted thickness TA is sought from the roadbed design CBR and number of wheel passes causing
A-3
fatigue failure using the following expression. TA indicates the required thickness when pavement is
designed as the surface course and binder course heat asphalt mixture. Reliability is differentiated
according to the status of each road within the network and the importance of each road.
When reliability is 90%: TA=3.84N0.16/CBR0.3
TA : Required equivalent converted thickness

N : Number of wheel passes causing fatigue failure
CBR: Roadbed design CBR
Table -2. Reliability and traffic conversion
Reliability 50% 75% 90%
Causing fatigue failure Causing fatigue failure Causing fatigue failure
Mean term is more than 50% of term is more than 75% of term is more than 90% of
design period. design period. design period.
Traffic
1 time 2 times 4 times
conversion
The pavement that the The pavement that fatigue The pavement that fatigue
fatigue failure does not failure does not happen failure does not happen
happen through a design through a design period through a design period
period if it is not change of even if a design condition even if a design condition
Term to the design condition has some changes. has a big change.
fatigue Or the pavement that Or the pavement that
failure fatigue failure does not fatigue failure does not
happen even if it exceed happen even if it largely
design periods a little if it exceed a design period if it
is not change of the design is not change of the design
condition condition
3) Thickness setting of each course
The thickness of each course is determined in a manner so that the required equivalent converted
thickness TA is not undercut.
Required equivalent converted thickness (TA’) < Required equivalent converted thickness (TA)
n
T A' ai hi
i 1
TA’ : Required equivalent converted thickness (cm)

ai : Equivalent conversion coefficient of materials and methods used in each pavement course (value
indicating 1cm of a pavement course in terms of how many centimeters of surface course and binder
course heated asphalt mixture it corresponds to)
hi : Thickness of each course (cm)
A-4
Table -3. Coefficient of relative strength
Coefficient of
Layer Material/Method Quality standard relative
strength
Surface
coarse Hot asphalt mixture Use of straight asphalt 1.00
Base coarse
Hot mixing: Stability≧ 3.43kN 0.80
Bituminous stabilization
Cold mixing: Stability≧2.45kN 0.55
Unconfined compression strength
1.5～2.9MPa
Cement and bituminous
Quantity of primary displacement 0.65
stabilization
5～30(1/100cm)
Residual strength ≧65%
Cement stabilization 0.55
[7days] 2.9MPa
Base
Lime stabilization 0.45
[10days] 0.98MPa
Crushed stone for
mechanical stabilization
Modified CBR ≧80 0.35
Iron and steel slag for
mechanical stabilization
Mechanical property of Modified CBR ≧80
hydraulic, graded iron and Unconfined compression strength 0.55
steel slag [14days] 1.2MPa
Crush stone Modified CBR>≧30 0.25
Iron and steel slag
20≦Modified CBR<30 0.20
Sand
Sub-base Unconfined compression strength
Cement stabilization 0.25
[7days] 0.98MPa
Lime stabilization 0.25
[10days] 0.7MPa
The equivalent conversion coefficients shown in Table 3 represent only those values that are
currently clarified. Concerning other new materials and construction methods, the TA method can be
applied so long as the road manager configures the equivalent conversion coefficient according to the
strength of materials. However, in actual operation, because the test pavement used to determine the
equivalent conversion coefficient incurs a lot of time and cost, a method that entails estimating the
value based on indoor test results (elastic coefficient, etc.) is used. However, since such estimate
values are only provisional, it is still necessary to confirm serviceability by means of test pavement.
Accordingly, a figure of 1.0 is used as the equivalent conversion coefficient of modified asphalt and
semi-flexible pavement, etc.
When determining the thickness of each course, the minimum thicknesses indicated in Tables 4~6
must be satisfied.
A-5
Table-4. The minimum thickness that added the surface coarse and base coarse.
Classification of Design daily Volume for pavement The minimum thickness that added the
traffic (unit/day) surface coarse and base coarse. (cm)
N7 V≧3,000 20 (15)※1
N6 1,000≦V<3,000 15 (10)※1
N5 250≦V<1,000 10 (5)※1
N4 100≦V<250 5
N3 40≦V<100 5
N2, N1 V<4 4 (3)※2

※1：
（）Show a minimum thickness when they use a bitumen stabilization method and cement, a bitumen stabilization
method of base.
※2：Minimum thickness is 3cm without depending on bitumen stabilization method and cement, the bitumen stabilization
method .
Table-5. Minimum thickness of each base layer

（Design daily Volume for pavement more than 40unit／day・direction）
Material/Method Minimum thickness of a layer
Bituminous stabilization（Hot mixing） Twice of Max particle size and 5 cm

Other 3 times of Max particle size and 10 cm
Table -6. Minimum thickness of each base layer

（Design daily Volume for pavement less than 40unit／day・direction）
Material/Method Minimum thickness of a layer
Crushed stone for mechanical stabilization

7cm
Crush stone
Bituminous stabilization（Cold mixing） 7cm
Bituminous stabilization（Hot mixing） 5cm
Cement and bituminous stabilization 7cm
Cement stabilization 12cm
Lime stabilization 10cm
A-6

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Basic Research For Improvement of Road Development Projects by Japan's ODA in African Countries - Ethiopia, Ghana, Tanzania

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Basic Research for Improvement of Road

Development Projects by Japan’s ODA

Site Survey Report

JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY

Oriental Consultants Co., Ltd. 13-005

1) NR No.3 (Phase I section by Japanese ODA)

2) NR No.3 (Phase II section by Japanese ODA)

3) NR No.3 (Phase III section by Japanese ODA)

1) NR No.1 (Accra – Tema Highway)

2) NR No.1 (George Bush Highway)

3) NR No.1 (Suburban Area)

Reappeared pot hole on repaired section Trace of repair at sag point

1) Kilwa Road in Dar es Salaam (Improved by Japanese ODA)

2) Challinze-Tanga Road (Rehabilitated by DANIDA)

3) Kibaha-Challinze Section (Rehabilitated by TANROADS)

Long flow rutting on Kibaha-Challinze section. It A line of heavy vehicles on Kibaha-Challinze

1. Outline of the Basic Research

2. Pavement Technology in Japan

2.1 Types and Applicable Conditions of Pavement ········································ 2- 1

3. Applicable Standards in the Target Countries

3.1 Applicable Design Standards in the Target Countries ································· 3- 1

4. Conditions and Causes of Pavement Failure

Annex：Pavement Design Method in Japan (TA method)

Figure 2-1. Flow of the pavement design ···························································· 2- 8

AASHTO ：American Association of State Highway FS ：Feasibility Study

AC ：Asphalt Concrete GCW ：Gross Combined Weight

AfDB ：Africa Development Bank GDP ：Gross Domestic Product

As ：Asphalt GHA ：Ghana Highway Authority

BS ：British Standard GVW ：Gross Vehicle Weight

CBR ：California Bearing Ratio HDM ：Highway Development and

CIA ：Central Intelligence Agency Management

CML ：Central Material Laboratory HIPCs ：Heavily Indebted Poor Countries

Co ：Concrete HWL ：High Water Level

DANIDA ：Danish International Development ITP ：Inspection and Test Plan

DBM ：Dense Bitumen Macadam IRI ：International Roughness Index

DBST ：Double Bitumen Surface Treatment ISOHDM ：International Study of Highway

DCP ：Dynamic Corn Penetration Development and Management System

DD ：Detail Design HGV ：Heavy Goods Vehicle

DFR ：Department of Feeder Roads JICA ：Japan International Cooperation Agency

DMS ：Detail Measurement Survey JIS ：Japan Industrial Standard

DS ：Design Standard JTF ：Joint Task Force

DS ：Dynamic Stability JV ：Joint Venture

DSR ：Dynamic Shear Rheometer LCC ：Life Cycle Cost

DT ：Direct Tension MDL ：Maximum density line

DUR ：Department of Urban Roads MGV ：Medium Goods Vehicle

EN ：Exchange of Note NEXCO ：Nippon Expressway Company

ERA ：Ethiopian Roads Authority NMT ：Non-motorized Traffic

ERCC ：Ethiopian Roads Construction NTP ：National Transport Policy

ESAL ：Equivalent Single Axle Load ODA ：Official Development Assistance

FAR ：Federal Acquisition Regulation PAV ：Pressure Aging Vessel

FIDIC ：Fédération Internationale Des PFI ：Private Finance Initiative

PIARC ：Permanent International Association of Africaine

Road Congress UN ：United Nation

PMA ：Polymer-modified Asphalt VEF ：Vehicle Equivalent Factor

PSI ：Present Serviceability Index VHGV ：Very Heavy Goods Vehicle

PQ ：Pre-qualification VMA ：Voids in Mineral Aggregate

QAM ：Quality Assurance Manual WB ：World Bank

QC ：Quality Control WT ：Wheel Trucking

Dense graded mixture（20mm,13mm）＊＊

Fine graded asphalt mixture （13mm）＊

Dense and gap-graded asphalt mixture （13mm）＊＊

Dense graded mixture（20mmF,13mmF）＊

Fine and gap graded asphalt mixture （13mmF）＊

Fine graded asphalt mixture （13mmF）＊

Porous asphalt mixture （20mm,13mm）＊＊