Insolvency law (uploaded Sept 2008)

Contents

PART 1
Introduction

1. Introduction

PART 2
Obtaining a sequestration order

2. Voluntary surrender

3. Compulsory sequestration

PART 3
Effects of sequestration

4. The legal position of the insolvent

5. Vesting of the assests of the insolvent

6. Vesting of the assets of the solvent spouse

7. Uncompleted contracts and legal proceedings

not yet finalized

PART 4
Collection of the estate assets
trustee’s
8. Meetings of creditors and proof claims

9. The election of the trustee

trustee
10. Impeachable dispositions

PART 5
Realization and distribution of the assets

11. Creditors’ claims and their ranking

PART 6
Composition and rehabilitation

12. Composition

13. Rehabilitation

PART 7
Miscellaneous

14. Partnership and sequestration

PART 8
Winding-up of companies and close corporations

15. Winding-up of companies

16. Judicial management and compromise

17. Winding-up of close corporations

 PART 1:
INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction

Meaning of: “Insolvency”

A person is insolvent when his liabilities exceed his assets. Inability to pay debt is, at most,
merely evidence of insolvency.

A person who has insufficient assets to discharge his liabilities, although satisfying the test of
insolvency, is not treated as insolvent for legal purposes unless his estate has been
sequestrated by an order of the court.

A sequestration order is a formal declaration that a debtor is insolvent, the order is granted
either when the debtor voluntarily surrenders or where one or more of the debtor’s creditors
apply for compulsory sequestration.

The purpose of a sequestration order

Is to secure the orderly and equitable distribution of a debtor’s assets where they are
insufficient to meet the claims of all his creditors.

Executing against the property of a debtor who is in insolvent circumstances inevitably results
in one or a few creditors being paid, and the rest receiving little or nothing at all.

Thus the legal machinery that comes into operation during sequestration is designed to ensure
that whatever assets the debtor has are liquidated and distribution among all his creditors in
accordance with a predetermined fair order of preference.

Once an order of sequestration is granted, a concursus creditorum (coming together of

creditors) is established, and the interests of the creditors as a group enjoy preference over
the interests of individual creditors.

A creditor’s right recover his claim in full by judicial proceedings is replaced with the right, on
proving a claim against the insolvent estate, to share with all other proved creditors in the
proceeds of the estate assets.

Apart from what is permitted by the Act, nothing may be done which would diminish the assets
of the estate or prejudice the rights of creditors.

The law of insolvency exist primarily for the benefit of the creditors, thus a court will not
sequestrate a debtor’s estate unless it’s known that the sequestration will be to the benefit of
the creditors. Thus a sequestration order would not be granted if there is only one creditor or if
the debtor’s assets are not sufficient to cover the costs of sequestration, and so the creditors
of the debtor would then have to seek individual relief against the debtor by taking judgment
against him for nonpayment of debts.

What may be sequestrated?

The Act provides for the sequestration of the estate of the debtor.

Meaning of “estate”

Estates that fall with the meaning of the word “estate” with regard to insolvency:

• An estate that includes assets and liabilities

• An estate that consists of liabilities only
• The joint estate of spouses married in community of property
• The separate estates of spouses married out of community of property
• The new estate of a debtor whose estate has been sequestrated.

Meaning of “debtor”

The term “debtor” embraces the following:

• A natural person
• A partnership
• A deceased person
• A person incapable of managing his own affairs
• An external company that does not fall with the definition of ‘external company’ in the
Companies Act. Such as a foreign company which has not established a place of business
in the Republic
• An entity or association of persons that is not a juristic person, such as a trust

Jurisdiction of the court

Which court has jurisdiction?

Only a Provincial or Local Division of the HC may adjudicate upon an insolvency matter.

But a magistrates’ court may preside over prosecution for criminal offences, proceedings to set
aside voidable dispositions, and a few other matters, provided that the ordinary jurisdictional
limits as to offence, person and amount imposed by the Magistrates’ Court Act are not
exceeded.

Jurisdiction over a debtor and his estate

In terms of s 149(1), a court has jurisdiction over a debtor and the estate of the debtor if:
• On the date when the application for voluntary surrender or compulsory sequestration of
the debtor’s estate is lodged with the Registrar of the court, the debtor is domiciled, or
owns property, or is entitled to property situated within the jurisdiction of the court; or
• At any time within 12 months immediately preceding the lodging of the application, the
debtor ordinarily resided or carried on business within the jurisdiction of the court.

Jurisdiction in litigation against third parties

It’s not relevant where the trustee of an estate litigates against third parties, the ordinary rules
of jurisdiction apply.

Competing courts – removal to another court

A court having jurisdiction over a debtor may refuse the surrender or sequestration of his
estate if it appears to the court equitable or convenient that his estate should be sequestrated
by another court within the Republic. The court may order the matter to be transferred to the
other court.

What is the Master?

A Master is appointed in terms of the Administration of Estates Act to each of the Provincial
Divisions of the High Court.

The Master is a “creature of statute” and thus has only the powers granted to him by the
Legislature

For the performance of various functions, the Master can charge fees, some being payable in
cash and other by means of revenue stamps.

Condonation of irregularities

The Insolvency Act and irregularities:

• A formal irregularity where there is substantial injustice to the creditors but a court order
cannot remedy the situation, the irregularity will be invalid.
• A formal irregularity which causes no substantial injustice will be valid because it’s not
causing injustice.

In addition, the courts recognise the following grounds when an irregularity may be condoned:

• Where deviation is so slight

• Where all interested parties have waived compliance
• Where provision in question is not peremptory and has substantially been complied with
• Where it was impossible for the party concerned to have complied with the Act.
 PART 2:
OBTAINING A SEQUESTRATION ORDER
2. Voluntary surrender
How can a debtor’s estate be sequestrated?

There are two ways:

1. Compulsory sequestration:
A creditor or creditors may apply to the court for the sequestration of the debtor’s
estate.

2. Voluntary surrender:
The debtor himself (or his agent) may apply to the court for the acceptance of the
surrender of his estate.

The procedure and requirements for these two methods differ in material respects, but the
consequences of the sequestration order are the same.

Who may apply for a voluntary surrender?

The following persons may apply to surrender the mentioned estates:

ESTATE PERSON
Estate of a natural person The debtor himself or his agent (but the
agent must be expressly authorized)
Estate of a deceased debtor The executor
Estate of a debtor who is incapable The party entrusted with administering the
of administering his own affairs estate
Partnership estate All the members who reside in the
Republic, or their agent
Joint estates of spouses married in Both spouses
community of property

Requirements

The court may accept the surrender of a debtor’s estate only if:

1. The debtor’s estate is insolvent

The amount of the debtor’s liabilities exceeds the amount of his assets.
2. There must be sufficient money to cover the sequestration costs

The debtor owns property of sufficient value to defray all costs of the sequestration which
will be payable out of the free residue of the estate.

If the debtor furnishes a guarantee (his mom will pay the costs), it’s still not going to work.

3. Sequestration will be to the advantage of the creditors

The debtor must prove that the sequestration will be to the benefit of the creditors by
showing a future budget of the debtor’s losses.

Preliminary formalities

Procedure for voluntary surrender:

1. Notice of intention to surrender

The debtor must publish a notice of surrender in the Government Gazette and in a
newspaper circulating in the magisterial district where he reside. Publication of the notice
must take place between 30 to 14 days before the date of the hearing.

2. Notice to creditors and other parties

Within 7 days after the publication of the notice to surrender, the debtor must send a copy
of the notice to:
• Each creditor
• Trade unions and employees
• SARS

3. Lodging of statement of affairs

A statement of affairs has to be drawn up containing the following:

• A balance sheet
• A list of immovable assets and their values
• A list of any movable property
• A list of debtors
• A list of creditors
• A list of any movable assets pledged, hypothecated, subject to a lien or under
attachment in execution of a judgment
• A detailed statement of the causes of the debtor’s insolvency
• An affidavit made by the debtor verifying the statement of affairs is true

The statement of affairs must then be lodged in duplicate at the Master’s Office.
The consequences of the publication of a notice to surrender

Stay of sales in execution

After the publication of the notice, it is unlawful to sell any property in the estate which has
been attached under a writ of execution or other similar process, unless the person charged
with the sale could not have known of the publication.

Curator bonis may be appointed

The debtor is still at liberty to deal with his property as he chooses. As a safeguard against the
debtor dissipating his assets after the publication, the Master may appoint a curator bonis to
the debtor’s estate.

The curator bonis takes the debtor’s estate into his custody and assumes control of any
business or undertaking of the debtor.

Potential compulsory sequestration

If after having published the notice of surrender;

• the debtor fails to lodge a statement of his affairs, or

• lodges one which is incorrect or incomplete in a material effect, or
• fails to make application to court on appointed day,

and the notice is not properly withdrawn, debtor commits an act of insolvency which entitles a
creditor to apply for compulsory sequestration.

No withdrawal of notice without consent

A notice of surrender cannot be withdrawn without the written consent of the Master.

Lapse of notice to surrender

The notice of surrender lapses if:

• The court does not accept the surrender, or
• If the notice is properly withdrawn, or
• If the debtor fails to make the application within 14 days after date advertised as the date of
the hearing.
Application for surrender

The form and contents of application

Application for surrender is brought by notice of motion supported by an affidavit, containing:

• Full name, status, occupation and address of the applicant to show jurisdiction and locus
standi
• An allegation of insolvency and facts to establish this
• Explanation on how the insolvency came about
• An averment that the applicant owns realisable property of sufficient value to defray all the
costs of sequestration which will be payable out of the free residue of the estate
• An allegation that it will be to the advantage of the creditors if the debtor’s estate is
sequestrated, amplified by facts supporting the allegation.
• Details of any salary or income that the debtor is receiving.
• Any other information that may influence the courting granting or refusing the surrender
• A description of the procedural steps followed by the applicant prior to bringing the
application supported by documents proving that each step has been taken.

The affidavit must be sworn in and signed before a commissioner of oaths independent of the
office in which it was drawn.

Adjudication on the application

When adjudicated upon, the following documents must be before the court:

• Notice of motion and supporting affidavit

• Debtor’s statement of affairs, incorporating the verifying affidavit
• Any sworn valuation necessary
• Proof of publication of notice of surrender
• Proof by affidavit that an applicant has delivered or posted copies of the notice as required.
• A certificate from the Master
• Any opposing affidavits by creditors
• Debtor’s replying affidavit
Courts discretion

The court has discretion even if all the requirements have been met, the factors may be:

• Gross extravagance and running up debts on a pretentious scale

• Creditors are not pressing for payment and willing to give time
• Ulterior motive
• Failure to give a full and frank account of financial position
• Papers were deficient in a number of respects.

Setting aside sequestration order

No appeal lies against the order of refusing to accept a surrender, but any aggrieved by an
order accepting a surrender may appeal against such an order. Noting of an appeal does not
suspend the operation or execution.

Unlike an order of rehabilitation, an order rescinding a sequestration order does not have the
effect of releasing a debtor from the liability of his debts. He is simply placed in the position he
had occupied before the order was granted, as to both his person and property.
3. Compulsory sequestration
Requirements

The court may grant an application if it’s satisfied that:

• Applicant has established a claim which in terms of section 9(1) entitles him to apply for
sequestration of the debtor’s estate;
• The debtor has committed an act of insolvency or is insolvent
• There is reason to believe that it will be to the advantage of the creditors if the debtor’s
estate is sequestrated.

The onus for proving these elements lie on the sequestrating creditor.

The applicant is entitled to apply in terms of s 9(1)

In terms of s 9(1) allows proceedings to be instituted by:

• A creditor (or his agent) with a liquidated claim for more than R100, or
• Two or more creditors (their agents) with liquidated claims not less than R200

*A liquidated claim is a monetary claim*

The debtor has committed an act of insolvency or is insolvent

1. A debtor’s estate may be sequestrated even though he is technically solvent in the

following cases:

• Absence from the Republic or dwelling

o If he leaves RSA and remains absent or departs from his dwelling with the intention to
evade or delay payment of his debts commits an act of insolvency. The creditor must
establish the intention.
• Failure to satisfy judgment
• Disposition prejudicing creditors or preferring one creditor.
• Removal of property with intent to prejudice or prefer a creditor
• Failure to apply for surrender
• Notice of inability to pay
o If he gives notice in writing to any of his creditors that he is unable to play any of his
debts

2. Factual insolvency may be established directly and indirectly:

• Directly, by evidence of the debtor’s liabilities & the market value of assets.
• Indirectly, by evidence of facts and circumstances from which the insolvency is fairly and
properly deducible.
Reason to believe sequestration will be to the advantage of creditors

If after the costs of sequestration there is no payment to creditors, there is no advantage. It is

necessary to compare the position of the creditors if there is a sequestration with their position
if there is no sequestration.

Friendly sequestration

An application for compulsory sequestration brought by a creditor who is not at arms length is
referred to as friendly sequestration.

Requirements:
• Full details of claim
• Documentary evidence establishing that he has actually performed as alleged
• Full details of the debtor’s realisable assets

Application for sequestration

The form and contents of application

Application is brought by notice of motion supported by an affidavit. Affidavit should contain:

• Full names, status, occupation, address of sequestrating creditor, his locus standi
• Full names, date of birth, identity number and marital status of the debtor
• Amount, cause, nature of claim, if secured, the nature and value of security
• Act(s) of insolvency committed by debtor
• An averment that sequestration will be to the advantage of the creditors
• Any other relevant facts
• A statement that security will be furnished to the Master
• A statement that a copy of papers will be lodged with the Master
• A statement confirming that copies of the application will be furnished to interested parties

Steps prior adjudication on application

• Security for costs

o The creditor is bound to prosecute at his own costs until trustee or a provisional trustee
has been appointed. He is required to deposit security for payment of all fees
• Search of Master’s records
o The applicant’s attorney must file an affidavit that he searched the Master’s records
and it does not appear that the debtor is already being sequestrated
• Filling of application at court with the Registrar
• Master’s report
o Master makes a written report to the court of any facts which would justify the court in
postponing the hearing or dismissing the application
• Copy of papers to debtor and other interested parties
Provisional sequestration

The creditor has to approach the court twice, first to obtain a provisional order, and then to
have the provisional order confirmed and made final.

At the provisional stage there must be prima facie satisfaction of the requirements, while at the
final stage, the requirements have to be proved on a balance of probabilities.

At the provisional sequestration the following must be before the court:

• Notice of motion
• Certificate that security has been given
• Affidavit of search through records
• Master’s report
• Affidavit responding to report (if any)
• Affidavit setting out manner in which others were informed

After considering the documents placed before it, the court may make an order:

• Sequestrating provisionally
• Dismissing application
• Postponing hearing

Intervention by another creditor

In terms of Fullard v Fullard, a creditor is entitled to intervene. If he wants a fresh sequestrating

order, the other must be set aside and a new order must be issued. The intervening creditor
must make out a case for sequestration, furnish security as though he was the original but he
doesn’t have to restate facts appearing from records in the existing proceedings.

Final sequestration

On the return day, in addition to the papers filled at the provisional stage, the court must have:

• The sheriff’s return of service of nisi rule

• Any opposing affidavits of the debtor and/or other interested parties
• Replying affidavit of applicant
• Any affidavit by provisional trustee

If the court is satisfied that the applicant has established the requirements for a sequestration
order on a balance of probabilities, it may confirm the provisional order. If it’s not satisfied, it
must either dismiss the application and set aside the provisional order or require the creditor to
produce further proof of the allegations in his application and postpone the hearing for a
reasonable period.
Courts discretion

Even if the court is satisfied that the requirements have all been established on a balance of
probabilities, it’s not bound to grant the final order of sequestration.

Costs of proceedings

The trustee must, from the first available funs from the estate, reimburse the sequestrating
creditor for his taxed costs in sequestrating the estate.

Unwarranted or vexatious proceedings

As a safeguard the court may, when satisfied that the application is an abuse of the court’s
procedure or is malicious or vexatious, allow the debtor to prove any damage which he has
suffered and award compensation as deemed fit.

Setting aside sequestrating order

Any person aggrieved by a final order pf compulsory sequestration, or by an order setting

aside an order of provisional sequestration may appeal against the order. The aggrieved
person must first obtain leave to appeal from the appropriate court.

No appeal lies against the granting of a provisional sequestrating order or the refusal of such
an order.
 PART 3:
EFFECTS OF SEQUESTRATION
4. The legal position of the insolvent

The sequestration of a debtor’s estate imposes on him a form of reduction in status which
curtails his capacity to contract, earn a living, litigate and hold office.

Contracting

The debtor retains a general competency to make binding agreements, but there are certain
restrictions to protect creditors.

Prohibited contracts

• The debtor may not make a contract which purports to dispose of any property of his
insolvent estate.
• He may not, without written consent of the trustee, enter into a contract which adversaly
affects his estate

Effects of contracts which are prohibited

The contract is voidable at the option of the trustee

Earning a livelihood

A debtor is allowed to follow any profession or occupation or enter into any employment and
he may make whatever contracts that ar reasonably necessary for this pupose.

But the insolvent may not, without written consent of the truste, carry on, be employed in any
capacityin, or having any direct or indirect interest in, the business of a trader who is a general
dealer or a manufacturar.

Instituting and defending legal proceedings

Proceedings which may be brought/defended personally by the insolvent

Any insolvent may sue or be sued in the following matters:

• Matters relating to status, e.g. divorce

• A matter which relates to a right which does not effec the insolvent estate, e.g. to receive
maintanence from the insolvent.
• Where the claim is to recover remuneration or reward for work done
• Where it is for a pension to which he is entitled for services rendered
• Where it is for compensation in rspect of loss or damage suffered by reason of defamation
or personal injury
• Where the matter concerns a delict committed by him after sequestration of his estate

Security for costs

In the High Court, if the matter is one which the Insolvency Act specifically gives the insolvent
the right to sue, he cannot be required to give security for costs, unless, the failure of the
action is inevitable.

Table for differences between Mag and High Courts:

Magistrates’ Court High Court Factors

Case flows Plaintiff compelled Cannot claim May claim if action
from if defendant claims security will probably not
Insolvency security succeed
Act
Case does not Plaintiff compelled Plaintiff not May claim if
flow from if defendant claims compelled to security if action is
Insolvency security ledge security reckless or
Act vexatious

Entitlement to costs

When the insolvent obtains an award of costs in his favour, the award belongs to him
personally and may with it as he wishes.

Holding office

An insolvent is prohibited from holding some offices if there is a possibility of prejudice to the
public interest, such as the National Assembly.

And also if a great amount of trust and responsibility is required, like a trustee, or the possibility
of dishonest business practise exists, like running a close corportation.
5. Vesting of the assests of the insolvent

Vesting of the estate in the trustee

The function of the trustee is collect the assets in the estate, realise them, and distribute the
proceeds amongst creditors in the order of prefrence laid down by the Act.

The estate will remain vested in the trustee until:

• The discharge of the sequestration order by the court
• The acceptance by creditors of an offer of compensation
• An order for the insolvent’s rehabilitation is granted

Property which falls in the estate

The insolvent estate comprises of:

• All property of the insolvent at the date of sequestration, inculding property (and proceeds)
in the hands of a sheriff undera writ of attachment.
• All property which the insolvent acquires or which accrues to him during the sequestration,
including property he recovers from the benefit of the estate where the trustee fails to take
necessary action.
• Whenever an insolvent has aquired possession of property which is claimed by the trustee,
it is deemed to belong to the insolvent estate.
• Property inhereted by a spouse to a marriage in community of porperty forms part of the
insolvent estate.

Property which falls outside the estate

• Wearing apparel, bedding, household furniture, tools and other means of subsistance
which the creditor’s may determine.
• Remuneration for work done but the trustee may take a portion
• Pension
• Compensation for defamation or personal injury
• UIF
• Insurance polocies
• Trusts
• And the fruits from the above assets
Disposal of estate property by the insolvent

An insolvent cannot dispose of any property. If the insolvent unlawfully disposes of

immovable property, the trustee may recover compensation from:

• The insolvent personally

• Person who acquired the property knowing that its part of the insolvent estate
• A person who did not know but who acquired it without giving sufficient value in return.
6. Vesting of the assets of the solvent spouse

Explain in commuity of property marriages concerning the insolvent estate

There is a joint estate, thus no solvent spouse because if one goes insolvent both do, as they
share the joint estate.

Explain out of commuity of property marriages concerning the insolvent estate

All assets and laibilities are kept separate. If one spouse goes insolvent his estate falls into the
insolvent estate, the solvent spouse’s estate temporarily falls into the insolvent estate.

Vesting of assets in the trustee

One of the affects of the sequestration order is to vest the separate property of the spouse of
the insolvent in the Master and subsequently the trustee as if it were property of the insolvent
estate. The transfer is not permanent, the solvent spouse ,ay secure the release of assets
falling within categories et out in s21(1).

Who is a solvent spouse?

• A husband or wife married according to any law or custom

• People of oppisite sex who live together but are not married

It’s the spouse of an insolvent who is married out of community of property.

Duty of the solvent spouse to lodge a statement of affiars

One of the duties of the Sheriff on receiving a sequestration order is to serve a copy of the
order onto the solvent spouse if she has a separate estate that has not been sequestrated.
The solvent spouse then has 7 days of service to lodge a statement of her affiars, verified by
an affidavit to the Master.

Postponement of vesting

If the solvent spouse carries on business of a trader apart from the insolvent spouse, or it
appears to the court that the solvent spouse is likely to suffer serious prejudice through the
immediate vesting of her property, the court may exclude her property or part of it from the
operation of the order.
Release of the solvent spouse’s property by the trustee

The trustee is obliged to release property of the solvent spouse which is proved to fall in any of
the following categories:

• Prpoerty owned before the mariage

• Property acquired under a marriage settlement
• Property acquired during the marriage e.g. pruchase and sale contract
• Property she inhereted during the marriage
• Any fruits from the above property
7. Uncompleted contracts and legal proceedings not yet finalized
Contract completed by insolvent by not by other party

If the insolvent has carried out his side and only the other performance is outstanding, that
right is an asset. The trustee may either sell it or enforce performance and then sell the
subject-matter of the performance.

Contract not completed by the insolvent

Sequestration does not suspend or put an end to the contract. The trustee has the power
to exclude the right of the other party to invoke the remedy of specific performance.

Once the trustee has elected to repudiate or continue the contract, he cannot change his mind.
If he fails to reach a decision within a reasonable time, it is assumed that he does not intend to
perform in terms of the contract.

Statutory controls on the exercise of the trustee’s election.

In regard to certain contracts, the act lays down when and how the trustee should exercise his
election:

• Contract to acquire immovable property:

The trustee must make his election within 6 weeks after receiving a written notice from the
other party calling upon him to do so.
If he fails, it gives right to the other party to apply to the court for the cancellation and he
may prove a concurrent claim for loss suffered.

• Hire of property:

Trustee may only repudiate the lease by giving written notice to the lessor.
If does not, within three months of his appointment, notify the lessor that he desires to
continue the lease on behalf of the lessee’s estate, he is deemed to have repudiated it.
Repudiation of the lease contract deprives the insolvent estate of any right to compensation
for improvements, other than those made in terms of any agreement with the lessor.

The lessor has:

o A preferent claim for rent payable from the date of sequestration to date of
determination
o If the property is immovable, a secured claim by reason of his tacit hypothec for rent
owed at time of sequestration
o A concurrent claim in respect of any other loss sustained.
Consequences of repudiating

If the trustee elects to repudiate the contract, the opposite party is precluded from obtaining an
order for specific performance. However he may use other remedies for breach of contract.

If he decides to accept the repudiation (i.e., cancel contract), the following consequences
ensue:

• He may recover any property handed over in performance and still owned by him.
• He is obliged to make restitution in accordance with normal principles of law of contract
unless there is a forfeiture clause in the contract
• He has a concurrent claim in respect of property which he has transferred, and payments
which he has made, to the debtor, and for loss which he suffered because of the breach

Consequences of abiding

The trustee steps into the shoes of the insolvent.

A seller of movable for cash, who has delivered but not been paid, cannot reclaim unless:

• He has given notice in writing within 10 days after delivery that he reclaims the property,
and
• If the trustee disputes his right to reclaim the property, he institutes legal proceedings within
14 days of receiving the notice of the trustee’s objection.

Contracts which are suspended or terminate on sequestration

1. Employment contract:

The sequestration of an employer’s estate suspends the employment contract between him
and his employee with immediate effect. During the period of the suspension:
• He is not obliged to render services, and is not entitled to his salary or wage
• No employment benefits accrues to the employee

2. Mandate:

Contracts which the trustee cannot repudiate

The trustee’s power to repudiate is excluded or limited in the following contracts:

1. Lease of immovable property

Due to the principle of “huur gaat voor koop”, the trustee cannot repudiate a lease of
immovable property concluded by the insolvent as a lessor.
 However, the trustee may be compelled to repudiate the lease if the property is subject to a
real right (e.g. a mortgage bond) which was registered prior to the lease. The trustee is
then required to put the property up for sale subject to the lease.

If the highest bid is not sufficient to cover the amount due to the holder of the real right, the
trustee must, at the request of the holder, sell the property free of the lease.

The lease then has a concurrent claim for damages in respect of loss suffered because of
the breach of contract.

2. Sale of land on installments

The trustee’s right to repudiate may be excluded where the insolvent has:

• Sold land on installments, or

• Alienated land which has subsequently been sold on installments.
• And the land has not been transferred pursuant to the transaction in question.

3. Sale of goods in terms of installment sale transaction

Certain legal writers state that the trustee is not entitled to repudiate and vindicate the
goods, provided that the buyer continues to fulfill his obligations in terms of the contract.
There is no clear case authority for this view.

4. Resale of immovable property continuously

The trustee’s right to repudiate is excluded where he obtains transfer of immovable

property which the insolvent bought and resold (without receiving transfer) prior to the
sequestration.
 PART 4:
COLLECTION OF THE ESTATE ASSETS
8. Meetings of creditors and proof claims

Meetings of creditors

By means of a system of meetings, the insolvent’s creditors establish their claims, elect the
trustee and give directions to the trustee on the winding up of the estate.

First meeting

On the reciept of the final sequestration order, the Master is obliged to immediately convene
the first meeting of creditors of the estate by notice in the Gazette.The notice in the Gazette
must appear not less than 10 days prior to the meeting.

What happens:

• The trustee will be appointed by the creditors

• Creditors have to prove their claims
• The creditors instruct the trustee on how to sell the assets
• The date for the second meeting is set

Second meeting

• The trustee conviens the meeting.

• The last chance for creditors to prove their claims.
• Creditor’s receive trustee’s report on the affairs and condition of the etsate.
• The creditors give directions to the trustee.

Special meetings

Proof of claims:

The trustee may be called upon to convene a special meeting of creditors by notice in the
Gazette, for the proof of claims against the estate.

Interrogation of the insolvent:

Provided that the Master gives consent, the trustee may at any time and must if required by a
creditor who has a proved claim against the estate, convene a special meeting of creditors by
notice in the Gazette for the purpose of interrogating the insolvent.
General meeting

The trustee may at any time convene a meeting of creditors (called a ‘general meeting’) for the
purpose of giving him (the trustee) instructions concerning any matter relating to the
administration of the estate.

General provisions relating to meetings

Date and venue of meetings:

The Master determines the date, time and venue of the first meeting. The fixing of dates, times
and venues of other meetings is left to the trustee.

Presiding officer at meetings:

• In a district where there is a Master’s Office, the Master or an officer in the public service
designated by him must preside over the meeting.
• If its held in any other district, the meeting must be held in accordance with the Master’s
directions and must be presided over by the magistrate of the district or by an officer in the
public service designated by him.

Recording of proceedings:

The presiding officer at every meeting must keep record of the proceedings, certify it at the
conclusion of the proceedings and transmit it to the Master.

Statement privileged :

Publication of any statement at a meeting is privileged to the same extent as publication of a

statement made in a court of law.
9. The election of the trustee
Election and appointment

Election

At the first meeting of creditors, the creditors who have proved their claims may elect one or
two trustees. If more than one person is nominated, the person who obtains a majority of votes
in both number and value must be elected the sole trustee. Where the trustee is eleced at a
meeting that’s not presided by the Master, the election is not valid until confirmed by the
Master.

Appointment

The Master may refuse to accept the person the creditors elected as trustee. If he accepts,
once the person has given satisfactory security for the proper performance of his duties as
trustee, the Master must confirm the election and appointment by delivering a certificate of
appointment.

Refusal to accept

The Master may refuse to accept/confirm the election of a person elected as trustee if:
• He is not properly elected
o If the creditors did it unlawfully, the Master is obliged not to confirm and convene a
new meeting to elect another trustee.
• He is disqualified from being a trustee
• He has failed to give the required security
• In the opinion of the Master, he should not be appointed as a trustee to the estate in
question, by considering:
o Personality
o Experience
o Age and diligece
o And complexity or problems presented by the estate.

If the Master declines to confirm, he must notify the party in writing and state the reasons.

Joint trustees

Joint trustees must act jointly and are jointly and severally liable. If one acts unlawfully without
knowledge or consent of the other, the latter is not liable.
Any disagreements must be referred to the Minister for his directions.
Objection to appointment or refusal to accept

Any person aggrieved by:

• The appointment of a trustee, or
• Refusal to confirm the election of a trustee;
may, within 7 days from the date of appointment or refusal, request the Master, in writing, to
submit his reasons for the appointment or refusal to the Minister. The Master must comply with
the request within 7 days, submitting along with his reasons any relevant documents,
information or objections which he has received. The Minister may then give appropriate
directions in this regard and his decision is final.

Persons disqualified from being a trustee

Certain persons are not competent to be appointed trustee in any estate, while others are
merely disqualified from being the trustee of a particular estate.

Absolute disqualification
The following persons may not be a trustee in any estate:
• An insolvent
• Minor or other person under legal disability
• Perons residing outside RSA
• A company, close corporation or other corporate body
• Former trustee disqualified under section 72
• A person declared under section 59 to be incapacitated for election while it lasts, or any
removed on account for misconduct
• A person convicted of theft, fraud, forgery, uttering, or perjury and who has been sentenced
to a term of imprisonment wihtout the option of a fine, or to a fine exceeding R2000
• A person who was at any time party to an agreement with a debtor or creditor whereby he
undertook that he would, as a trustee grant or obtain for a debtor or creditor a benefit not
provided for by law.
• Person who has by misrepresentation, rewarded, or offered a reward, direct or indirect,
induced or attempted to induce, to a perons to vote for him as a trustee or to assist him in
becoming elected.

Relative disqualification

The following persons are disqualified in respect of a particular estate:

• Related in blood or marriage to the insolvent within the 3rd degree.
• A person having an interest opposed to the general interest of the creditors
• A person that acted as a bookkeeper, accountant or auditor of the insolvent at any time
during a period of 12 months immediately preceding the date of sequestration.
• An agent authorised to vote on behalf of a creditor at a meeting and who acts or purports to
act in terms of that authority.
Vacation of, or removal from, office

Vacation of office

A trustee must vacate his office if:

• His estate is sequestrated
• An order is issued for his detention under the Mental Health Act, or if he is declared by the
court to be incapapble of managing his own affiars
• He is conviced of an offence and senteced to prison without the option of a fine
• He is convicted of theft, fraud, forgery, uttering a forged document, or perjury

Removal from office by the Master

The Master may remove a trustee from office on the grounds that:
• He was not qualified, or that his election or appointment was illegal, or that he has become
disqualified
• He has failed to perform his duties satisfactorily or to comply with a lawful demand of the
Master
• He is mentally or physicaly incapabe of performing his duties as trustee satisfactorily
• The majority of the creditors have requested in writing that he be removed
• He is no longer suitable, in the opinion of the Master

Disqualification or removal by court

On the application of an interested party, the court may declare that the person appointed or
propossed as trustee is:

• Disqualified from holding the office, and

• Incapable of being elected or appointed trustee during his lifetime or such other period as
the cour may determine

The court may make this order if:

• The person has accepted, or expressed his willingness to accept, a benefit from someone
who performs work on behalf of the estate; or
• The person, in order to obtain the vote of any creditor for his appointment as trustee, has;
o Wrongfully omitted or included the name of a creditor from any record required by
the Act; or
o Given or offered consideration of any kind, or
o Offered to abstain from investigating previous transactions of the insolvent, or
o Split claims for the purpose of increasing the number of votes
10. Impeachable dispositions

Dispositions

Introduction

In addition to being vested with the property belonging to the insolvent at the time of
sequestration, the trustee has the means of recovering certain property alienated by the
insolvent before the sequestration. The trustee may ask the court to set aside certain
dispositions made by the insolvent before sequestration and may, in certain circumstances,
void the transfer.

Meaning of ‘disposition’ & ‘impeachable’

According to s2, a ‘disposition’ is any transfer or abandonment of rights to property, and

includes a sale, lease, mortgage, pledge, delivery, payment, release, compromise donation, or
any other contract there for. But does not include a disposition in compliance with an order of
the court.

The following should be noted:

• ‘Property’, according to s2, means movable or immovable property, situated within RSA.
• A beneficiary has the competence or power to accept or repudiate inheritance (bequest or
legacy) or an insurance benefit and until he accepts, it is not part of the estate. Thus,
repudiating the inheritance or insurance benefit, is not a transfer or abandonment of any
right.
• A disposition includes a contract providing for the alienation or abandonment of rights to
property, this is referred to as an ‘uncompleted disposition’.
• If the creditor obtained a court order by fraud or by collusion with the insolvent and with the
intention of prejudicing other creditors, the exclusion does not apply.

Impeachable = reversible.

Dispositions which may be set aside

The dispositions which may be set aside are those:

1. Made not for value

2. Having the effect of preferring one creditor above another (‘voidable preferences’)
3. Intended to prefer one creditor above another (‘undue preferences’)
4. Made in collusion with another persons and having the effect of prejudicing creditors or
preferring one above another
5. Made in fraudem creditorum (‘in fraud of creditors’)
1. Disposition made not for value

What must be proved:

Section 26(1) empowers the court to set aside a disposition made not for value.
The trustee must prove:
• That the insolvent made the disposition
• When it was made, and
• That the insolvent had received no value for it.

If the disposition was made more than two years before sequestration, the court can only set it
aside if the trustee proves that, immediately after it was made, the liabilities of the insolvent
exceeded his assets.
It’s not necessary to prove that the insolvent intended to prejudice the creditors.

Examples of dispositions not for value are a donation and a payment for a promise which the
promissor cannot be compelled to carry out. To qualify as “value”, the reciprocal benefit need
not be monetary or a tangible one, such as to stay a member of a club, and the benefit must
be adequate, not a trifling amount.
But payment of lawful debt is not payment without value as the payer receives counter-value in
form of discharge liability.

If its proved that the liabilities at any time after making a gratuitous disposition, exceeded
assets by less than the value of property disposed of, the disposition may be set aside only to
that extent.

Exception to s26 (disposition in terms of an antenuptial contract):

Settlement of property in an antenuptial contract is not liable to be set aside as a disposition

without value on insolvent’s insolvency if the requirements are met:

• The disposition must be an immediate benefit

• The disposition must be given in good faith
• The antenuptial contract must have been duly registered at least 2 years prior to the
sequestration.

Beneficiary’s right to share in estate limited

The beneficiary to a gratuitous has no right to claim in competition with creditors of the
insolvent estate.

However, there is one exception, where the uncompleted disposition was made by way of
suretyship, guarantee or indemnity. In this event the promise may compete with the creditors
of the estate for an amount not exceeding the amount by which the value of the insolvent’s
assets exceeded his liabilities immediately before the disposition was made. E.g. on pg. 131 of
Hockleys.
2. Disposition which prefers one creditor above another: Voidable preference

What must be proved

In terms of s29, the court may set aside a disposition made by the insolvent not more than six
months before the sequestration of his estate or death if the disposition had the effect of
preferring one of the insolvent’s creditors above another and immediately after the disposition
was made, the liabilities of the insolvent exceeded the value of his assets.

The disposition does not have to be made directly to the creditor concerned, it must merely
have had the effect of preferring him.

The test whether a creditor has been preferred is whether the proper distribution of assets as
been defeated.

Exception to s29 (disposition in the course of business & not intended to prefer)

Section 29 enables the trustee to set aside transactions made and assets alienated by the
insolvent while being close to insolvency, unless it was made in the ordinary course of
business and it was not intended to prefer one creditor over another. The beneficiary would
have to prove the two elements in order to defeat the trustee’s claim.

a. Ordinary course of business

In deciding whether a disposition was made in the ordinary course of business, an

objective test is applied:

• Whether the disposition was one which would normally be entered into between solvent
business persons. Or stated differently:
• Whether it is in conformity with ordinary business methods adopted by solvent persons
of business.

b. No intention to prefer

It’s sufficient to say that the insolvent did to intend to prefer if it is established that, when he
made the disposition, he did not contemplate or expect sequestration.
3. Disposition intended to prefer one creditor: Undue preference

What must be proved

In terms of s30, the court may set aside a disposition made at any time before sequestration if
it was made with the intention of preferring one creditor above another, and when he made it,
his liabilities exceeded his assets.

The test for determining whether the insolvent had the intention to prefer is whether his
dominant intention in making the disposition was to disturb the proper distribution of assets on
insolvency. The test is subjective, it stands to reason that the insolvent must have applied his
mind to the matter. If he did not actually consider whether he was conferring a preference, he
could not have intention to prefer.

The following factors are relevant in determining whether the insolvent’s dominant intention
was to confer preference:

• Whether the insolvent contemplated insolvency when making it

• Whether the debtor, at the time of the disposition, was in a position to exercise free choice
(no pressure)
• Whether there is nay relationship between the insolvent and the creditor

In deciding whether the insolvent had the intention to prefer, the court must decide on the
balance of probabilities.

Difference between s29 and s30

Table to display the differences in the trustee’s power under s29 (voidable preference) and s30
(undue preference):

SECTION 29 SECTION 30
Voidable preference Undue preference
May only be set aside if not more than 6 May be set aside irrespective of when it was
months before sequestration made
Debtor may be solvent when he makes it, Debtor must be insolvent
provided he is insolvent immediately after
Trustee may show that the disposition had Trustee must prove intention
the effect of preferring one creditor over
another
Beneficiary has a defence No defence for the beneficiary
4. Collusive disposition which prejudices creditors or prefers one creditor

In terms of section 31, the court may set aside a transaction entered into by the debtor before
sequestration in terms of which he, in collusion with another, disposed of his property in a
manner which had the effect of prejudicing his creditors or preferring one over another.
In order to succeed with an action under s31, the trustee must prove that:

• The insolvent made a disposition of his property,

• In collusion with another person, and the other person both knew that the former was
insolvent and expected the disposition to have the effect of prejudicing creditors or
preferring one above another, and
• The disposition had the effect

In addition, the trustee may recover from any person who was party to the disposition:

• Any loss which the disposition caused to the insolvent’s estate, and
• A penalty determined by the court, but not exceeding the amount by which the party would
of benefited if the disposition was not set aside.

5. Disposition in fraud of creditors (actio Pauliana)

Although the Act sets out specific circumstances in which a disposition of the insolvents
property may be set aside, it does not deprive the creditors of their right under common law to
have a disposition set aside as being in fraudem creditorum. The common law action is known
as the actio Pauliana.

To succeed with actio Pauliana, the plaintiff must prove that:

• The transaction diminished the debtor’s estate

• The person who received from the debtor did not receive his own property
• There wan an intention to defraud, and
• The fraud took effect.

The creditors may invoke actio Pauliana to recover not only the assets disposed of, but also
any benefits accruing from the insolvent’s fraud.

Exemption of certain dispositions from Act

Sections 26, 29 and 30 do not apply to property disposed of in accordance with the rules of an
exchange or property disposed in terms of a master agreement.
Transfer of business without prescribed notice

In terms of section 34(1) of the Insolvency Act, if a trader, without giving notice as prescribed
by the Act, transfers in terms of a contract a business belonging to him, or its goodwill, or any
goods or property forming part of it (except in the ordinary course of that business or for
securing the payment of a debt), the transfer is void as against his creditors for six months
thereafter, and it is void against his trustee if his estate is sequestrated at anytime within that
period.

“Transfer”, for these purposes includes the transfer of possession, actual or constructive. (I.e.
the trader does not have to transfer ownership to the other party).

The notice referred to is a publication of a notice of intended transfer in the Government

Gazette &two issues of an Afrikaans newspaper and two issues of an English newspaper
circulating in the district in which that business is carried on. The publication must appear not
less than 30 days, and not more than 60 days before the date of transfer.

The following should be noted in regard to the scope and effect of s34(1):

• The section is designed to protect the creditors of a business

• It applies only to traders
• An unadvertised transfer is not void in any absolute sense, only against the trustee. This
means that it is within the discretion of the trustee to treat the transfer as void or not.

Transfer of business after proceedings instituted

Section 34(3) deals with the situation where a trader transfers his business after another
person has instituted proceedings against him for the purposes of enforcing a claim against
him in connection with the business. The section renders the transfer void as against the
person concerned if either:

• Transferee is aware that proceedings have been instituted, or

• Proceedings have been instituted in a High Court or Magistrates’ Court having jurisdiction
in the district in which the business is carried on.

The following should be noted in regard to s34(3):

• The section applies irrespective of whether the trader gives notice of transfer
• The creditor is protected if he has instituted proceedings prior to the transfer
• Protection is not limited as to time
• The section only renders the transfer void against the creditor who instituted proceedings
and to the extent of his claim
 PART 5:
REALIZATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE ASSETS
11. Creditors’ claims and their ranking
Types of creditors

Concurrent creditors

• Concurrent creditors have no advantage over other creditors of the insolvent.

• The concurrent creditor’s claims are all equal in rank.
• Concurrent creditors are paid out of the free residue after any preferent creditors have
been paid.

Free residue is the portion of the estate which is not subject to any right of preference.

Secured creditors

A secured creditor is one who holds security for his claim in the form of a special mortgage,
landlord’s hypothec, pledge or right of retention.

A secured creditor is paid from the sale of his secured property, after payment of certain
expenses and any secured claim which ranks before his. If the proceeds are insufficient to
cover his claim, he then has a concurrent claim for the balance.

A secured creditor may, when proving his claim, choose to rely exclusively on his security, in
doing this, the creditor waives any right to participate in the free residue. He is then less likely
to be called upon to contribute towards the costs of sequestration than one who elects to
preserve his right to share in free residue.

Preferent creditors

A preferent creditor is a creditor whose claim is not secured but nevertheless ranks above the
claims of concurrent creditors.

Preferent creditors are entitled to be paid fully out in a particular out of the free residue of the
estate, but the portion which is not subject to any security claims.
Types of security conferring preference

Special mortgage

A special mortgage is:

• A mortgage bond hypothecating immovable property

• Notarial bond hypothecating specially described movables in the Security by Means of
Movable Property Act.
• A Notarial bond hypothecating specially described movable property registered before
1993 in terms of the Notarial Bonds Act

It excludes any other bond hypothecating movables, thus a general Notarial bond does not
qualify as a special mortgage. However, it does confer a preference in respect of the free
residue.

Section 88 lays down that a bond (other than a Kustingbrief) gives no security or preference if:

• The estate was sequestrated within 6 months after lodging it with the registrar
• The debt was incurred more than 2 months prior to lodging, and
• The debt was not previously secured.

Landlord’s legal hypothec

A landlord who is owed rent has a hypothec over movable property brought onto the leased
premises for the use by the tenant. On insolvency, the landlord has a secured claim in respect
of all movable assets owned by the insolvent which are covered by the hypothec.

The claim is secured up to an amount of:

RENT PAYMENT INTERVAL CLAIM AMOUNT

Monthly or lower 3 months rent
Exceeding 1 month but not more than 3 months 6 months rent
Exceeding 3 months but not more than 6 months 9 months rent
Exceeding 6 months 15 months rent

Pledge

A valid pledge is constituted where there is delivery of movable property to a creditor on the
understanding that it will be retained by him until his claim has been satisfied.
Right of retention

A party has a right of retention (or lien) over specific property belonging to another if he has
expended labour or incurred expenses in respect of property. There are two types of liens:

• Enrichment liens

Enrichment leans are based on unjustified enrichment.

There are two kinds:
o Salvage liens
o Improvement liens

The holder of an enrichment lien may retain the property until compensated for his
expenses and labour, but cannot insist on payment of more than the amount by which the
owner has actually been enriched.

• Debtor and creditor liens

Debtor and creditor liens are based on a contract. A creditor who holds a debtor and
creditor lien is entitled to retain the property as against the debtor until the latter has paid
the amount due in terms of the contract.

Installment agreement hypothec

If movable property has been delivered to a debtor under an installment agreement, the seller
acquires, on sequestration, a hypothec over the property which secures his claim for the
balance outstanding under the contract.

Ranking of claims

The estate, for the purposes of distribution, consists of the proceeds of both the encumbered
and unencumbered assets.

The proceeds of each encumbered asset are applied to pay the claim(s) secured by that asset.
Any balance remaining after payment of secured creditors is combined with the proceeds of
the unencumbered assets to pay the remaining creditors. This money (“free residue”) is then
used first to satisfy the preferent creditors in full (in their order of preference) and there after to
pay the claims of the concurrent creditors.
Encumbered assets

1. Initial costs

The proceeds of each encumbered asset must be applied to the payment of certain costs
before payment of the claim(s) secured by the asset. The costs are the following:
• Costs of maintaining, conserving and realizing the asset in question
• Trustee’s remuneration
• A proportionate share of costs incurred by trustee in giving security
• A proportionate share of the Master’s fee
• If immovable, any tax which is or will become due on it for a period not exceeding 2 years

2. Secured claims

After payment of the initial costs, the balance of the proceeds of the encumbered asset,
including any interest earned on the price obtained for the asset, must be used to pay all the
claims secured by the asset, in proper order of preference.

Secured claims rank for the secured creditors are in the following order:

• Immovable property
o Enrichment lien
o Special mortgage bond
o Debtor and creditor lien
• Movable property
o Enrichment lien
o Pledge
o Special notarial bonds in the order in which they were registered
o Debtor and creditor lien
o Installment agreement hypothec
o Landlord’s hypothec

Unencumbered assets (free residue)

1. Funeral expenses

Funeral expenses to a maximum of R300

2. Death-bed expenses

Death-bed expenses means expenses incurred for medical attendance, nursing, and medical
necessaries with a maximum of R300
3. Costs of sequestration

The costs of sequestration must be paid in the following order:

• Sheriff’s charges incurred since sequestration

• Master’s fees
• Miscellaneous charges comprising of the:
o Taxed costs of sequestration
o Fee allowed by Master to a person who assisted the insolvent or spouse in drawing
up a statement of affairs
o Remuneration of curator bonis (if any)
o Remuneration of the trustee
o All other costs of administration

4. Costs of execution

• Not exceeding the proceeds of the property in question

5. Salary or remuneration of employees

Balance is then applied to pay the following:

• Salary or wages due to an employee, maximum of R12000

• Payment in respect of leave or holiday, to a maximum of R4000
• Payment in respect of paid absence, period not exceeding 3 months with a maximum of
R4000
• Any retrenchment pay due, maximum of R12000
• Any payments w\owing to pension, maximum of R12000

6. Statutory obligations

• Any amount due to the Compensation Commissioner in terms of the Compensation for
Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act.
• UIF
• VAT

7. Income tax

• Paying any tax on income or profit and interest on tax for which the insolvent is personally
liable

8. Claim secured by general and special bond over movables registered before 7 May 1993

9. Claims of concurrent creditors

 PART 6:
COMPOSITION AND REHABILITATION
12. Composition

A debtor who is in financial difficulty or whose estate has been provisionally sequestrated can
avert insolvency by entering into a compromise with his creditors.

There are two forms of compromise:

• Common-law compromise:
A common-law compromise is based on a contract and requires the approval of all
creditors.

• Statutory composition:
Section 119 is a stautory mechanism under which the decision of the majority of the
creditors binds the dissenting minority, but, the disadvantage of this section is that the
sequestration order is not discharged.

Common-law compromise

After a provisional order of sequestration has been granted, or even before, the insolvent may
enter into a written agreement with his creditors and the provisional trustee to pay certain
dividends on the creditors’ claims, on condition that he be released from his debts and any
provisional order of sequetsration be discharged.

Statutory composition/ composition in terms of s119

Offer of composition in terms of s119

Submission of offer to creditors via trustee

At any time after the first meeting of creditors, the insolvent may submit the wrtten offer of
compensation to the trustee. If the trustee sees no likelihood that they will accept, he informs
the insolvent that it is unacceptable and that he proposes not to send it to them. The insolvent
may then appeal to the Master.

When it is snd to the creditors, a meeting to consider the offer msut be convened, the date of
the meeting must not be earlier than 14 days, and not later than 28 days, after posting or
delivery of notice. The notice must contain specific reference to offer of compensation as
amatter to be dealt with at the meeting.
Terms of composition

An offer may contain any terms the insolvent sees fit to incorporate init, including terms to
effect that he should be reinvested with his assets and that he should be released from further
liability in respect of his debts.

Requirements and restrictions imposed by Act:

• If the offer provides for the giving of security, the natue of security sholud be specified fully
and if it consist of a surety bond or guarentee, every surety should be named
• An offer may not be accepted if it contains a condition entitling one creditor to obtains as
against another, a benefit which the former would not have been entitled upon distribution
of the estate in the normal way
• A condition which makes an ofer of compensation subject to the rehabilitation of the
insovent is of no effect. The reason is that the court has to exercise an unfettered discretion
when considering an application for rehabilitation.

Acceptance of s119 composition

To give rise to a binding composition, the offer must be accepted by the creditors whose votes
amount to not less than three-fourths in value and three-forths in number of the votes of all
proved creditors.

Cinsequences of s119

All concurrent creditors are bound

An offer which is accepted is binding on the insolvent and all creditors in so far as their claims
are not secured or otherwise preferent.

Restoration of property to insolvent

No transfer or delivery is necessary, the revesting takes place by operation of law if it is a term
of the compensation.

Restoration of proeprty to the solvent spouse

The composition is not binding on the creditors of the solvent spouse and on acceptance, the
property of the spouse which is vested with the trustee must be restored.
Trustee to frame accounts, administer composition and report to creditors

Any money to be paid must be paid and done as far as practicable through the trustee, but he
is under not duty to a creditor who fails to prove his claim before the trustee has made a final
distribution among proved creditors. The trustee may investigate the affiars and transactions of
the insolvent prior to the insolvency and to report on them to the creditors in the usual way,
notwithstanding composition .

Right to prompt rehabiltitation

Where the offer is accepted, the insolvent may be entitled immediately to apply for his
rehabilitation.
13. Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation takes place automatically, by lapse of a prescribed period of time, but the
insolvent usually asks the court to rehabilitate him before expiry of the prescribed period.

Automatic rehablititaion after 10 years

An insolvent not rehabilitated by the court within a period of 10 years from the date of
sequestration is deemed to be insolvent . Each Registrar must enter a caveat against the
transfer of all immovables, or cancellation or cession of any bond belonging to or registered in
the name of the insolvent. This remains in force until rehabilitaion.

Rehabilitation by court within 10 years

The Act sets out circumstances under which rehabilitaion may be sought prior to expiration of
the 10-year period, and the procedure which must be followed to obtain an order of the court.

When may rehabilitation be sought?

1. Composition of not less tha 50 cents in the Rand

An insolvent may immediately seek an order rehabilitation if he has obtained a certificate

from the Master that the creditors have accepted an offer of composition in which payment
has been made, ror security has been given for payment, of not less than 50 cents in the
Rand.

2. Lapse of prescribed period after confirmation of first account

Subject to the qualifications below, the insolvent may apply for his rehabilitation after 12
months have elapsed from the confirmation by the ,Master of the first account in the estate:

a. If estate hass been sequestrated before, the period which must elapse before he can
apply is 3 years from the date of confirmation of the first account.
b. If convicted of a fruadulent act in relation to insolvecny, the period which must elapse
before he can apply is 5 years from the date of conviction.
c. If the Master has recommended rehabilitation, the order may be obtained within 4 years

3. No claims proved after 6 months

An insolvent may apply for his rehabilitaion after a period of 6 months has elapsed from the
date of sequestration of:

a. At the time of application, no claim has been proved against his estate; &
 b. He has not been convicted of any fruadulant act in relation to his insolvency; and
c. His etsate has not been sequestrated before.

4. Full payment of all proved claims

At any time after confirmation by the Master of a plan of distribution providing for the
payment in full of all proved claims with interest and all costs of sequestration, the insolvent
may apply for sequestration.

Courts discretion

The rehabilitation of an insolvent is a matter which soley lies with the court and the following is
the guidelines as to how the court will exercise its discretion:

1. Postponement of rehablilitation

Where further information is needed or criminal proceedings against the insolvent are
pending, or as a mark of disapproval of applicant’s conduct.

2. Grant of rehabilitation subject to a condition

There must be speical circumstances which make it just and equitable to impose the
condition and it must be properly motivated.

The court will not impose a condition that the insolvent pay unpaid claims simply because
he has managed to accumalate an estate during sequestration and is in a position
financially to discharge claims.

The Act provides that among conditions that may be attached, the court may require him to
consent to judgment being entered against him for payment of the unsatisfied balance of
debto which was or could have been proved against the estate.

3. Refusal of rehabilitation

Examples of factors which may persuade the court to refuse an order of rehabilitation are
that he failed to keep proper books of account, that he ran up excessive debts prior to
sequestration, and that he was highly obstructive in the administartion of his estate.

4. Considerations in favour of unconditional rehabilitation

Certain factors contribute to an unconditional rehabilitaion, such as:

• The insolvent only incured very small debts

• The insolvent was not to blame for his sequestration, it came purley by misfortune
• No opposition from creditors, trustee or Master
Effect of rehabilitation

Relieve of every disability resulting from sequestration and discharge from all debts which
were due or cause of which arose before sequestration. It does not reinvest the insolvent with
his former estate, except:

1. where a compensation provides different

2. where the basis for rehabilitation is that no claims were proved within 6 months of the
sequestration.

Declaratory order regarding property

The insolvent applying for rehabilitaion, or thereafter, may ask for an order declaring he is
entitled to the asset.

To obtain there order, the insolvent must comply with the following requirements:

• Publsih notice of intention in the government gazette

• Service copy of notice to the Master, trustee and all creditors whose claims have not been
satisfied.
• In the application he must show that the trustee and creditors have full knowledge of the
facts and he must give full information to establish that the property was acquired adversely
to the trustee.
 PART 7:
MISCELLANEOUS
14. Partnership and sequestration

In terms of the Act, the word ‘debtor’, includes a partnership or estate of a partnership.

Voluntary surrender of partnership estate

An application to surrender a partnership estate, must be brought by all partners, or their

agents. But the following need not apply:

• A partner not residing in RSA

• A partner en commandite (anonymous partner)
• A special partner

Simultaneously with an application for surrender of a partnership estate, each partner (except
the ones stated above) must apply for the acceptance of the surrender of his private estate.

Compulsory sequestration of partnership estate

If the court sequestrates the estate of a partnership, it is bound at the same time to
sequestrate the private estate of every member of the partnership, except for:

• A partner not residing in RSA

• A partner en commandite (anonymous partner)
• A special partner

A partnership itself never becomes insolvent, the simultaneous sequestration of the partners’
estates is not just procedureal, but vital.
The court will not sequestrate the private estate of a partner if he undertakes to pay the
partnership debts within a period fixed by the court and gives security for such payment.
Where the private estate is unable fully to meet the costs of sequestration payable out of that
estate, the balance must be paid out of the assets of the partnership, but the converse does
not apply.

A partnership estate may be compulsory sequestrated on the grounds of an act of insolvency

committed by one of the partners, only if the latter acted in his capacity as a partner.
Proof claims

In principle, partnership assets are applied to payment of partnership debts and separate
estate assets to payment of separate estate debts.
Therefore, if the partnership and individual estates are sequestrated simultaneously, the
creditors of the partnership are not entitled to prove against the separate estates of the
partners, and the creditors of the individual estates are not entitled to prove against the
partnership estate. But the Commissioner for SARS may prove claims for income tax and
interest against a partnership estate for amounts due by partners.

Separate administration of estates

Administration of partnership and partner estates must be kept entirely separate.

Surplus in either estate

If, after all the estates have been administered, a surplus remains in a partner’s separate
estate, the trustee in the partnership estate is entitled to this surplus for the benefit of
partnership creditors.

Rehabilitation

As a partnership is ipso facto terminated on sequestration of its estate, a partnership estate

can never be rehabiltated.
 PART 8:
WINDING-UP OF COMPANIES AND CLOSE CORPORATIONS
15. Winding-up of companies

‘Winding-up’, means the procedure by which a company’s assets are sold, its debts are paid
and any money left over is divided amongst the members according to their rights.

Modes of winding-up

• Winding-up by the court (compulsory winding-up), initiated by an application tot he court.

• Voluntary winding-up may be either a creditors’ or a members’ voluntary winding-up and
both are initiated by a special resolution of members.

Winding-up by court (compulsory winding-up)

Jurisdiction of court

The court which has jurisdiction is the Provincial or Local Division of the High Court having
jurisdiction over the area in which the company has its registered office or main place of
business.

When a company may be wound up by court

Section 344 sets out the various grounds on which a company may be wound up.

Special resolution

The court may wind up a company if it has passed a ‘special resolution to be wound up by the
court’. It must be passed by a general meeting of members and lodged with the Registrar for
registration.

Premature Commencement of business

The court may wind up a company if it has commenced business before the Registrar has
certified that it was entitled to do so.

Failure to commence or continue with business

The court may wind up a company if it has not commenced business within a year from its
incorporation, or if it has suspended its business for a whole year.
Public company’s members less than seven

The court may wind up a public company if the number of its members has fallen below seven.
Loss of capital

A court may wind up a company if 75% of its issued share capital has been lost or become
useless for its business.
Inability to pay debts

The court may wind up a company if it’s unable to pay its debts as described in s345.

In terms of s345, a company is deemed unable to pay its debts in the following cases:

• A creditor (at least R100 due) has left a demand for payment which has been neglected for
3 weeks.
• A warrant of execution issued on a judgment against the company has been returned by
the sheriff with endorsement that he could not find disposable property sufficient to satisfy
judgment.
• It is proved to the satisfaction of the court that the company is unable to pay its debts.

Just and equitable

The court may wind up a corporation if it appears that it is just and equitable that the
corporation should be wound up. The courts do not regard the ‘just and equitable’ ground as
some limitless ground for winding up a company. The have resorted to specific cases only,
and they are reluctant to extend its application.

The courts have held that its just and equitable to wind up a company in the following
instances:

• Where the main object for which the company is formed is not possible of being attained.
• Where the company’s objects are illegal.
• Where there is a justifiable lack of confidence in the conduct and management of the
company’s affairs.
• Where a deadlock cannot be resolved except by winding up.
• Where the company is quasi-partnership and circumstances exist which would be good
grounds for dissolving a partnership.
• Where the minority shareholders are oppressed by the controlling shareholders

Parties who may apply

• The company itself may bring the application

There is a difference of opinion whether it must be authorised by special resolution of

members or whether it may act on resolution of directors. The former view is preferred.
• One or more creditors

The application may be brought by one or more creditors, including contingent or

prospective creditors. The claim need not be equal or exceed a particular amount.

• One or more of its members

The application may be brought by one or more of the company’s members, however, a
member may not apply unless he has been registered as such in the register of members
for at least six months prior to the date of the application.

Further, a member may not apply on the grounds of special resolution, inability to pay
debts or dissolution of external company.

The members of a company have the following ways of initiating the winding-up of a
company:

o The members may resolve by special resolution to proceed with a members’ voluntary
winding-up of the company
o The members may resolve by special resolution to proceed with a creditors’ voluntary
winding-up of the company
o The members may resolve by special resolution that the company should apply to the
court for a winding-up order
o One or more members (who meet certain requirements) may apply to the court for a
winding-up order

• Any or all of the above

The application may be brought jointly by some or all of the parties mentioned above (ie,
the company, creditors and members).

• The Master

The Master may apply to convert a voluntary winding-up into a winding-up by the court.
The reason why the Master would want to convert is usually to make available the
procedure for examination and enquiry under s417 and s418.

• A provisional or final judicial manager

A provisional judicial manager may bring the application where the provisional order of
judicial management is discharged.
Steps prior to application

1. Security for costs

The party applying for winding-up must give sufficient security for the payment of all fees
and charges.

2. Master’s report

Before presenting his application to the court, the applicant must serve a copy on the
Master, who may report to the court any facts which he has ascertained which may justify
postponing or dismissing the application.

3. Notification of certain interested parties

When presenting the application to court, the applicant must also furnish a copy of it to the
following:

o Every registered trade union which represents any of the company’s employees;
o The employees themselves;
o SARS; and
o The company, unless the application was made by the company

Powers of the court

The court may grant, dismiss any application for winding-up. In practice, the court usually does
not make a final order immediately, it makes a provisional winding-up order.

The courts power to grant an application for winding-up is discretionary, but is limited where
the creditor has a debt which the company cannot pay, in which, the creditor is entitled to a
winding-up order. And the court need not be satisfied that winding-up will be to the advantage
of the company’s creditors.

The reason for refusing is essentially that the application amounts to abuse of the
winding-up procedure.

Where the applicant is founded on the fact that the company commenced business before the
Registrar certified that it was entitled to, the court may, instead of granting a winding-up order,
direct the company to obtain the certificate from the Registrar.

Voluntary winding-up

A company may be wound up voluntarily if it has adopted a special resolution to that effect and
that resolution has been registered by the Registrar.
Members’ voluntary winding-up

A members’ voluntary winding-up can take place only if the company is unable to pay its debts
in full.
In terms of s350(1), a resolution to proceed with a members’ voluntary winding-up is void
unless, prior to registration of the resolution either:

• Security is furnished for payment of the debts of the company within 12 months from
commencement of the winding-up; or
• The Master dispenses with the security on production of both an affidavit by the directors of
the company that it has no debts and a certificate by the auditor of the company that, to his
best knowledge and belief, and according to the records of the company, it has no debts.

Creditors’ voluntary winding-up

May be resorted to where the company is unable to pay its debts.

Consequences of winding-up

Commencement of winding-up

A winding-up by the court is deemed to commence at the time of the presentation to court of
the application for winding-up.

Directors divested of powers and control

Winding-up establishes concursus creditorum, which is aimed at ensuring that the company’s
property is collected and distributed among the creditors in the order of preference. The
company does not lose its corporate identity, nor does it lose its assets unless so ordered. But
from the moment winding-up commences, the following consequences ensue:

• Powers of the directors cease and the directors become functus officio
• The company’s property is deemed to be in custody and under control of the Master until a
provisional liquidator has been appointed.
• Company may not continue with its business except in so far as may be necessary for its
beneficial winding-up.

Subsequent unauthorized dispositions void

After commencement:

• Any transfer of shares without the liquidator’s permission is void

• If the company is unable to pay debts, every disposition of its property not sanctioned by
the court is void.
Stay of proceedings

Once a winding-up order is made or special resolution for voluntary winding-up is registered,
all civil proceedings by or against the company are suspended until the appointment of the
liquidator.

Any attachment or execution put in force against the assets is void.

After appointment of the liquidator, civil proceedings may continue or commence. This includes
execution proceedings put in force before commencement of the order.

Notice of winding-up

The Master must, on receipt of a winding-up order, give notice of the winding-up in the
Government Gazette.
The Registrar must submit a copy of the winding-up order to certain Sheriffs and Registrars of
Deeds.

A company which has passed a resolution for its voluntary winding-up must, within 28 days
after registration of the resolution, give notice in the Gazette and lodge a certified copy of the
resolution to the Master together with the following:

• In the case of members’ voluntary winding-up: A certified copy of any resolution passed by
the company nominating a liquidator
• In the case of creditors’ voluntary winding-up: Two certified copies of a statement setting
out affairs of the company.

The liquidator

Appointment of provisional liquidator

After the winding-up order has been made, or a special resolution has been registered, the
Master may appoint any suitable person as the provisional liquidator.

Appointment of liquidator

The Master must appoint as liquidator(s):

• In the case of members’ voluntary winding-up, the person nominated in the resolution
• In the case of creditors’ voluntary winding-up and a winding-up by the court, the person(s)
nominated by the first meeting of creditors and the initial meeting of members.

Any aggrieved person may call upon the Master to submit his reasons to the Minister. And
then the Minster may confirm or set aside the Master’s decision.
Persons disqualified from being a liquidator

The following persons are disqualified from being nominated or appointed as a liquidator:

• An insolvent
• A minor or any other person under legal disability
• A person declared to be incapable of being appointed as a liquidator for dishonesty or
abuse of his position
• A person who has been removed from an office of trust by the court. Or who has been
disqualified from being a director
• A body corporate
• A person who has been convicted of theft, fraud, forgery, uttering a forged instrument or
perjury and has been sentenced to imprisonment without the option of a fine or a fine
exceeding R20
• A person who by misrepresentation or reward induced or attempted to induce any person
to vote or to nominate him
• A person not residing in RSA
• A person who has acted as director, officer or auditor of the company within 12 months
before winding-up
• An agent authorised to vote for or on behalf of a creditor at a meeting who acts or purports
to act under such authority

Removal from office

The liquidator may be removed from office by the Master if:

• Not qualified, or has become disqualified

• He has not performed his duties satisfactorily
• If his estate has become insolvent or he has become mentally or physically incapable
• Majority in number and value of creditors, or majority of members, has requested so
• If the Master is of the opinion that the liquidator is no longer suitable

If the Master does not remove, the court may, but only if its satisfied that removal of the
liquidator will be to the general advantage and benefit of all interested in the winding-up.

Impeachable transactions

In terms of s340, every disposition by a company of its property which, if made by an

individual, could, for any reason, be set aside in the event of his insolvency, may, if made by a
company, be set aside in the event of the company being wound up and unable to pay all its
debts, and the provisions of the law of insolvency apply mutatis mutandis, to the disposition.
16. Judicial management and compromise
A company unable to pay its debts has two alternatives to winding-up, namely; judicial
management and compromise between company and its creditors.

Judicial management

Judicial management is resorted to where a company is in financial trouble but there is a

potential to recover.

When a company may be placed under judicial management

The court may grant an order placing a company under judicial management where:

• The company, because of mismangment or any other cause, is unable to pay its debts or
unable to meet its obligations;
• The company has not become or has been prevented from becoming a successful
concern;
• There is a reasonable probability that, if the company is placed under judicial management,
it will be enabled to pay its debts or meet its obligations and become a successful concern;
and
• It appears just and equitable to grant the judicial management order.

The onus is on the applicant to establish a proper basis for judicial managament.

A judicial management order is a special concession and is granted only in exceptional

circumstances.

Who may apply

• The company itself may bring the application

There is a difference of opinion whether it must be authorised by special resolution of

members or whether it may act on resolution of directors. The former view is preferred.

• One or more creditors

The application may be brought by one or more creditors, including contingent or

prospective creditors. The claim need not be equal or exceed a particular amount.

• One or more of its members

The application may be brought by one or more of the company’s members, however, a
member may not apply unless he has been registered as such in the register of members
for at least six months prior to the date of the application.
 Further, a member may not apply on the grounds of special resolution, inability to pay
debts or dissolution of external company.

The members of a company have the following ways of initiating the winding-up of a
company:

o The members may resolve by special resolution to proceed with a members’ voluntary
winding-up of the company
o The members may resolve by special resolution to proceed with a creditors’ voluntary
winding-up of the company
o The members may resolve by special resolution that the company should apply to the
court for a winding-up order
o One or more members (who meet certain requirements) may apply to the court for a
winding-up order

• Any or all of the above

The application may be brought jointly by some or all of the parties mentioned above (ie,
the company, creditors and members).

• The Master

The Master may apply to convert a voluntary winding-up into a winding-up by the court.
The reason why the Master would want to convert is usually to make available the
procedure for examination and enquiry under s417 and s418.

• A provisional or final judicial manager

A provisional judicial manager may bring the application where the provisional order of
judicial management is discharged.

Compromise

The Act sets out the procedure by which a company may conclude a compromise with its
creditors. It is also possible for a company which cannot pay its debts to conclude a common-
law compromise with its creditors, but thisprocedure is seldom used in practice because of the
difficulty of securing consent of each creditor.
Procedure for compromise

Where a compromise is proposed between a company and its creditors, the court may, on
application, order a meeting of creditors.

Before a court will order a meeting, it must be satisfied that the offer of compromise is prima
facie fair and reasonable and that it should be placed before the creditors for their
consideration.

If the compromise is agreed to by majority ¾ in value, the court may sanction the compromise
or arrangment.

But the court retains the discretion to refuse even if the required majority voted in favour of it.
An important factor in this regard is whether the company will be able to trade successfully
after the compromise.

Effect of compromise

If approved by the court, it binds all creditors.

17. Winding-up of close corporations
A close-corporation may be wound up voluntarily or by the court.
A voluntary winding-up may be either a members’ winding-up or a creditors’ winding-up.

Although a close-corporation is capable of being wound up, it cannot be put under judicial
management and cannot conclude a statutory compromise, but however, may enter into a
composition.

Voluntary winding-up

A corporation may be wound up voluntarily if all its members so resolve at a meeting called to
consider the winding-up. The members must sign a written resolution. A copy of this
resolution, in duplicate and in the prescribed form, together with the prescribed fee, must be
lodged with the Registrar. This resolution only takes effect once its registered.

Winding-up by court

Jurisdiction

Although only a HC has jurisdiction to wind up a company, both the HC and a magistrates’
court has jurisidiction to wind up a corporation.
When corporation may be wound up by court

S68 sets out the grounds on which a court may wind up a corporation:

• Resolution of members

The court may wind up a corporation if memebrs having 50% or more of the votes at a
meeting called for the purpose of considering the winding-up of the corporation. Members
must sign a written resolution that the corporation be wound up by the court.

• Failure to commence or continue with business

The court may wind up a corporation if it has not commenced business within a year from
its registration, or if it has suspended its business for a whole year.

• Inability to pay debts

The court may wind up a corporation if it is unable to pay its debts. A corporation is
deemed unable to its debts if any of the following are complied with:

o A creditor, with a claim of atleast R200, has left a demand for payment which was
neglected for 21 days thereafter.
o Any process on a judgment against the corporation has been returned by the sheriff
with an endorsement that he did not find disposable property sufficient to satisfy the
judgement or that the property he found did not, upon sale, satisfy the process
o It is proved to the satisfaction of the court that the corporation is unable to pay its
debts

• Just and equitable

A court may wind up a corporation if it appears that it is just and equitable that the
corporation should be wound up.

Appointment of liquidator

The Master must, in accordance with policy determined by the Minister, appoint a suitable
natural person as a liquidator as soon as practicable after the provisional order has been
made or resolution has been registered.

The Master may decline to appoint a nominee if he was not properly nominated, or is
disqualified from being appointed.

Any person aggrieved by the Master’s appointment of, or refusal to appoint, a liquidator may,
within 7 days, request the Master to submit his reasons to the Minister.
The Master may appoint a person as co-liquidator if he was nominated as such at the first
meeting of the creditors and gives secuirty.

Setting aside of payments to members

In the winding-up of a corporation unable to pay its debts, members may be compelled to
repay money which they received from the corporation prior to liquidation.

Payments by reason of membership

A member who received a payment by reason of his membership (e.g. a distribution of profit),
within two years before the commencement of the winding-up, must repay the amount
concerned to the corporation unless he can prove that:

• After the payment was made, the corporation’s assets exceeded its liabilities;
• The payment was made while the corporation was able to pay its debts as they became
due in the ordinary course of business; and
• The payment, in the particular circumstances, did not in fact render the corporation unable
to pay its debts.

Salary or remuneration

A member may be required to return a salary or other remuneration paid to him within two
years prior to commencment of winding-up. The Master must consider the payment and if, in
his opinion, it was not bona fide or reasonable in the circumstances, he must direct that it, or
part of it wich he may determine, be repaid by the member.

Liquidator’s duty to investigate personal liability of members

The liquidator has a duty to establish whether any memebr, former member is jointly and
severally liable with the corporation for one or more debts.
Composition

At any time after the commencement of the liquidation of a corporation, any person may
submit a written offer of composition to the liquidator.

If the liquidator considers that the creditors are unlikely to accept the offer, or that he has
insufficient information at his disposal to make a recommendation, he must inform the offerer
in writing that the offer is unacceptable and that he does not propose circulating it to the
creditors.

If the liquidator considers that the creditors will probably accept the offer, he must send a copy
of the offer, together with his report thereon and an explanation of the effect of the
composition, to every known creditor and to the Master.

When circulating an offer of composition, the liquidator must notify the creditors of the meeting
at which the offer will be considered. Such a meeting may only be held once a final winding-up
order has been made.

Once accepted, the composition binds every person who had notice and was entitled to vote at
the meeting, provided that:

• It was accepted by 2/3 of the creditors

• Payment under the composition is made or secured as specified in the offer
• The rights of secured or preferent creditors are not prejudiced unless in writtting

The composition may provide for the winding-up to be set aside by the court. If so, the offeror
may apply to the court for the relevant order. He must, at least 3 weeks before the application,
advertise his intention in the Gazette and serve copies of the application on the Master, the
Registrar, and the liquidator.

The offeror’s application mau be opposed by a creditor or interested person on the grounds
that:

• The composition unfairly harms the interests of the creditor;

• The meetings for considering the composition involved a material irregularity;
• Insufficient or materially inacurate information about the composition was disclosed; or
• There is another ground which the court may deem sufficient.