Professional practices

1st Topic:

1) What is profession?
A paid occupation, especially one that involves extended training and a
formal qualification. A profession is a type of job that requires advanced
education or training.
Four Characteristics of Profession
1. Varied activities requiring special skills
2. Society-centric motivation
3. Personal standards of excellence
4. Giving back to society

Description
A profession is an occupation founded upon specialized educational training, the purpose
of which is to supply disinterested objective counsel and service to others, for a direct and
definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain.
The definition of a profession is a job, or what you do for a living. A lawyer is an
example of a profession. When you work as a teacher, this is an example of a situation
where education is your profession.

The Top 5 Most Trusted Professions

 The Most Trusted Professions.
 Firefighters. ...
 Teachers. ...
 Doctors/Nurses. ...
 Postal Workers. ...
 Armed Forces. ...
 And Among the Least Trusted Professions …
 Attorneys.

2) What is professional?
A professional is a member of a profession or any person who earns their
living from a specified professional activity. The term also describes the
 standards of education and training that prepare members of the profession
with the particular knowledge and skills necessary to perform their specific
role within that profession.
Professional Responsibilities
With reference to Information Technology, Computer Science or Software
Engineering, the responsibilities of working professionals in this area include
network administration, software development and installation, and the planning
and management of an organization’s technology life cycle, by which hardware
and software is maintained, upgraded and replaced.
True professionals possess a number of important characteristics that
can apply to virtually any type of business.

 Appearance. A professional is neat in appearance. ...

 Behavior. ...

 Reliability. ...

 Competence. ...

 Ethics. ...

 Maintaining Your Poise. ...

 Phone Etiquette. ...

 Written Correspondence.

3) What is professionalism?
A profession isn’t just what you do, it’s who you are.
Professionalism is a way of thinking and living rather than an accumulation
of learning.
Professionalism is the conduct, behavior and attitude of someone in a work or business
environment. ... Professionalism leads to workplace success, a
strong professional reputation and a high level of work ethic and excellence.
Professionalism is skill or behavior that goes beyond what an ordinary person
would have or behaving in a more formal or business-like manner. ... An example
of professionalism is a business person who is dressed in a suit and tie, has good
manners and shows good business sense.
Is professionalism a skill?
Communicating effectively and appropriately for the workplace is also an essential part
of professionalism. Regardless of the job or industry, professionalism is easy to spot. ... This is
because professionalism, in and of itself, is not one skill but the blending and integration of a
variety of skills.

4) Traits of professional?
Trait # 1 of a professional: Seriousness:
Serious about job
The job is only a job. A means to an end
Trait # 2 of a professional: Wanting to do better:
Exhibit a never-ending quest to improve their performance in every variable,
every project, every relationship, and every detail.
Trait # 3 of a professional: Dealing with the Unexpected:
Stuff happens, things change, and the true professional rises to the occasion.
Trait # 4 of a professional: Communication Skills:
 Clear
 Concise
 Confident
Trait # 5 of a professional: Interest:
Attitude is everything. Those who show interest for what they do and greet each
day with a positive attitude inevitably become a leader.
Trait # 6 of a professional: Helpfulness:
 Understand that real success in the workplace requires teamwork
 Always ready to lend a hand
 Make a suggestion
 Offer a compliment when it’s deserved
Trait # 8 of a professional: Cool under Pressure:
 Level headed and calm
 Smiling behavior even under stressful times
Trait # 9 of a professional: Remains Focused
 Stay focused on the task at hand and the goal ahead
 Navigate through problems or setbacks but never lose sight of where they headed
Trait # 10 of a professional: Don’t Follow, Lead.
  True Professionals aren’t weak of heart
 Analyze the situation and willing to take new paths and try new solutions
 That’s why they call it LEADERSHIP

2nd topic:

1) Who is computing Profession?

Professionals involved in the development and/or maintenance of SW and/or
computer HW
Computer scientists, software engineers, computer engineers, and some of
the telecom engineers are generally classified as computing professionals.
2) Scope of computing profession?
3) IT consultant. ...
4) Cybersecurity consultant. ...
5) Information systems manager. ...
6) Database administrator. ...
7) Multimedia programmer. ...
8) Systems analyst. ...
9) Games developer. ...
10) Technical writer.
1) IT consultant. ...
Working in partnership with clients, an IT consultant advises clients
on the planning, design, installation and usage of information technology
systems to meet their business objectives, overcome problems or improve the
structure and efficiency of their IT systems.
2) Cybersecurity consultant. ...
Depending on what computer science specializations you studied during
your degree, you may wish to specialize as a cybersecurity consultant or
an information security specialist. Maintaining cyber security has become
increasingly important, so in this role you will focus on understanding the risks to
the security of information or data.
3) Information systems manager. ...

Similar role to an IT consultant, an information systems manager is

usually a full-time member of staff, responsible for the secure and effective
operation of computer systems within their company. You’ll be responsible
(perhaps with the help of a team of IT staff) for the entire upkeep of the ICT
 infrastructure within your organization, with typical tasks involving the
overseeing of system installation; ensuring systems are backed-up and that the
back-up systems are operating effectively; purchasing hardware and software;
setting up secure access for all users; ensuring security of data from internal and
external attack; and providing IT support and advice for users

4) Database administrator. ...

A database administrator (DBA) is responsible for accurately and
securely using, developing and maintaining the performance, integrity and
security of a computerized database. The specific role is always determined by
the organization in question but is likely to mean being involved purely in
database maintenance or specialized in database development. 
5) Multimedia programmer. ...
A multimedia programmer is responsible for designing and creating
multimedia computer products, making sure they’re functional and maintaining
consistency to a designer’s specification. You’ll use creative as well as technical
skills to develop multimedia features including text, sound, graphics, digital
photography, 2D/3D modelling, animation and video. 
6) Systems analyst. ...
A systems analyst uses computers and associated systems to design
new IT solutions, as well as modifying and improving current systems to
integrate new features or enhancements, all with the aim of improving
business efficiency and productivity.
7) Games developer. ...
games developers produce games for personal computers, games
consoles, social/online games, arcade games, tablets, mobile phones and other
hand-held devices. This role splits into two main parts. First, there’s the
creative side of designing a game and dealing with the art, animation and
storyboarding. Second, there’s the programming side, using programming
languages such as C++.
8) Technical writer.
Required in many industries, technical writers produce descriptions
or instructions to help people understand how to use a product or service. The
strong technical knowledge that you’ve gained during your computer science
degree will be very useful in this role, particularly your knowledge of
software packages, as you could be writing manuals for high-tech products.

 Types of computing profession?

There are several computer professionals across various industries and sectors,
but below is the list of 5 computer professionals and their duties;
 1. End Users
2. Developers
3. Computer Engineers
4. Software Designer
5. Server Administrator

End Users: This involves the daily users of computers, which in most cases just have the
greatest desire to see the computer device utilized in solving the desired goals and objectives in
which the computing device was created. They are also computer professionals because they use
computer devices, for example; the End User for iPhone are the individuals that purchase an
iPhone device and uses to perform different operations like making calls, texting etc.

Developers: This refers to computer a professional usually involves in programming the

computer device using codes; usually the developer develops products to meet the demand of the
system analyst. There are various types of developers for example software developers, Android
app developers, web developers. Video games developer, etc.
Computer Engineer: These are computer professional that must have completed a form of
training especially in combining electrical engineering and computer science to focus on the
design and implementation of computer systems, also testing computer components and systems
by designing devices, processors, circuit boards and networks.
Software Designer: A software designer is a computer professional that is usually involved in
the process of creating software artefacts, usually intended to accomplish goals and objective in
which the software was created using a set of primitive components and subject to constraints.
Server Administrator: A server administrator is a computer professional that usually has the
overall control of multiple servers within an organization, maintain software and security update
on the server, monitoring server to ensure the availability of the business applications and data
centers of the organizations.

3rd Topic:
1) What is computing ethics?
Professional ethics are a code of conduct that govern how members of a
profession deal with each other and with third parties
Computer ethics are a set of moral standards that govern the use of computers. It is society's
views about the use of computers, both hardware and software. Privacy concerns, intellectual
property rights and effects on the society are some of the common issues of computer ethics.
• Software has the potential to do good or cause harm, or to enable or
influence others to do good or cause harm.
• We have pride in our work and want the work that we do to be given
recognition and respect.
• We want to protect our livelihood.
• Some Examples:
• ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct.
• http://www.acm.org/constitution/code.html
• British Computer Society Code of Conduct
• http://www1.bcs.org.uk/DocsRepository/03200/3224/default.htm
• IEEE-CS/ACM Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional
Practice
• http://www.computer.org/tab/seprof/code.htm

2) What is ethics?
Set of standards of conduct and moral judgments to determine
“rightness” and “wrongness” in behavior and action.
Ethics is concerned with what is right or wrong, good or bad, fair or unfair, responsible or
irresponsible, obligatory or permissible, praiseworthy or blameworthy. It is associated
with guilt, shame, indignation, resentment, empathy, compassion, and care.
3) Types of Computing ethics?
4) Computer ethics are divided into three types:
* The ethics of using computers between the person and the same.
* The ethics of using computers between the person and the other. 
* Ethics between the user and device.

* Ethics of using computers between the person and the same, we must
adhere:
self-esteem and not exposing them to hazards for the user. Such as: not wasting time
when using the computer, and not look at the usefulness or the taboo, and not see the sins
of others or their privacy even if they are available and accessible, and also no harm to
the body and give it a rest and focus on the back, the eyes in particular. So we must plant
these ethics among our students and trainees and staff in our schools and
workplaces because no officer of such acts only person control for himself.

* The ethics of using computers between the person and the other : 
this type of ethics we can apply it to develop some systems that protect people and users
can also keep some laws to protect devices also but the main focus of the application of
these regulations and is personal scruples.

One of the most important examples of this type:

 1- respect for intellectual property 
2- maintaining privacy and other secrets and not published or find. 
3- not to victimize others for their color, their race, their religion or their social or
prejudice the reputation or reprisal and victimization.

* Ethics between the user and hardware :

1- don't use a computer abuse especially public as schools, universities and public
libraries.
2- To ensure the safety of the device, its contents either cracking or heavy load or cause
damage to the hardware. 
3- Maintain compliance with laws designed to regulate the use of the computer as
maintaining user name and password and not give it to others from unauthorized use.
5) What is code of ethics?
A code of ethics is a guide of principles designed to help professionals conduct business honestly
and with integrity. ... A code of ethics also referred to as an "ethical code," may include areas
such as business ethics, a code of professional practice and an employee code of conduct.
• A Professional Code of Ethics serves several functions:
Symbolises the professionalism of the group.
Defines and promotes a standard for external relations with clients and
employers.
Protects the group’s interests.
Codifies members’ rights.
Expresses ideals to aspire to.
Offers guidelines in “grey areas”.

6) Principles of ethics for computing profession?

Built on 8 principles
a. Public Interest
b. Client and Employer
c. Product
d. Judgement
e. Management
f. Profession
g. Colleagues
h. Self
  Utility principle
 Rights principle
 Fairness principle: Impartiality and neutrality
 Social justice principle: Equity
 Professional competency principle
 Efficiency principle
 Accountability principle
4th Topic:
1) Philosophy of ethics?
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing,
defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". ... Ethics seeks to
resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right
and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.
Virtues: Justice, charity and generosity benefiting the person and the society (Aristotle)
State consequentialism: Evaluating the moral worth of an action based on how much it
contributes to the basic good of a state.
Utilitarianism: Conduct which produces the greatest/maximum happiness or benefit to the
greatest number of people.
Deontological theory: Ethics are central to morality - a human duty - based on rational
people’s respect for other rational people.
Hedonism: Maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain

2) How ethics developed ethical grounds?

The ground rules of ethics are the fundamentals. These are the
bases by which we make ethical decisions. Because they are “rules,”
rather than norms or principles, they must be practical in character,
easily able to be put into action. The fact that they are “ground” rules
means that they are not themselves actionable, but they inform action.
Differing circumstances might force a change of plan, but they can never
alter the nature of the ground rules. Good action is good only because it
exemplifies these rules.

Integrity
Integrity means wholeness. Wholeness can be understood by its
opposite, falseness. By “falseness,” we mean the sort of person who
wears a different “mask” depending on with whom a person is speaking.
A person who lacks integrity is religious with a religious person,
conservative with a conservative person and liberal with a liberal person.
Such a chameleon has no integrity in that there is no “core” of the
personality. Such a person is what he needs to be at the time, not
maintaining a real sense of self, mission or purpose. Falseness is the
opposite of integrity in that the false person manipulates others by
character mirroring, either hiding her real intentions or, even worse, not
having any intentions at all.

Justice and Fairness

This is a broad rule, but it is closely related to the more practical
“fairness.” Justice means, abstractly speaking, to treat people with equal
respect. Specifically, respect refers to seeing others as ends, not means.
In this case, an immoral person is one that uses people, friendships and
relationships to further their own interest. A moral person is one that
gives equal latitude to their own ends, as well as the ends of those
encountered. Justice demands that people receive what they deserve. The
caveat here is that an impartial, unbiased and objective criterion be used
to determined what a person, in fact, “deserves.”

Accountability and Autonomy

The basis of all moral ground rules is to treat people as free
beings, not as things. Accountability goes to the heart of this general
principle. Praise and blame can and should be assigned, but based on real
merit, merit derived from real, accepted and objective criteria that is
unbiased toward any group. People are to be treated as individuals, with
free will, rather than parts of a broader group. Imputing to people free
will then give the ground for treating them as real people rather than
objects to be manipulated. Free will means that the people who you
encounter are real beings with real interests, not mere stepping-stones to
reach your desires.

Honesty
Honesty is about being genuine. In this way, it is closely related
to both accountability and integrity. As an ethical ground rule, honesty is
about using words to reveal things, not conceal them. Dishonesty is
about using language to hide one's true intentions or real beliefs. Telling
people “what they want to hear” is a well-known form of dishonesty,
which disguises one's true intentions behind appearing as a “friend.”
Using language to “dress up” one's opinion or belief rather than lay it out
unvarnished is another common example of this vice. Such a dishonest
 person seeks acceptance, not truth. They lack integrity and
accountability.

3) Ethical and non-ethical behavior?

Ethical Behavior Within the Work Place:
Ethical behavior is behavior that is appropriate. It is based on morals. Ethical behavior is the
right way to behave. It is choosing the right and good. Ethical behavior is when someone is being
on his or her best behavior. All of their actions and words are following good moral principles.

People enjoy being around others who have a good ethical behavior. It is the behavior that is
morally accepted as ‘good’, ‘right’ in a particular setting. Ethical behavior refers to that conduct
that is outside reproach and is in accordance to the laid down standards of a society, organization
or institution.

Unethical Behavior Within the Work Place:

Unethical behavior is any action that is aimed at taking advantage of another without their
knowledge or consent. It can also be defined as manipulating someone without his or her
permission.

Unethical behavior is a way of acting that society disapproves of. It is the behavior that is ‘bad’;
‘wrong’ in a particular setting. Profuse languages, acting violent towards others are some
examples of unethical behavior.

1. Structure of business organization

An organizational structure is a system that outlines how certain activities are directed in
order to achieve the goals of an organization. These activities can include rules, roles, and
responsibilities. The organizational structure also determines how information flows between
levels within the company.
a. Definition of organization
An organization is a group of people who work together, like a
neighborhood association, a charity, a union, or a
corporation. Organization is also the act of forming or establishing
something (like an organization). It can also refer to a system of
arrangement or order, or a structure for classifying things.

b. Enterprise
 Enterprise is another word for a for-profit business or company, but it is most
often associated with business projects. ... Sole proprietorship – A company run
by a single individual, typically for their benefit, with unlimited liability for any
damages that occur as a result of the business' operations.

c. Types of organization
i. Sole proprietorship
1. Definition
A sole proprietorship, also known as the sole trader, individual
entrepreneurship or proprietorship, is a type of enterprise that is
owned and run by one person and in which there is no legal
distinction between the owner and the business entity.
The sole proprietorship is the simplest business form under
which one can operate a business. The sole proprietorship is
not a legal entity. It simply refers to a person who owns the
business and is personally responsible for its debts.
2. Characteristics
Characteristics of Sole Proprietorship:
 Sole Proprietorship: The individual carries on business
exclusively by and for himself. ...
 Free from Legal Formalities: ...
 Unlimited Liability: ...
 Sole Management: ...
 Secrecy: ...
 Freedom regarding Selection of Business: ...
 Proprietor and Proprietorship are One:

ii. Partnership
1. Definition
A partnership is a formal arrangement by two or more parties to
manage and operate a business and share its profits. There are
several types of partnership arrangements. In particular, in
a partnership business, all partners share liabilities and profits
equally, while in others, partners have limited liability.
2. Characteristics
The essential characteristics of partnership are:
 Contractual Relationship: ...
 Two or More Persons: ...
 Existence of Business: ...
 Earning and Sharing of Profit: ...
  Extent of Liability: ...
 Mutual Agency: ...
 Implied Authority: ...
 Restriction on the Transfer of Share:

iii. Company
1. Definition
A company is a legal entity formed by a group of individuals to
engage in and operate a business—commercial or industrial—
enterprise. A company may be organized in various ways for tax
and financial liability purposes depending on the corporate law
of its authority.
2. Characteristics
The main characteristics of a company are as follows:
 Artificial Person: A company is an artificial
person created by law. ...
 Separate Legal Entity: A company has a separate legal
entity. ...
 Perpetual Succession: ...
 Common Seal: ...
 Formation: ...
 Limited Liability: ...
 Transferability of Shares: ...
 Management and Control:

3. types
a. Public
A public company is a corporation whose ownership is
distributed among general public shareholders via the
free trade of shares of stock on exchanges or over-the-
counter markets.
b. Private
A private company is a firm held
under private ownership. Private companies may issue
stock and have shareholders, but their shares do not
trade on public exchanges and are not issued through an
initial public offering (IPO).
c. Difference b/w them
2. Finance and accounting
a. Definition of finance
Finance is a broad term that describes activities associated with banking,
leverage or debt, credit, capital markets, money, and investments.
Basically, finance represents money management and the process of acquiring
needed funds.
Financing is the process of providing funds for business activities,
making purchases, or investing. ... The use of financing is vital in any economic
system, as it allows companies to purchase products out of their immediate
reach.
b. Source of finance
i. Internal Source of finance
internal sources of finance include Sale of Stock, Sale of Fixed Assets,
Retained Earnings and Debt Collection.  The internal source of
finance is retained profits, the sale of assets and reduction / controlling
of working capital.
ii. External Source of finance
External sources of finance are equity investment, preferred stock,
debentures, term loans, project investment, leasing, hire purchase, trade
credit, bank overdraft, factoring etc. ... For example, retained earnings
are an internal source of finance whereas bank loan is an external
source of finance.
iii. Benefits and drawbacks
External finance:
Advantage: Preserving Your Resources

One of the advantages of external funding is it allows you to use

internal financial resources for other purposes. If you can find an
investment that has a higher interest rate than the bank loan your
company just secured, it makes sense to preserve your own
resources and put your money into that investment, using the
external financing for business operations. You can also set aside
your internal financial resources for cash payments to vendors,
which can help improve your company's credit rating.

Advantage: Growth
Part of the reason organizations use external funding is it allows
them to finance growth projects the company could not fund on
its own. For example, if your business is growing to the point that
you need additional manufacturing space to keep pace with
demand, external financing can help you get the funding you need
to build your addition. External funding can also be used for
making large capital equipment purchases to facilitate growth that
the company cannot afford on its own.

Advantage: Advice and Expertise

Organizations willing to finance your business can often also be
useful sources of expert advice. Your banker, for example, has
funded many other small businesses and may be able to offer
guidance as to how to avoid pitfalls that created problems for
some. An investor in your technology start-up likely has
technology expertise of his own to offer, and even if not, may be
able to steer you towards useful sources of advice.

Disadvantage: Ownership

Some sources of external financing, such as investors and

shareholders, require you to give up a portion of the ownership in
your company in exchange for the funding. You may get that
large influx of cash you need to launch your new product, but
part of the financing agreement is the investor is allowed to vote
on company decisions. This can compromise the vision you
originally had for your company when you founded it.
Disadvantage: Interest

External funding sources require a return on their investment.

Banks will add interest to a business loan, and investors will ask
for a rate of return in the investment agreement. Interest adds to
the overall cost of the investment and can make your external
funding more of a financial burden than you had originally
planned.

Disadvantage: It's a Lot of Work

Securing external funding can be a nearly full-time job in its own
right. You're faced with the task of identifying potential sources
of funding, preparing a slick business plan, practicing a
presentation, and calling dozens of people to arrange – or try to
arrange – a face-to-face meeting. All of these tasks take a good
 deal of time and resources. None of them are a guarantee that
you'll get the funds you're seeking.

Internal finance
Advantages

 Investment is immediately available

 No interest payments
 No control procedures regarding creditworthiness
 Spares credit line
 No influence of third parties
 More flexible
 More freedom given to the owners
Disadvantages

 Expensive because internal financing is not tax-deductible

 No increase of capital
 Losses (shrinking of capital) are not tax-deductible
 Limited in volume (volume of external financing as well is
limited but there is more capital available outside - in the
markets - than inside of a company)

3. Finance and cost

a. Definition of cost
Costs are the necessary expenditures that must be made in order to run a
business. Every factor of production has an associated cost. The cost of
labor, for example, used in the production of goods and services is
measured in terms of wages and benefits.
b. Classifications of cost
i. Direct cost
Direct costs are costs which are directly accountable to a cost
object. Some overhead costs which can be directly attributed to a
project may also be classified as a direct cost. Initial delivery are
not included in direct attributable cost Direct costs are directly
attributable to the object.
Direct costs are business expenses that can be directly applied to
producing a specific cost object, like a good or
service. Cost objects are items that costs are assigned
to. Examples of direct costs include direct labor, direct materials,
and manufacturing supplies
 ii. Indirect cost
Indirect costs are costs that are not directly accountable to a cost
object. Indirect costs may be either fixed or variable. Indirect costs
include administration, personnel and security costs. These are
those costs which are not directly related to production. Some
indirect costs may be overhead.
iii. Margin cost
The direct cost margin is calculated by taking the difference
between the revenue generated by the sale of goods or services and
the sum of all direct costs associated with the production of those
goods, divided by the total revenue.
iv. Direct material
Direct materials cost the cost of direct materials which can be
easily identified with the unit of production. For example, the cost
of glass is a direct materials cost in light bulb manufacturing. The
manufacture of products or goods required material as the prime
element.
 Direct materials are raw materials that are made into finished
products. These are not materials that are used in the production
process. Direct materials are goods that physically become the
finished product at the end of the manufacturing process.
v. Direct labor
Direct labor refers to the salaries and wages paid to workers that
can be directly attributed to specific finished products. It includes
the cost of regular working hours, overtime hours worked, payroll
taxes, unemployment tax, Medicare, employment insurance, etc.
vi. Variable cost
Variable costs are costs that change as the quantity of the good or
service that a business produces changes. Variable costs are the
sum of marginal costs over all units produced. They can also be
considered normal costs. Fixed costs and variable costs make up
the two components of total cost.
vii. Fixed cost
While these fixed costs may change over time, the change is not
related to production levels but rather new contractual agreements
or schedules. Examples of fixed costs include rental lease
payments, salaries, insurance, property taxes, interest expenses,
depreciation, and potentially some utilities.
c. Break even analysis
The break-even point in economics, business—and specifically cost
accounting—is the point at which total cost and total revenue are equal,
i.e. "even". There is no net loss or gain, and one has "broken even", though
 opportunity costs have been paid and investment has received the risk-
adjusted, expected return.
i. Uses of breakeven analysis
The main use of breakeven analysis is identifying the point at which
profitability will occur for a new project or investment decision. Break
even analysis usually requires many inputs such as the initial investment
requirement, variable costs per period (or per unit sold) and revenue per
period (or per unit sold).
4. Anatomy of a software house
a. Definition of software house
A software house is a company that primarily provides
software products. These companies may specialize in
business or consumer software or software-as-a-service
(SaaS) products. The common definition is that the
company is mainly invested in developing and
distributing software products.

b. Types of software house

I. Project oriented companies
II. Product oriented companies
III. IT service providers
IV. Software enterprises
I. Project Oriented Companies
Projects are their lifeline!!
• Search for project
• Requirement Analysis and design
• Modules assigned to developers/teams
• Software release
• Teams/developers move to new projects
II. Product Oriented Companies
Run on ideas!!
 Create projects rather than hunting for
them
 Take up software product idea
 Transform their idea into product
 Once a product is live, bugs, new
versions, even more ideas and product
growth etc.
 Make large profits by implementing
their ideas.
III. IT service providers
  Something other than software
development finally exists as a major
role in such kind of software
companies.
 Focus on business, income
generation and software usage
statistics mainly
 Usually a part of large production
unit.
 Usually they don’t develop their
software project/product and
outsource it to the other project-
oriented companies.
 Examples call centers, telecom
services, network services, industries
etc.
IV. Software Enterprises
 Dedicated to some enterprises
 Usually focus on what company
wants, as usually enterprises now
have their own software house/ team
of developers.
 From requirement to development
and business analysis they are
dedicated to what that enterprise
needs.
V. Types of Software Companies (yet another
view point)
 Large and globally renowned
companies producing COTS e.g.
Oracle, Microsoft, Adobe.
 Involved in specialized COTS small
to middle sized software houses etc.
You may think of the software
organizations out there in your
country.
 SaaS providers e.g. Google,
Facebook etc.
 Software house dealing with bespoke
software.
Do you know about your health and safety laws at workplace in Pakistan? Know
more about occupational health and safety laws in Pakistan.

WHAT ARE THE LAWS IN PAKISTAN RELATING TO THE ISSUES OF

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH?

There is no independent legislation on occupational safety and health issues in Pakistan.

The main law, which governs these issues, is the Chapter 3 of Factories Act, 1934. All the
provinces, under this act, have devised Factories Rules. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Sindh
have enacted the Factories legislation in 2013 and 2016 respectively. The Hazardous
Occupations Rules, 1963 under the authority of Factories Act is another relevant legislation.
These rules not only specify some hazardous occupations (working with  Lead; Aerated
Waters; Rubber; Chromium; Cellulose Solution Spraying; Sand Blasting; Sodium and
Potassium-Bichromates; Petrol Gas Generating Plant) but also authorize the Chief Inspector
of Factories to declare any other process as hazardous.

The other related laws are:

1. Dock Laborers Act, 1934

2. Mines Act, 1923
3. Workmen Compensation Act, 1923

1. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Workers’ Compensation Act, 2013

2. Sindh Workers Compensation Act, 2016
4. Provincial Employees Social Security Ordinance, 1965
1. The Sindh Employees Social Security Act, 2016
5. West Pakistan Shops and Establishments Ordinance, 1969
1. The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Shops and Establishments Act 2015
2. The Sindh Shops and Commercial Establishment Act 2015
6. Boilers and Pressure Vessels Ordinance, 2002

7. Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997 (Hazardous Substance Rules, 2003)

8. The Agricultural Pesticides Ordinance, 1971 (The Agricultural Pesticide Rules, 1973)

9. West Pakistan Labour Camps Rules, 1960

CAN YOU PLEASE TELL ABOUT THE HEALTH AND SAFETY

PROVISIONS UNDER THE FACTORIES ACT, 1934?

Chapter 3 of the Factories Act has general provisions on health and safety at the workplace.
Provincial governments are allowed to make rules under this Act and inspectors under this
Act also have discretion in defining the rules. Chapter 3 talks about various safety
arrangements. This list is being provided just to show how meticulously labor law covers
these issues.

Cleanliness: A factory must be kept clean and free from odor/smell arising from any drain.

      (a)  accumulation of dirt and refuse to be removed daily by sweeping or by any other

effective method from the floors and benches of work-rooms and from stair-cases and
passages and disposed of in a suitable manner;

      (b)  the floor of every work-room must be cleaned at least once in every week by

washing, using disinfectant where necessary or by some other effective method;

      (c)  where the floor is liable to become wet in the course of any manufacturing, effective
means of drainage must be provided and maintained;

      (d) all inside walls and partitions, all ceilings, or tops of rooms and walls, sides and tops
or passages and stair-cases must be repainted or re-varnished at least once in every five
years;

               (ii) whitewashed at least once in every fourteen months; and

Disposal of wastes and effluents: Every factory must make effective arrangement  for
the disposal of wastes and effluents due to the manufacturing process.

Ventilation and temperature: Effective and suitable provisions must be made in every
factory for securing and maintaining in every work-room–

      (a)  adequate ventilation by the circulation of fresh air, and

      (b)  secure suitable temperature and avoid injury to health  

Dust and fume: Every factory must take effective measures to prevent its accumulation in
any work-room and its inhalation by workers and if any exhaust appliance is necessary for
this purpose, it should be applied as near as possible to the point of origin of the dust, fume
or other impurity. 

Artificial humidification: The Government may, in respect of all factories in which humidity

of the air is artificially increased, make rules–

      (a)  prescribing standards of humidification;

      (b)  regulating the methods used for artificially increasing the humidity of the air;

      (c)  directing prescribed tests for determining the humidity of the air to be correctly

carried out and recorded; and

      (d) prescribing methods to be adopted for securing adequate ventilation and cooling of

the air in the work-rooms.
Overcrowding: Workplace should not be crowded. Law requires 500 cubic feet of space for
every worker in a factory. 

Lighting: Every factory must provide and maintain sufficient  and suitable lighting, natural or
artificial, or both and emergency lighting of special points in work-rooms and passages to
function automatically in case of a failure of the ordinary electric supply system.

Drinking Water: Every factory must provide sufficient supply of wholesome drinking water to
all employed workers.

In every factory wherein more than two hundred and fifty workers are ordinarily employed,
provision is to be made for cooling the drinking water during the hot weather by effective
means.

Latrines and urinals: Every factory must have male and female toilets which are
conveniently situated and accessible to workers.  

Spittoons: Every factory must provide, at convenient places, a sufficient number of

spittoons which are maintained in a clean and hygienic condition.

Precautions against contagious or infections disease:  Every worker must be provided

with a hygiene card. The information in this card is updated twice a year (January and July)
after examination by a factory appointed doctor that the worker is not suffering from any
contagious or infectious disease. The medical examination is free for workers and its cost is
borne by the employer.

If a worker is found to be suffering from any contagious or infectious disease on an

examination, he cannot be appointed on work till he is declared free of such a disease.

Compulsory vaccination and inoculation: Workers must be vaccinated and inoculated

against such diseases and at such intervals as may be prescribed (These are prescribed as
cholera, small pox and typhoid). The expenses for such vaccination and inoculation are
borne by the employer.

Power to make rules for provision of canteens:  Government may make rules requiring
that in any specified factory wherein more than 250 workers are ordinarily employed, an
adequate canteen is provided for the use of the workers.

Welfare Officer:  A factory where 500 or more workers are ordinarily employed, the
employer must engage such number of welfare officers, to perform such duties and on such
terms and conditions as may be prescribed. A Welfare Officer is primarily responsible for
ensuring that all statutory rights and benefits are provided to workers.

Precautions in case of fire:  Every factory must provide such means of escape in case of
fire as may be prescribed. The exit doors must not be locked or fastened so that they can be
easily and immediately opened from inside while any person is within the room, and all such
doors, unless they are of the sliding type, shall be constructed to open outwards.

Every factory must have effective and clearly audible means of giving warning in case of fire
to every person employed therein (sirens, loud speakers).
In every factory wherein more than ten workers are ordinarily employed in any place above
the ground floor, or explosive or highly inflammable materials are used or stored, effective
measures must be taken to ensure that all the workers are familiar with the means of escape
in case of fire and have been adequately trained in the routine to be followed in such case.

The Factories Rules prescribe in respect of any factory, or class or description of factories,
the means of escape to be provided in case of fire and the nature and amount of firefighting
apparatus to be provided and maintained.

Fencing of machinery: In every factory, the following must be securely fenced by the
safeguards of substantial construction which are kept in position while the parts of
machinery required to be fenced are in motion or in use.

Work on or near machinery in motion: If it becomes necessary to examine any part of

machinery while the machinery is in motion, or as a result of such examination, to carry out
any mounting or shipping of belts, lubrication or other adjusting operation while the
machinery is in motion, such examination or operation may be made or carried out only by a
specially trained adult male worker wearing tight fitting clothing.

No woman or child may be allowed in any factory to clean, lubricate or adjust any part of
machinery while that part is in motion, or to work between moving parts or between fixed and
moving parts of any machinery which is in motion.

Employment of young persons on dangerous machines: No child or adolescent- under

17 years can work at any machine unless he has been fully instructed regarding dangers and
precautions to be observed. He must have received sufficient training in work at the
machine, or is under adequate supervision by a person who has thorough knowledge and
experience of the machine.

Striking gear and devices for cutting off power: In every factory, suitable striking gear or
other efficient mechanical appliances must be provided and maintained and used to move
driving belts to and from fast and loose pulleys which form part of the transmission
machinery. Such gear or appliances must be so constructed, placed and maintained as to
prevent the belt from creeping back on the fast pulleys.  

Self-acting machines: No traversing part of a self-acting machine in any factory and no

material carried thereon can, if the space over which it runs is a space over which any
person is liable to pass whether in the course of his employment or otherwise, be allowed to
run on its outward or inward traverse within a distance of eighteen inches from any fixed
structure which is not part of the machine

Casing of new machinery: In all machinery driven by power and installed in any factory,
every set screw, belt or key on any revolving shaft, spindle, wheel or pinion must be so sunk,
encased or otherwise effectively guarded as to prevent danger

Prohibition of employment of women and children near cotton openers:  No woman or
child can be employed in any part of a factory for pressing cotton in which a cotton opener is
at work.

Cranes and other lifting machinery: There are specific provisions in the law regarding
cranes and other lifting machinery.
Hoists and lifts: There are special provisions regarding hoists and lifts and revolving
machinery.

Floors, stairs and means of access: All floors, stairs, passages and gangways must be of
sound construction and properly maintained and where it is necessary to ensure safety,
steps, stairs, ladders, passages and gangways must be provided with substantial handrails.

Pits, sumps, opening in floors, etc.: In every factory, every fixed vessel, sump, tank pit or
opening in the ground or in floor which by reason of its depth, situation, construction or
contents, is or may be a source of danger, should be either securely covered or securely
fenced. 

Excessive weights: No person shall be employed in any factory to lift, carry or move any
load so heavy as to be likely to cause him injury.

1. For adult (17 years or more) male worker: maximum weight limit is 200 Lbs
2. For adult female worker: maximum weight limit is 50 Lbs
3. Male adolescents (15-17 years): maximum weight limit is 50 Lbs
4. Female adolescents: maximum weight limit is 40 Lbs
5. Children aged 15 years and below: maximum weight limit is 35 Lbs

Protection of eyes: The Government may require that effective screens or suitable goggles

shall be provided if the work process or being in its vicinity involves risk  of injury to the eyes
from particles or fragments thrown off in the course of the process, or risk  to the eyes by
reason of exposure to excessive light or heat.

Powers to require specifications of defective parts or tests of stability:  If it appears to

the Inspector that any building or part of a building, or any part of the ways, machinery or
plant in a factory, is in such a condition that it may be dangerous to human life or safety, he
may order the manager to show necessary information indicating that the building can be
used with safety.

Safety of building, machinery and manufacturing process:  If it appears to the Inspector
that any building or part of a building or any part of the ways, machinery or plant or
manufacturing process in a factory is in such a condition that it is dangerous to human
health or safety, he may serve on the Manager of the factory an order in writing specifying
the measures which, in his opinion, should be adopted, and requiring them to be carried out
before a specified date.

Precautions against dangerous fumes: No person may enter or be permitted to enter any
chamber, tank, vat, pit, pipe, flue or other confined space in which dangerous fumes are
likely to be present to such an extent as to involve risk of persons being overcome thereby,
unless there are effective means of egress.

Explosive or inflammable dust, gas, etc.: Where in any factory any manufacturing process
produces dust, gas, fume or vapor of such character and to such extent as to be likely to
explode on ignition, all practicable measures shall be taken to prevent any such explosion.
Power to exclude children: The Government may make rules prohibiting the admission to
any specified class of factories, or to specified parts thereof, of children who cannot be
lawfully employed therein.

Notice of certain accidents: Where in any factory an accident occurs which causes death,
or which causes any bodily injury whereby any person injured is prevented from resuming his
work in the factory during the 48 hours after the accident occurred, or which is of any nature
which may be prescribed in this behalf, the manager of the factory shall send notice to such
authorities, and in such form and within such time, as may be prescribed.   

Additional power to make health and safety rules relating to shelters during rest:  A
factory where more than 150 workers are ordinarily employed, an adequate shelter must be
provided for the use of workers during periods of rest

Rooms for children: A factory where more than 50 women workers are ordinarily employed,
a suitable room must be reserved for the use of children under the age of six years
belonging to such women. The use of such rooms is restricted to the children, their
attendants, and mothers of such children.

Certificates of stability: The Government may require that work on a manufacturing

process carried on with the aid of power shall not be begun in any building or part of a
building erected or taken into use as a factory until a certificate of stability in the prescribed
form, signed by a person possessing the prescribed qualifications, has been sent to the
Inspector.

Hazardous operations:  If the Government is satisfied that any operation in a factory

exposes any persons employed upon it to a serious risk of bodily injury, poisoning or
disease, it may make rules applicable to any factory or class of factories in which the
operation is carried on–

            (a)  specifying the operation and declaring it to be hazardous,

            (b)  prohibiting or restricting the employment of women, adolescents or children upon

the operation,

                (c)   providing for the medical examination of persons employed or seeking to be

employed upon the operation and prohibiting the employment of persons not certified as fit
for such employment, and

            (d) providing for the protection of all persons employed upon the operation or in the
vicinity of the places where it is carried on.

Similarly, Chapter 5 of the Mines Act provides for various health and safety arrangements.
You will find similar provisions in the Pakistan Dock Laborers Regulations for dockworkers.
Employment of Children 1991 and newly enacted child labour legislation in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh also has provisions on maintaining a safe and healthy
workplace for children and adolescents. 

HOW DOES GOVERNMENT ENSURE THAT THE ABOVE-

MENTIONED PROVISIONS ARE FOLLOWED AT THE
WORKPLACES?

All the above laws require the appropriate government (Federal or Provincial) to appoint
qualified individuals as inspectors. It is the duty of inspectors to enforce these laws. The
usual powers of inspectors include the right to enter and inspect any workplace, taking
evidence from persons for carrying out their duties. A person can’t be appointed as inspector
or continue to hold the office of inspector if he or she becomes directly or indirectly
interested in the workplace (it is factory under the Factories Act, a dock or a ship under Dock
Laborers Act and a mine under the Mines Act.

DOES EMPLOYER OR GOVERNMENT PROVIDE ANY TRAINING TO

THE WORKERS REGARDING WORKPLACE HEALTH AND SAFETY
ISSUES?

Various government agencies like National Institute of Labor Administration and Training,
Directorate of Workers Education provide training to workers on these issues. Directorate of
Dock Workers Safety (DDWS) and Central Inspectorate of Mines provide training to dock
workers and mine workers respectively. The Centre for Improvement of Working Conditions
and Environment (CIWCE) is a pioneering institution in Pakistan (working under the
Directorate of Labor Welfare, Punjab) which provides training, information and research
facilities for promotion of safety, health and better work environment in the industries and
businesses. You can also find training materials, safety posters and different safety signs
from this Centre. Please follow the link for further details:

Saeed Ahmed Awan Centre for Improvement of Working Conditions & Environment

Are there any special provisions on working of women and adolescents in factories or
mines?

Pakistan has ratified the following two ILO conventions relating to the special treatment for
women and adolescents in the occupational safety and health context.

• C45 Underground Work (Women) Convention, 1935

• C89 Night Work (Women) Convention (Revised), 1948
• C90 Night Work of Young Persons (Industry) Convention (Revised), 1948

Article 2 of the C45 requires that no women should be employed in on underground work in
any mine. In accordance with the provision of this convention, article 23-C (1) of Mines Act
prohibits the employment of women in any underground mine.

As for young persons, who are not seventeen years of age yet, they can’t also be employed
in any part of a mine unless they present a certificate of fitness on a prescribed form by a
qualified medical practitioner (section 26-A of Mines Act).

Similarly for safety reasons and under the above conventions, labor laws also limit the
employment of women and adolescents at night. Section 45 of Factories Act limits the
employment of women up to only 07:00 p.m. (or if employer arranges for pick and drop and
with employees own accord), a female worker may worker until 10 p.m. Section 54 of the Act
requires that children (over the age of 14 years) should not be employed after 07 p.m.

We also find provision on prohibition on employment of children and women in any part of
the factory for pressing cotton in which a cotton-opener is at work (section 32). The referred
section also talks about certain exemptions from this provision.

Similarly, section 33-M authorizes the provincial government to make rules prohibiting the
employment of children (above the age of fourteen) to any specified class of factories or to
any specified parts thereof. It also allows a factories inspector, if it appears to him that
children can’t be legally employed in a part of the factory or in a factory, he may serve on the
factory manager an order to prevent such admission.

Section 28 of the Factories Act also requires that no young person (child or adolescent) shall
operate a machine until he has received sufficient training for operating it and is under
adequate supervision by some other person with thorough knowledge and experience of
machine. Moreover, these requirements should also be met before employing young persons
on machines that are notified as dangerous by Provincial governments.

Note: the term young person has been used collectively for children and adolescents. The
Employment of Children Act 1991 defines a child as the one who has not completed fourteen
years of age while an adolescent is defined as the one whose age is greater than 14 years
but less than 18 years.