Oluwaremilekun Oluwoye's Final Year Project PDF

PERCEPTION OF FEMINISM IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA NARRATIVE OF FEMALE
NOVELISTS IN NIGERIA
BY
OLUWAREMILEKUN. J. OLUWOYE
16/3332
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS

COMMUNICATION, COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT
SCIENCES, CALEB UNIVERSITY, IMOTA, LAGOS STATE, IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF
SCIENCE B. Sc. (HONS) DEGREE IN MASS COMMUNICATION
SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR NOSA OWENS-IBIE
JUNE 2020
i
DECLARATION
I, Oluwaremilekun Oluwoye hereby declare that this research work was written by me for the
purpose of acquiring a B.Sc. in Mass Communication and has not been submitted or accepted for
any other degree anywhere. This research work is a product of my intellectual investigation and is
not copied from any past research work. I also declare that both published and unpublished
materials directly used in the research are appropriately attributed.
Signature ……………………
Date ……………………
ii
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project titled, ‘Perception of feminism in the social media narrative
of female novelists in Nigeria’ was written and carried out by Oluwaremilekun Oluwoye with
matriculation number 16/3332 of department of Mass Communication, College of Social and
Management Sciences, Caleb University, Imota, Lagos, for the award of Bachelors of Sciences
(B. Sc.) degree in Mass Communication.
Prof. Nosa Owens-Ibie Date
Project Supervisor
Dr.Jousha.O.Okunade Date
Head of Department
Dr. Olumuyiwa Olamade Date
Dean of College
External Examiner Date
iii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to God Almighty for his grace, wisdom, everlasting love, unfailing grace,
protection, blessings, guidance, and provision and for filling me with wisdom, knowledge and
understanding needed in actualizing this research work. This project is also dedicated to my
wonderful parents, Mrs. Olubukola Oluwoye and Mr. Agboola Oluwoye (Of his blessed memory),
my amazing sister, Bunmi Oluwoye and my mentor.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All appreciation goes to my Creator, God Almighty for giving me direction in the cause of this
research work. I express profound gratitude to my Pastor, Mr. Hassan for his moral and spiritual
support, thank you so much. Special thanks to my mother, my sister, Bunmi Oluwoye and my
mentor for the undying love, physical, financial and moral support. To my selfless friend,
Moyinoluwa Senjobi, for the endless support all through my project, I am grateful.
I express my profound appreciation to my supervisor and Vice Chancellor, Professor Nosa Owens-
Ibie, for his intellectual and scholarly supervisions, directives, contributions for all the support and
motivational talk that kept me on the right track, God bless you and everything that concerns you
sir.
I also acknowledge all my lecturers, from my able Dean, Dr. Olumuyiwa Olamade, Prof. Adebayo
Fayoyin, Prof. Olufemi Onabanjo, Dr. Charles Nwachukwu, Dr. Yetunde .O. Ayobolu Dr. Nancy
Nwaolikpe, Dr. Abiodun Oyeleye, Mrs. Ifedolapo Ademosu, Mr. Charles Adewale, Mr. Achike
Okafor and Mr. Gboyega Bawala (Of his blessed memory) for broadening my horizons for me to
be a professional communicator, thank you so much, I appreciate my supporters, Miss Ajayi, Mr.
Olaoye, Mr. & Mrs. Fati for supporting me, thank you so much.
Finally, I express my gratitude to all my friends, course mates and roommates, especially
Moyinoluwa, Esther, Opemipo, Derin, Kanyinsola, Ibukun, Avila, Mayowa, Esho, Blossom,
Sharon, Tomilola and Tomiwa.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE………………………….……………………………………………………i
DECLARATION………..…………………………………………………………………ii
CERTIFICATION…………………………………………………………………………… iii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………….iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………….…………………………….v
TABLE OF CONTENTS………….………………………………………………………….vi
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………ix
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 BACKGROUNG OF THE STUDY 1
1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 3
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY 4
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 4
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 5
1.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 5
1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TERMS 5
1.7 REFERENCES 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION 9
vi
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 9
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 28
2.3 EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK 30
2.4 GAPS TO FILL 37
2.5 REFERENCES 38
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 INTRODUCTION 42
3.1 RESTATEMENT OF RESEARCH QUESTION 42
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 42
3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY 43
3.4 STUDY SAMPLES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE 44
3.5 SOURCE OF DATA 46
3.6 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE 46
3.7 INSTRUMENT VALIDATION 47
3.8 RELIABILITY OF DATA 47
3.9 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS 47
3.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 48
3.11 REFERENCES 49
vii
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION
4.0 INTRODUCTION 50
4.1 DISTRIBUTION AND RETRIEVAL OF QUESTIONNAIRE 50
4.2 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 50
4.3 RESEARCH QUESTION ONE 53
4.4 RESEARCH QUESTION TWO 57
4.5 RESEARCH QUESTION THREE 58
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 INTRODUCTION 61
5.1 SUMMARY ` 61
5.2 CONCLUSION 61
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 62
5.4 AREA OF FURTHER RESEARCH 63
BIBLIOGRAPHY 64
APPENDICES 70
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Distribution and retrieval of questionnaires
Table 2: Gender of respondents
Table 3: Age of respondents
Table 4: Respondents’ marital status
Table 5: Respondents’ educational qualifications
Table 6: Respondents’ occupation
Table 7: What does feminism mean to you?
Table 8: Do you consider yourself a feminist?
Table 9: Do you think only women are feminists?
Table 10: What are the issues in feminism that are of interest to you?
Table 11: How regularly do you access social media?
Table 12: What social media platforms do you often see feminism contents?
Table 13: Do you read feminism content on social media?
ix
Table 14: Feminism is it about hate speech against men?
Table 15: How does social media portray feminism?
Table 16: How often do you read content of feminism on social media?
Table 17: What do you consider as the general perception of feminism by social media
user?
Table 18: How often do feminist novelists post about feminism on the social media?
Table 19: What do you think of the attitude of the feminists on social media?
x
ABSTRACT
This study examines perception of feminism in the social media narrative of female novelists in
Nigeria. The specific objectives include; determining how feminism is portrayed on social media,
the perception of feminism by social media users and the feminist profile in the social media
narrative of popular female novelists. The research made use of cultivation and feminist theories.
This research adopted the survey research method and stratified sampling method administering
400 questionnaires, out of which 387 were completed and returned with responses from students
in Caleb University, Imota and Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu as the study areas. The study
revealed that the feminism perception in the social media narrative of female novelists in Nigeria
is mainly hinged on the promotion of gender equality. It was also seen that the portrayal of
feminism on social media is both positive and negative and it’s an active discourse on social media.
It was discovered that among various feminism issues constantly discussed, gender equality
appears to be the most prevalent and both negative and positive portrayal of feminism exist on
social media. This study recommends that these popular female novelist embrace the responsibility
of educating social media users on feminism, social media administrators should censor hate
speech on their platforms and feminists must be good representatives of the ideology, they should
also engage male audiences more and look beyond social media to further their aim while they
make effort to inform themselves of the various socio-cultural factors like religion and family.
xi
PERCEPTION OF FEMINISM IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA NARRATIVE OF FEMALE NOVELISTS IN NIGERIA
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The term “Feminism” when broken down originated from “Femini” comes from a Latin root word
“Femina” meaning woman. “Ism” is a suffix derived from the Greek “ismós” that turns the
preceding noun into a verb, implying a belief, practice, or worldview. The first recorded use of
word in English Language was 1851, but at that time it just meant “the state of being feminine.”
Then, in 1837, French philosopher and utopian socialist Charles Fourier French word “Feminisme”
meaning advocacy of women’s rights (The Etymology of Feminism, 2017, para.1-2).
A feminist is a man or a woman who says, yes, there’s a problem with gender as it is today and we
must fix it, we must do better. All of us, women and men, must do better. (Adichie, 2014 p.7).
Feminists and scholars have divided the movement’s history into three “waves”. The first wave
refers mainly to women’s suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth century’s
(mainly concerned with women’s right to vote). The second wave refers to the ideas and actions
associated with the women’s liberation movement beginning in the1960s (which campaigned for
legal and social rights for women). The third wave refers to a continuation of, and a reaction to the
perceived failures of the second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. (History and Theory of
Feminism, n.d para.2).
Nigeria female writers like; Flora Nwapa, Tess Onwueme and Zainab Alkali. These writers have
written to debunk all stereotypes which portray women as weak liabilities. They emphasize that
women are intelligible, as they can attain any height despite societal constraints. In support of this
1
assertion, (Eluke, 2012 para.6), says the contemporary woman unlike her sister in traditional era,
believes that she is a provider and not a consumer of wealth which patriarchy portrays. Feminist
writers create the awareness in line with John Mbiti (n.d) that the woman do not only bear life, she
nurses, cherishes and gives warmth and care for life because all human life passes through her.
In Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun (2006, p.226). Aunty Ifeka says; “you must never behave as if
your life belongs to a man, your life belongs to you and you alone.’’ In these novels the writers try
to give African women proper place and dignity which they are denied in patriarchal world. In
Atta’s everything good will come, (2005. p.58-114), she creates characters such as Enitan, Sheri
and Grace Ahem who challenge societal stereotypes. In Adichie’s half of a Yellow Sun, Kainene,
Olanna and Aunty Ifeka have strong voices and they rise to challenge the stereotype of male
superiority.
The main subject matter of female writers in the world of literature was for the emancipation of
women from every form of biased treatment and mischief which mere tradition reduced them into.
In the real sense, women were suppressed and subjugated by their male counterpart just because
tradition made it so. They could not share a better place with the men. The above view gave the
female writers a platform through which their protests were felt heavily. These group of female
portrayed the humiliation women pass through when they lose their husbands, particularly in term
of performing traditional morning rites.
The female voices in Nigerian novels therefore came up as a total and implicit rejection of this
derogatory lifestyle created by the norms of the society to restrict and subjugate women both in
real life and in the fictive sphere since literature is a weapon of authority, women writers have
together used it as a medium to promote and give value to the lives of women therefore filling
successfully the guilt between male and female characters in Nigerian novels. They based their
2
argument on the premise that progress in the society can be fostered by steering clear of sexual
segregation.
Discrimination on the basis of gender provoked the said female writers in Africa that they began
to demand for chance in position and state that gender should not be a criteria for one to delve into
Africa literary world if at all harmony and equality is to be maintained as to build a better society
using literary work. (Uzuegbu, 2014 p.11).
Twitter is a social networking website, which allows users to publish short messages that are
visible to other users. These messages are known tweets, and can only be (140) characters or less
in length. (Business Dictionary online, n.d).
A male freelancer journalist who is also a twitter user with the an account called Esheriff237
wrote” like I said sometime back #feminism is gradually promoting #Man Hate (June 8,2018) a
twitter user of which twitter is a social media platform, once admitted that social media feminism
promotes hate speech about men. Also, another twitter user who is also a Nigerian blogger with
the account handle called ivysoclassy (June 8,2018) wrote “Adichie talked about several things
during her Daily show interview; How men can be better feminist allies, how influential men like;
Barack Obama are vocal in support of feminism and her experience as a mum bringing up her
child. What the Media interpreted: Adichie hates men”. When we think of feminism within social
media certain misconceptions tend to be repeated. Mainly, that a feminist is a man-hater, or that
feminists want advantages over men (The Woman’s Code, 2018 para.1).
Chimamanda Adichie is a Nigerian female novelist, Chimamanda is actually married to Dr.Ivara
Esegee, whom Adichie describes as Nigerian, American and British. His father was from old Cross
River State (Abi local Government) his mother was Scottish. (Answers Africa, n.d.)
3
Sefi Atta is a Nigerian female novelist, Sefi is married to Gboyega Ransome Kuti who is a medical
doctor. (Edochie, 2010 para.1).
Hence, it is therefore necessary to note that feminism is simply about gender equality and not about
hating men. Social media has moved the focus of feminism from gender equality to a form of Hate
Speech against men. “At some point I was a Happy African Feminist Who Does Not Hate Men”
(Adichie, 2014 p.7). Also, why female novelists are used is because most popular feminist in
Nigeria are mostly novelists like; Chimamanda Adichie and Sefi Atta.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It is evident that social media platforms can influence our opinions and thoughts on any subject
matter including; feminism.
Feminism is about equality between both gender, In Nigeria, Most young Nigerian ladies claim to
be a feminist because they were in a toxic relationship and the toxic partner was the man who
ended the relationship and the ending of relationship really hurt their feelings or two or three men
promised to marry them but never came through with it then they change their social media profile
and include feminist and Chimamanda Adichie without checking the meaning or even reading any
Nigerian feminism book . There are a lot of misconceptions on social media when it comes to
feminism. People tend to twist feminism into their own corner to suit their purpose.
Misconceptions like; feminists hate men. Therefore, the focus of this research is to analyze
perception of feminism in the social media narrative of female novelists in Nigeria.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The broad objective of this study is; perception of feminism in the social media narrative of female
novelists in Nigeria. The specific objectives of this study are;

4
1. To determine how feminism is portrayed on social media
2. To determine the perception of feminism by social media users
3. To determine the feminist profile in social media narrative of popular female novelists
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The questions are;
1. How is feminism portrayed on social media?
2. What are the perceptions of feminism by social media users?
3. What is the feminist profile in social media narrative of popular female novelists?
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The research is geared towards sampling the opinions of the students of Caleb University and
Lagos state Polytechnic about how social media has reshaped feminism into a form of hate speech
against men and also to compare and contrast their views.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
It is necessary to emphasize that this study will be of great importance to everyone because it traces
the development of feminism, what it entails to be a feminist and to provide proper understanding
of the purpose of Feminism, it focuses on how social media has reshaped Feminism from equality
to a form of hate speech against men.
Feminism places a high premium on the belief that men and women should have equal rights and
opportunities. It would help the present generation to know more about Feminism as an ideological
bracket that is suitable for accommodating individual experiences and cultural histories. It would
5
also aid the younger generation to formulate policies that would invariably promote gender
equality in Nigeria and her interaction with the outside world.
Eventually, it will be useful to scholars for further enquiry or investigation on this research work.
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The identified limitations to this study are reluctance, unwillingness and insincerity of some of the
target respondents in providing honest responses required as data for the research work.
1.8 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
1. Perception: This refers to the way in which something is regarded, understood and interpreted.
2. Feminism: This refers to the belief in social, economic and political equality of both gender.
3. Social Media: This refers to websites and applications that enable users to create and share
content or to participate in social networking.
4. Narrative: This refers to a spoken or written account of connected events.
5. Female: This refers to a woman or girl.
6. Novelist: This refers to a writer of novels.
6
1.9 REFERENCES
INTERNET SOURCES
Answers Africa. (n.d). Retrieved on 29/08/2019 from:
https://answersafrica.com
Clemdon, E. S. (2017). Feminism in Sefi Atta’s Everything Good will Come and Chimamanda
Adichie‘s half of a Yellow Sun. Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:
https://eduproject.com.ng/linguistics/feminism-in-sefi-attas-everything-good-will-come-and-
chimamanda-adichies-half-of-a-yellow-sun/index.html
(Twitter, n.d). In Business Dictionary Online. Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Twitter.html
Chelette, .B. (2018). How does Media Portray Feminism? Retrieved on 29/08/2019 from:
https://thewom enscode.com/how-does-media-portray-feminism/
Uzuegbu, .O.J. (2014). Female Writers in Modern African Literature: A Study of Sefi Atta’s
Everything Good Will Come and Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo’s Roses and Bullets. Retrieved on
30/08/2019 from:
https://oer.unn.edu.ng/download/female-writers-in-modern-african literature-a-study-of-sefi-
attas-everything-good-will-come-and-akachi-adimora-ezeigbos-roses-and-bullets
Edochie, .C. (2010). 5 Questions with Sefi Atta. Retrieved on 30/08/2019 from:
https://sycamorereview.com/2010/07/18/5-questions-with-sefi-atta/amp/
Esheriff. (@eshriff237). (June 8, 2018). Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:
https://twitter.com/esheriff237/status/1004879825968828416?s=12
Eke, .I. (@ivysoclassy). (June 8, 2018). Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:

https://twitter.com/ivysoclassy/status/1004991988897402880?s=12
History and Theory of Feminism. (n.d). Retrieved on 30/08/2019 from:
http://www.gender.cawater-info.net/knowledge_base/rubricator/feminism_e.htm
Michelle Potter. (2017).The Etymology of Feminism. Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:

https://medium.com/media-theory-and-criticism-2017/the-etymology of-feminism-4ca3caec9ad0
7
BOOKS
Adichie, N.C. (2014). We all should be Feminists (1st ed.). London, Great Britain: HarperCollins
Publishers.
Adichie, N.C. (2007). Half of a Yellow Sun (1st ed.). London, Great Britain: HarperCollins
Publishers.
Atta, S. (2005). Everything Good will Come (1st ed). Northampton, Massachusetts, USA:
Interlink Publishing Pub Group, Inc.
Chuma-Udeh, N. (2007). Echoes of a New Dawn. Onitsha, Anambra State: Malchjay Nigeria
Ltd.
8
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to review related literatures regarding this research topic so as to
appraise the contributions of various authors on the subject matter. Specifically, this chapter
presents the conceptual, theoretical and empirical review on the subject matter.
2.1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.1.1. The Early Feminist Movement
The term ‘feminism’ was coined from the French word ‘feminisme’ and was first used in English
in the year 1890 in reference to the movement for equal political and legal rights for women.
Feminism comprises of various social and political movements which have all been for the purpose
of women empowerment and equal legal rights for women. Over time the feminist struggle was
has been targeted at different areas such as voting rights, social rights, economic independence,
reproductive rights, workplace rights, gender stereotyping, domestic violence and a host.
During much of its history, most feminist scholars and leaders were predominantly Caucasian
women from Western Europe and northern America. However, as the movement began to gain
attention and influence, women of other races proposed alternative feminist theories. The feminist
movement has been split into times or periods described by historians as ‘waves. Each wave is
characterized by different aims based on prior progress. The first wave, in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, focused primarily on gaining legal rights, political power and suffrage for
women. The second, in the 1960s and 1970s, encouraged women to understand aspects of their
own personal lives as deeply politicized, and was largely concerned with other issues of equality,
9
such as the end to discrimination in society, in education and in the workplace. The third arose in
the early 1990s as a response to perceived failures of the second wave, and a response to the
backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Feminists did not
recognize separate waves of feminism until the second wave was so named by journalist Martha.
(Hooks, 1992 p.122).
2.1.2. The First Wave
Feminism is viewed as a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression. The
feminist movement as we know it today has its origins in the 19th Century, where female activists
channeled their efforts towards the promotion of equal property rights for women and the
opposition to the ownership of married women and their children by their husbands. However, by
the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power,
particularly women‘s right to vote. Hooks (2000 p.6). Other issues that were part of the main
agenda of the fight for women‘s rights in the first wave included educational reforms, divorce
laws, ownership of property by married women and child custody. Sanders (2001) as cited in
(Xinari, 2010 p.9).
This was later known as the first wave of feminism. During this period, the ability of the media to
influence the progression of social movements, whether positively or negatively began to show.
Bisignani (2015, para.10) notes that since the beginning of the feminist movements, the female
activists were negatively portrayed in posters and other print media, in order to discredit their
efforts and arguments. Popular depictions were of them as unattractive with large teeth and shrill
voices, sometimes wielding an umbrella, which signified the ineffectuality of their views.
They were also portrayed as being weak and unable to handle their domestic chores, which resulted
in many anti-feminist posters advocating for the violent punishment of such women. Such
10
sentiments are no different from those held today, where women who identify as feminists are
often described as ardent man haters who are only out for attention.
2.1.3. The Second Wave
The second wave of feminism, which began in 1960, was triggered by the general discontent
among women that was caused by patriarchal oppression Thornham, 2001 as citied in (Xinari,
2010 p.11). Emphasis was placed on the importance of learning about how patriarchy was a system
of domination, its institutionalization and its subsequent perpetuation and maintenance (Hooks,
2000 p.7).Patriarchy therefore became widely recognized as the institutionalized structure of the
subordination of women to men, as opposed to the original definition of the term, which designated
a patriarch as the head of a family (Thornham, 2001 p.11).
The sustained wave of feminist discussion eventually made its way down to academia, which
resulted into the legitimization of Women‘s Studies as a field worthy of academic inquiry. While
this was a positive move, it led to the exclusion of other parties from the feminist movement,
resulting into a feminist movement that had a predominantly white, middle and upper-class bias.
This bias resulted into the erasure of marginalized groups of women from the feminist movement,
effectively negating any attempts at fostering sisterhood. The media furthered this exclusion by
framing the feminist movement as an issue that was interesting solely to women who were either
married to wealthy men, and thus were bored housewives‘ or lesbians who had worked for long
years and were living on a pittance( Hooks,2000 p.12).
The negative coverage of feminist issues by the media continued in the way they perpetuated the
notion that all feminists were against men, and that their rejection of the existing beauty standards
pointed to the fact that they were lesbians, something that was not entirely true. This negative
coverage served to discredit the movement, although there was progress made in tackling the issues
11
of marriage, workplace discrimination, sexual liberation, reproductive rights, beauty culture, and
the agency over one‘s body (Xinari, 2010 p.16).
2.1.4. The Third Wave
The third wave of feminism has also experienced its fair share of challenges, despite the great
improvements that have been witnessed in the first and second waves of feminism. Some of these
challenges include but are not limited to the objectification of women, a political sphere that is
heavily male-centric and a persistent and an ever-increasing wage gap. This wave has also strived
to address the problem of exclusion that hooks (2000, p.14) said was keeping the feminist
movement from being entirely wholesome. Third wave feminism‘s primary focus is on inclusion.
Drake and Heywood (1997, p.3) note that the inclusive nature of the third wave is a direct result
of the feminist critiques by minority groups who did not feel well-represented by the previous
feminist movements. Like the previous movements, third wave feminism is still challenged by
media messages that belittle feminism or try to stop feminist sentiment altogether. A unifying
theme in these media messages that conflict with feminist activism is the repeated equation of
feminism with a death certificate, which media critic Jennifer Pozner (2003,p.34) calls False
Feminist Death Syndrome. This notion of feminist death has been posited to be as the result of the
definition of feminism. While defining the feminist movement as something that occurs in waves
gives it context, it also has the downside of ignoring other social reforms that get less coverage in
the media, in order to focus on political achievements.
According to Reger (2014, p.43) this leads to an overall perception that the feminism is dying. She
concern that referring to the feminist movement as a wave only excludes the efforts of the
minorities in the movement, and instead pays too much attention on the achievements of well-to-
do White women. The opposition to the wave metaphor lends another facet to the struggle to define
12
contemporary feminism, thus creating some resistance to the adoption of the classification third
wave feminism’. (Reger, 2014.p.45).
2.1.5. Post Feminism
Post feminism, while sharing an almost similar time of origin with the third wave, is still radically
different from it. While the third wave still sees feminism as an important component of
contemporary life, even going so far as to be inclusive of the minorities that were previously
ignored, post feminism questions whether society is still in need of feminism, because at its very
essence, it views traditional feminism as stale, prudish and outdated(Gamble, 2001; Xinari, 2010
p,16).
Post feminism has constantly come under constant fire for being a construct of the media which
rejects the progress made by the previous movements. It is reliant on messages telling women that
they can have it all, namely a career, motherhood, beauty, and a great sex life which actually only
resituates them as slaves to pills, paint, potions, cosmetic surgery, fashion, and convenience foods
(Gamble, 2001, p. 42). This is totally at odds with the persistent notion of traditional feminism and
feminists, who were considered as hairy, prudish, ugly, man-hating lesbians.
This post-feminist notion, which implies that we no longer need feminism, is synonymous with
antifeminism, premised on the rejection of feminist identity and politics, with a strong acceptance
of the pervasive misrepresentations of the feminist movement. Some of the hallmarks of
antifeminism include the claim that women enjoy the attention they get from men based on the
choices of dress they make, and as such, are not objectified by men because they choose to exercise
agency over their own sexuality and thus become sexual subjects. On the other side of the
spectrum, there are those who view crimes against women such as rape as something that one
survives and is not a victim of, because victimhood implies weakness.

13
Most antifeminists view feminism as something that prevents them from carrying out their
traditional gender roles, such as cooking and motherhood, which they desire to do. They also
condemn feminism as being anti-man and harmful to their rights and issues. This blatant rejection
of feminism does not benefit women, but instead breaks down the sisterhood among women that
is central in the achievement of feminist goals, such as gender equality.
2.1.6. Nigerian Media Misrepresentation of Women
The misrepresentation of women in the media has attracted the attention of many scholars. An
extensive literature is available on the issue. The media world in Nigeria seems particularly to be
one of the areas in which relatively little is achieved so far, as concerns women empowerment and
gender-equality. The Nigerian media is guilty of misrepresenting the woman folk. Most critics
view them as agents working for the consolidation of women stereotyping and their
marginalization in the society. This is so as their contents utterly trivialize or relegate women to
secondary and inferior positions in the society.
Corroborating this point, Asogwa (2012:144) opines that, one of the altars where the image of the
African woman is sacrificed is that of media, especially the fecund and prolific Nollywood. The
media representation tends to depersonalize women and re-enforce traditional prejudices. More
so, most of the media images do not reflect changing attitudes (presently observable in the Nigerian
society) but promote unfounded stereotypes. By their negative portrayal of Nigerian women (as
passive, dependent and subservient for instance), the Nigerian mass media re-enforce the
stereotyping of women in the society. Abu cited by Asogwa (2012:145-146) further exemplifies
some of these stereotypes. She asserts that the Nigerian media are noted for selling a negative
image of women where “the old and wrinkled women becomes the image of a wizard; the gorgeous
lady becomes the prostitute and the loving and caring wife becomes daft and unintelligent”. These
14
stereotypes may be viewed as arguable in many respects. It is undoubtedly perceived that such
portrayals of the women in the Nigerian media automatically shape audiences’ perception of the
women folk and intensifies other stereotypes that are already held. This is so as media theoretically
have “a powerful effect on people who subconsciously adopt and internalize attitudes, beliefs and
values presented graphically or textually” (Ikuomola and Akanji 2001:32). In a study based on the
portrayal of women in some Igbo movies, Okunna (2012,p.32-33) concludes, with reference to the
results of a focus group discussion she had with some female discussants that these negative
images are often times considered by audiences as unrealistic. Nevertheless, they affect audiences’
perception about women negatively. Most critics who explore gender stereotyping in the media
tend to concentrate more on media’s influence on societal attitudes and hardly on the reverse, the
influence of the society on media misrepresentation of women. Meanwhile, the mass media
generally constitute a product of the society and their contents are, in many respects, a reflection
of the society in which they are based (Idowu, 1999) as citied in (Endong, 2013 p.161).
2.1.7 Representations of Feminism in African Novels and the Mass Media
An example of Nigerian women’s writing approaches to novels for the advancement of Gender
Concerns is the pioneering texts from which the African Womanist epistemology emerged,
Nigerian women and other African women’s literary writings are central to an understanding of
the ways in which the African feminist discourse is constructed in women centered texts.
This paper is concerned with whether Nigerian women’s lifestyle magazines are similarly able to
act as a vehicle for the positive representation of African feminism, the gender issues these women
writers dealt with towards the establishment of a Womanist discourse stands central to the
discussion. Delineating how writers took up the task of re-conceptualizing the African woman in
15
textual discourse, evolving to become one of the principal channels of communicating
and(de)constructing images of feminism, women centered media can similarly be evaluated for
their expression of such a Womanist discourse.
The period surrounding the advent of independence in Nigeria in the 1950's and 1960's saw a surge
in the production of African novels written in English. The infamous 1958 publication of Chinua
Achebe's Things Fall Apart signaled the start of a rich literary tradition that defined itself in
opposition to the stereotypical images of Africans depicted in European literature such as Joseph
Conrad's Heart of Darkness and H. Rider Hagard's King Solomon's Mines. Pioneering writers such
as Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka and J.P. Clark as well as successive generations of male African
writers set out to correct these distorted representations by reflecting the everyday lives of African
people in their works (Hewett, 2005: 76, Sylvester-Molemodile & Mba, 2010:108). However, as
Sylvester-Molemodile & Mba (2010:112) observe, these works are definitively masculine and
culturally aligned with the patriarchy, suggesting that, in their quest to place Africans at the center
of their own narratives, these writers produced distortions of womanhood in the process. The rise
of early women writers like Flora Nwapa and Buchi Emecheta in the mid-1980's, and later Akin
Adesokan, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Sefi Atta and Adimora-Akachi Ezeigbo, saw feminist
discourses gradually start to emerge, providing narrative to the faulty images of women in male
generated literature. Through their work in prose, early women writers sought to redress the
misrepresentation of African womanhood in the literary corpus (Mekgwe 2007:166). Analogous
to male novelistic interests, Nigerian women writers decried the degeneration taking place in the
post-colonial state, they sought to expose the oligarchical regimes of the country and lambaste the
sub performance of educational and social service infrastructures. However, in addition to these
issues, women writers added the matter of limiting patriarchal frameworks under which women
exist to redirect attention to the significance of the feminine element (Kroll, 2010: 137).
16
The import of Nigerian women’s literature as a channel of communicating images of feminism is
located in the fact that it was the first public medium to be appropriated for the explicit purpose of
correcting misogynistic images of African womanhood. In its representation of discourses of
feminism, it challenged a society that had placed limitations on women in a way that is not
attributing, a challenge that would later be taken up by a number of other mediums (Akung, 2012:
115). Nigerian women’s literature created a site in which to locate an African discourse of
feminism that is uttered by the woman herself, effectively rendering the African woman from the
‘inside’ (Solberg, 1983: 249). Through this unearthing of the feminine voice, women’s literature
was able to tackle the problems of misrepresentation firstly, bide constructing gendered stereotypes
and secondly, by reconstructing an image of African womanhood that is sensitive to African
socio-cultural realities and traditions while communicating alternative avenues for forging an
identity as a woman.
First and foremost, concerned with the distorted stereotypes of African womanhood created by
male literature, women writers like Flora Nwapa, Buchi Emecheta and Chimamanda Ngozi
Adichie set out to provide a counter discourse to outdated and misogynistic constructions of
African womanhood through the use of tactics of ‘appropriation’ and ‘inversion’, effectively
deconstructing entrenched stereotypes in their emendation of African womanhood (Hewett,
2005:80). This is exemplified in Adichie's Purple Hibiscus, where the subject of violence against
women by men is presented from the perspective of a female character (Hewett, 2005: 80). By
voicing the experience of physical violence as it is experienced by women, it is removed from the
patriarchal lens, deconstructed and reframed within a feminine discourse, allowing the readers look
into the African woman from the inside. Similarly, Flora Nwapa's Efuru and Buchi Emecheta Joys
of Motherhood display appropriations and inversions that reject the conventional stereotypes of
womanhood by voicing of women centered perspective on motherhood. Both novels challenge the
17
stereotypical images of ideal motherhood by unveiling the constraints and burdens that it places
upon the woman (Sylvester-Molemodile & Mba, 2010:112). As women writers give voice to,
deconstruct and reformulate what it means to be a woman in Nigerian society, they break the
stereotypes entrenched by the dynamic of patriarchy.
Furthermore, women’s novels communicate avenues for forging an identity as a woman that is
sensitive to African realities and traditions. In reference to Adichie's Purple Hibiscus,
Sylvester-Molemodile & Mba (2010: 108) note that these novels are progressive narratives that
depict women as they move from forms of victimhood to instances of women's access to power
within the socio-cultural and political realities of Nigeria. Moreover, Olufunwa (2012: 26) notes
this development towards agency in the works of Sefi Atta and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie whose
characters courageously respond to the prejudices and challenges that deem women inferior to
men. In these journeys towards empowerment, women’s writing creates a space for women to
negotiate the construction of their identities within their specific socio-cultural context. Adimora-
Egeizbo's Children of the Eagle communicates how women can bridge the gender gap they
perceive as, while they work hard for change to achieve advanced, self-fulfilled gender parity,
women continue to support the community and its conventions, constituting a discourse of
feminism that is sensitive to the African socio-cultural reality and traditions
(Sylvester-Molemodile & Mba, 2010: 114). Similarly, Nwapa's Efuru and Emecheta's Nnu
Egotraverse patriarchal institutions in such a way that they are able to reach an understanding of
the fact that other possibilities and definitions exist for women, suggesting that it is indeed possible
to claim individuality as well as a place in society (Nadaswaran 2012: 147). Nigerian women’s
novels thus depict characters that adapt to their respective situations, changing inadequate
approaches when they are seen to be ineffective and bearing forward in the forging of their
identities within their socio-cultural contexts, defining the terms of their existence themselves.
18
Conclusion, the delineating characters in their progression from stereotypical silence and docility
to vibrant and assertive individuals, Nigerian women writers explore new dimensions of femininity
on the continent, thus containing "a body of ideas that underline the need for a positive
transformation in society, such that women are not marginalized but are treated as full citizens in
all spheres of life." (Mekgwe, 2007: 166) this reflects their own, female conscious social visions
alongside their interrogation of their colonial legacy and domestic politics (Kroll, 2010: 143).
Through their representation of femininity, the literary writings of Nigerian women can be a
mechanism for the early expression of an African Womanist epistemology.
2.1.8. Structural Narratology and Its Inadequacies
In order to remove the inadequacies of narratology in the understanding of women writing,
feminism, plot and the question of gender in literature, feminist narratology reconfigures, re-
evaluates and re-traces the portrayal of women and identity in women writings. It challenges the
stereotypic projection of women in narratives and suggests a new direction which reverses inferior
basis for a proper projection of women, gender and identity in the plot and language of texts. By
so doing, she submits that ‘the major impact of feminism on narratology, will be to raise new
questions, to add to the narratology distinctions that already exists. To probe further, feminist critic
attempts to reconcile the way and manner language and signs have been used by structural
narratologies in their analysis to suppress women representation in fiction and in other writings
because these critics have mostly been one sided in their analyses. The essence is for critics and
narratologies for find the usefulness of narrative, content and context of the story, the proper
presentation of the character: male or female and their relevance to gender relations.
Similarly, feminist narratology raises some questions which show that the standard plot discussed
by narratologies do not really conform to the conventional norm by not explaining some
19
fundamental features of women in some selected texts. This is to denote that structural narratology
is yet to provide the most adequate distinction of story and plot. The need to shift attention to
feminist narratology becomes expedient because it encourages unbiased criticism of literature and
the proper projection of the real image of the woman and the real re-configuration of identity and
gender in texts.
2.1.9. Feminist Narratology
Feminist narratology is an important aspect of narratology which could deconstruct narrative and
explain some ambiguities in male writings and multiplicities of meanings and interpretations of
texts ascribed to them. This is an aspect of narratology which could help to correct patriarchal
stereotypes and ethnocentric views in narrative works (Bal, 1985 p.12) particularly in
autobiographical works and in other fictional works. Through the reinterpretation of the narrative
text, there is a need to really determine the major issues in the story in order to ascertain if those
discussed preoccupations are culturally determined in the plot of the story. It is, therefore, pertinent
to demonstrate how narratology helps in the understanding of gender, identity and social themes
in Nigerian post-colonial literature.
Post-colonial writers in Nigeria incorporate gender configuration, power relations and the
portrayal of women as embodiments of narrative arts. Likewise, these writers in Nigeria assigned
various roles to women and men in their narratives which give some concerns to critics and readers
alike. The application of narratology to narratives explains some complex gender and identity
ambiguities which are the foregrounding issues in some male writings. Example of such
ambiguities in the narrative is well delineated when narratology is applied to the narrative, such as
the creation of male subject in the work and that of a female object. This situation sometimes calls
20
for reversal in the story where there is a re-construction which allows for the woman to take the
lead role and become the female hero in the narrative.
However, when a narratologist decides to examine the body of knowledge in the narrative, the
significance of female body and how it interprets the social milieu could be underscored and this
situation could aid the understanding of gender and identity. This is because the power of the
narrator and what he represents in literature could be reinterpreted and this informs the reason why
Delauretis (1984, p. 24) asserts that ‘women are heroes of their own stories’. In the process of
writing back and correcting some narrative anomalies in masculine writings, she brings in new
innovations and concepts which help tore-configure society in the appropriate way.
She pushes this further because this type of narratology exemplifies how stories use
characterisation to delineate societal problems which women are actively involved in and how
feminist narratologists attempt to reverse masculine positions in narratives in order to achieve
social and cultural transformation for egalitarian society.
In the feminist context, narrative systematizes the text in order to potentially free narratology from
ethnocentric, identity representation and patriarchal configurations which are mostly discussed in
many male writings in Africa. By so doing, the narrative would not be biased and central to the
promotion of masculine tendencies in narratives. Similarly, Bal (1985, p. 22) and Fludernik (2009,
p. 15) agree that narratology itself is central to the structuring system of binary opposition because
it gives room for the narrative art to examine its oppositions and ambiguities. This means that there
is a universal appeal in a narrative when it examines the culture of a group of people by attempting
a binary resolution in order to appeal to feminist consciousness. In addition, to demonstrate and
elaborate the usefulness of narratology, critics often apply this to some literary ideologies in order
to comprehend literary concepts so that the benefits of narratology and its refinements could be
21
properly internalized in the texts. Likewise, to properly comprehend post-colonial issues in
literature, such as social themes, the portrayal of women, gender construction and identity
representation, narratology sometimes produces an adequate framework for the understanding of
these concepts in the narrative. Dwivedi et al. (2010, p. 6) uphold the aforementioned and submit
that ‘the condition of post-colonialism has been variously comprehended through narratives of fall
and decline, progress, enlightenment, and the attainment of civilization and democracy. However,
narratives produced in the historical phase explain related works of fiction, travelogues and
autobiographical accounts awakening and liberation’. Consequently, the application of narratology
in Nigeria could fill the lacuna in the portrayal of women in autobiographical and other gendered
writings. It could also explain the configuration of gender, identity representation and the re-
interpretation of social themes and masculinities in Nigerian post-colonial literature and history.
2.1.10. Narratology and the Interpretation of Texts
In ‘Genderization in Male Autobiographical Narratives in Nigeria’ (2011, p.6), narratology is used
to interpret some activities of characters and events in Nigerian social and political space through
narratives which centers on various experiences around men and women.
The application of meta-narrative interpretation in narratology illuminates the message and
portrays a clearer image for the reader and the critic. What this implies is that the primary object
of interpretation is the narrative act of telling the story. ‘The story’ expresses the purpose of
criticism. Logically speaking, both the content and the telling of the story are narrative acts, which
are some preoccupations of narratology. Similarly, in the article, Wisdom and Age in Chinua
Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958 p, 6), narratology is discussed, and wisdom is used by the
culture as a model for measuring the knowledge of men and women in the patriarchal Nigerian
and Igbo society. However, it re-invokes masculine importance using Okonkwo the lead character
22
as emulation for all in society. This gendered classification of wisdom and age is done at the
expense of feminism and it informs a psychological tool which is used to further suppress women.
This situation sometimes explains the distinction between story and narrative act which is
commonly conceptualized by narratologists as well. This distinction according to McDonald is
traditional because it does not provide any other means of identical formulations in the work of art
(Macdonald, 1988: 4).The analysis is dynamic because autobiographical and gendered narratives
are complex phenomena which express series of formulations about ‘self’ in Nigerian literature
and it is a portrayal of gendered feelings as well.
Similarly, studies in these articles blend narratological theory with autobiographical approach and
with gender theory in order to show various relationships and ambiguities of these gendered
writers. The need for the application of the trio is to bring out social relevance in Nigeria and in
Africa.
To portray this, other researchers have used many approaches to examine narratives in their own
ways. For example, Strauss and Corbin (1998p.5) applied the analytic strategic approaching their
literary application of art. , Raditlhalo (2003, p.16) use the sociological approach as suitable critical
framework, which clearly illuminates the position of characterization and how it becomes relevant
to the contemporary society in autobiographical and critical analysis. The first aim is to identify
elements of existing scholarly definitions which support autobiographical narratives and then
relate the approach to narratology.
However, both ‘Genderization in Male Autobiographical Narratives in Nigeria’ (2011 p.7), and
Wisdom and Age in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart’ (1958 p.6) apply narratological tenets to
the analysis of texts and criticisms of the social themes in the postcolonial Nigerian experience.
To start with the‘ Genderization in Male Autobiographical Narratives’ (2011 p.7) most male
23
autobiographical works presented in the article portray some deliberate and inveterate
marginalization of the African woman by patriarchy. Likewise, the article ‘Wisdom and Age’ is a
cognitive examination of the mental state of men which presents the Nigerian male culture and
how these male writers, particularly in Nigeria were using their works to over-exemplify
masculinity without recourse to females who are part of such society. However, writings in this
regard loose the social construction because it does not enforce the performative aspect of art.
Writing should be able to reinterpret and re-configure the cultural phenomenon in contemporary
setting in order to prepare a suitable environment for both men and women in relation to their
social and cultural perspectives.
In ‘Genderization, (2011 p.8) while women are frequently exposed to psychological, physical and
social violence. ‘Wisdom and Age.’ (2010p.26) is a psychological and cognitive empowerment of
masculine tenets at the expense of feminism. According to this article, ‘it is evident that Okonkwo,
despite his tender age applies the instrument of wisdom to changing his class for good believing
in “solid personal achievements” is akin to wisdom. Okonkwo uses his wisdom to address strength,
energy disposition and quest for innovation. Because Okonkwo (2010, p. 123) positions himself
in a wise dimension, he grows from strength to strength’.
Consequently, this leads to sexual and cultural relegation of women through narratives which their
male counterparts evoked using the autobiographical and psychological works as instruments of
portrayal of themes and subject matters. These papers combine previous research on women and
some practical and critical expressions about their feelings to delineate genderization in selected
male narratives which propel masculinity in Nigeria.
To further explain this, it is pertinent to note that most contemporary societies and cultures in
Nigeria are male dominated in many areas. So, these societies and cultures go further to create
24
belief systems, economic exploitation of Nigerian women and other forms of injustices which limit
the place of women in literature and society. Consequently, the work calls for the need to embark
upon a socio-politico economic re-configuration and cultural integration for African and Nigerian
development in the aspects of developing literature and making people feel the positive impact of
globalization in order to make some meaningful contributions from the African woman when the
cultural trends are reversed.
As earlier observed, male writers have frequently used their works to elevate themselves beyond
normal proportion in Nigeria. The elevation of self by male autobiographical narratives has been
seen by Raditlhalo (2003, p. 16) as a recurring problem confronting the proper explanation of the
roles of gender in contemporary African society. Similarly, Okpara (1990, p. 17) asserts that the
marginalization of women by male chauvinistic writers affects the place of women in African
literature. This has become the ‘usual’ trend in male-dominated literature in Africa; and it explains
more situations in gender and social themes in the post-colonial Nigeria. She further observes that
although the African woman is repressed by the normative patterns of her male-dominated culture,
she is well informed of other social and political forces in society which may take precedence over
sexual politics (Okpara, 1990, p. 18; Chukwuma, 1990, p. 11; Chukwuma, 2004, p.10). She would
rather identify more with the African man in the struggle for social and political freedom despite
the domination (Okpara, 1990, p. 158). Although, in the course of identifying with her male
counterpart, the autobiographical writer still over-exercises his control over the woman.
This makes Chukwuma to remark that the woman is portrayed in various works including the
autobiographical narrative as ‘a handicapped daughter, wife and mother even when the decisions
affect her directly’ (Chukwuma, 2004, p. 131). Different works in Nigeria have portrayed this fact
which Chukwuma (2004, p. 132) observed and these works have also shown that the most feasible
25
way to bring into the limelight female subjugation in written autobiographies is her economic
dependence on men and the social demand that a woman gives all her earnings to the home.
Consequently, in ‘Confronting Inequity in Nigerian Social Milieu: Apprehending Class
Stratification in Festus Iyayi’s Violence’ (2013 p.27) females have started critiquing and re-
examining these male essentialist assumptions which require that they give all their earnings and
their efforts to the family. By implication, feminist scholars have also started to develop feminist
theory which is based on a theoretical or philosophical analysis of women’s liberation politics.
This gradually leads to women’s studies which emerged to investigate different problems
confronting the woman and the urgent need for solutions. In the articles, feminist politics and
women’s studies put a spotlight on the inequities between women and men in almost all Nigerian
societies. In the West, women campaigned to gain equal rights and opportunities and in the
developing world, this was applied to aid them in development. It is imperative to state that there
are vast differences between the needs of women in developed nations and their counterparts in
developing nations too.
According to Butler, there is a need to understand different approaches in the appraisal of the
inequalities between men and women and between women in developed and developing
economies in order to ascribe roles which are culturally motivated and performative in the
realization of their potentials (Butler, 2013, p.77).Therefore, if the needs of women in Nigeria are
identified and ascribed, there would be more relevant social functions in the scheme of things in
their encounter with their male counterparts.
The above-mentioned articles also focus on political and economic inequalities which exist among
women and men in Nigeria. These articles discuss the term ‘gender’ and showcase how some male
writers and their cultures make it synonymous with ‘women’. It is pertinent to note that it is not
26
until the 1980s that the field of masculinity studies emerged in literary discourse. Masculinity (or
men’s) studies systematically focused on the construction and the depiction of males as superior
phenomenon (Spivak, 1989, p. 223; Spengeman, 1980, p.27; Smith & Watson, 2010, p. 56). The
mentioned articles further analyses ways in which gender and power operate in the lives of men
that develop the masculinity theory. This new field of study has started to highlight the ways in
which gender inequalities affect not only women, but also men (Spengeman, 1980, p. 28). More
recently, a multidisciplinary field of study has emerged; it examines the cultural representations
and the life experience of being male or female. In ‘Okotp’ Bitek’s Song of Lawino: Singing about
the Rights of Present African Women’ (2014 p.9-25) cultural representation places women as
second-class citizens. This breads hatred, jealousy and unhealthy rivalry in the family: among
children and wives in the case of polygamous setting. This paper expresses the plight of Lawino
the oppressed African woman who is handicapped by unbridled competition in the family and the
need to satisfy the husband since he now has a new bride. In most parts of Black Africa, women
experience such oppressive situation and it culminates into depression and rejection. In some other
situations, poor men who cannot afford to pay bride price sometimes stay away from marriage
while those men who can afford to pay as many go home with new bride every new season. This
allows for an analysis of gender for both women and men, and it is used to interrogate the
phenomenon in a wider range of disciplines and in the interrogation of narrative and poetic truth.
27
2.2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.2.1 Cultivation Theory
The cultivation theory was developed by Gerbner and Gross (1976, p 172-194) to examine the
media‘s effects on its consumers. According to Gerbner & Gross (1976, p 172-194), prolonged
exposure to television would have an effect on the viewer‘s social reality. If for instance, a viewer
was constantly exposed to violent content, he/she would begin to think that the world is a
perpetually violent place.
Morgan & Shanahan (1999, p.3) note that the frequent viewing of television portrayals translates
into viewers cultivating the information gleaned from the television and integrating it into their
existing perceptions and judgements. Based on this argument, one might be able to conclude that
the exposure to both positive and negative portrayals of feminism on social media may have a ha
nd in how the feminist movement is viewed by the country at large.
Today, despite the rapid changes in the media and its consumption, namely the growth of social
media, scholars still note that television still affects social reality while television may still be one
of the most common mediums of communication in the world, as well as in Nigeria, the ever-
increasing growth in the use of social media should not be discounted. To this end, Beullens, Roe,
& Van den Bulck (2012, p.155-165) note that the cultivation effect of online media should also be
studied due to their increasingly pervasive nature in society.
The emergence of social media has also led to changes in the consumption of the media. Since the
internet, and by extension, social media, can provide television content through video on demand
platforms for instance, digital media‘s cultivation ability should be discussed at length (Lau, 2015
28
p.2). This is since there has not been much scholarship into the relationship between the theory
and internet use.
In a study of media use and behavioral intention, Lau (2015p.2), notes that there is a strong
relationship between the use of online media and behavioral intentions. Simply put, this means
that if one uses the internet intensively, it is likely that he or she would intend to act in a certain
way, say by referring to online feminists as man- haters. This intent morph over time to become
behavior, which in this case would be the constant name-calling of online feminists.
This theory is important to the study because not only will it help us to investigate the ways in
which social media use has cultivated the existing notions of the feminist movement in Nigeria.
2.2.2. Feminist Theory
The goal of feminism is a social change of unequal relations between men and women and
communication is a fundamental part of effecting this change. According to Rackow and
Wackwitz (2004, para.2), feminist communication theory, which explores the intersection of
feminism and communication, has three main themes. These themes are difference, which refers
to the ways in which political, symbolic and other systems establish oppressive relationships
between racial and ethnic groups, sexualities, economic classes and political orientations. The
voice theme refers to women‘s access to communicational tools as well as the conditions and
obstacles to women being heard and the systems through which women are being silenced. They
finally conclude with the representational theme, which looks at the consequences of the
misrepresentation of women in the media and their exclusion.
Sustained research into these themes has resulted into significant changes in how women are
portrayed in the media, as well as their participation in it. This has translated into a vibrant media
29
space where more and more women are shaping their perception in society through the content
that they are creating, which promotes positive views of women.
According to MacKinnon (1989p.37), feminist theory is critical of gender as a determinant of life
chances, finding that it is women who differentially suffer from the distinction of sex by looking
at the representation of women in the media, for instance, we can say that the suppression of the
coverage of feminist issues leads to a situation where these issues are not addressed, which means
that these problems, such as poor education for girls might continue indefinitely. Another key idea
contained in feminist theory is the systemization of relations between genders, which views these
relation s as a structural social relation between social beings. MacKinnon (1989 p.68) describes
feminist theory as the process of analyzing a situation in order to face it for what it is, in order to
change it. This idea central to this study, which seeks to understand how media have portrayed
feminism and how these portrayals have shaped the perception of the feminist movement in
Nigeria. This will enable us to rethink the representation of feminism on social networking sites,
a result of which may be a renewed interest in the feminist movement.
2.3. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK
Purple Hibiscus
Purple Hibiscus (Adichie, 2013 p.53-54) surveys motherhood through the characters of Beatrice
and Aunty Ifeoma. De Beauvoir (1989, p.501) argues that women’s ability to give birth is
subsequently the source of their subordination. She contends that motherhood signals that women
were twice doomed: biologically during pregnancy and socially when children restricted at home.
Chodorow (1978,p.214) blames sexual inequality in society on the division of labour that allocates
30
the primary infant and childcare to women at home while men take valued occupations outside.
She further noted that in most societies, daughters and sons are treated differently and consequently
developed differently. The daughters who share the core female identity with the mother copy their
mother while the sons remain separate and autonomous.
The societal desire for children happens to be an avenue through which women are exploited and
oppressed. Linked with the desire for children is also the strong social demand and desire to mother
boys. Due to the high premium attached to the boy child, girls inhabit second position and that
leads to their degradation. This desire for babies makes Beatrice in Purple Hibiscus struggle
desperately to meet the Umunna’s expectations of omelora’s (an Igbo elder) wife. The members
of Eugene’s Umunna are opposed to his having two children only.
Beatrice spends much of her time attending to domestic duties mainly on behalf of her children
and the husband. Immediately Papa throws the missal to Jaja and breaks the figurines it is Mama
who picks them with bare hands since it is risky for the family members if they remain there. Jaja
warns Mama ‘careful, Mama, or those pieces will cut your fingers’. This is a confession from the
son that Mama would do anything to make sure the family is safe. Mama plaits the hair of Kambili
every Sunday before lunch. While Beatrice (mama) does most of the domestic duties after Sunday,
Papa enjoys his siesta. This highlights an uneven situation for men and women. Mama’s
obligations place her squarely in the domestic arena. It is no surprise that when Aunty Ifeoma
wants to take them out Mama cannot go because she tells Ifeoma that, ‘you know Eugene likes me
to stay around’. Therefore, the domestic space, reserved for mothers, is a site of patriarchal
oppression. (Adichie, 2013 p.8, p.80)
The characters and circumstances in Purple Hibiscus compare well with Dangarembga’s Nervous
Conditions (1988, p.37) where Eugene just like Babamukuru are symbols of masculinity. Both are
31
domineering, benevolent and they provide for their own families and the clan but are callous,
unreasonable, brutal and oppressive. Despite these men being highly educated they exploit their
wives and Just like Beatrice in Purple Hibiscus, Maiguru in Nervous Conditions has to lie low and
to continuously pamper Babamukuru. The attitude towards women and girls does not change
whether the men are educated or not since Eugene is well educated and so is Babamukuru. Adichie
seems to suggest that negative patriarchy rears its ugly face in Africa in the modern era despite the
progress made in different areas of human endeavour.
It means that wome n can only be respected if they fulfill their biological duty of mothering. Mama
fears Papa may marry other women who may give Papa more sons and displace her. For a woman
to have security and a permanent position then she should have several children and more so boys.
The experiences of Beatrice are reminiscent of what Nnu Ego in Emecheta’s The Joys of
Motherhood (1979, p.194) goes through as she struggles to prove herself as a mother. Such a
demand is pegged on African women’s need to be disparaged or at least revised to give women a
breathing space as hinted to by.( Adichie, 2003 p.41)
Although Aunty Ifeoma is educated and enjoys more freedom than Beatrice, she is also held by
her family such that she spends much of her time with the children: helping, correcting, punishing,
encouraging and cooking. She is widowed and struggling as Papa Nnukwu realises ‘since the father
of her children died, she has seen hard times’ (Adichie, 2003 p 65).
Kambili notes that she behaves like a referee who has done a good job and admires to watch the
players who in this case are her children: Amaka, Obiora and Chima. Adichie uses I feoma’s
character to open women’s eyes to the realities of patriarchy and also to suggest alternative avenues
to self-actualization. She stands against oppression when everyone else is silent. Through this
32
character Adichie pronounces her convictions that the oppressed should constantly challenge their
oppressor.
The identity of women is linked to their children and we realise that those women who are childless
suffer the indignity of lacking mother-derived identity. This is realised in Ogige Market where
Kambili notes:
Mama Joe’s shed in Ogige Market just barely fit the high stool where she sat and the
smaller stool in front of her…Women and children worked in the neighbouring sheds,
twisting hair, weaving hair, plaiting hair with thread. Wooden boards with lopsided print
leaned on broken chairs in front of the sheds. The closest ones read; “Mama Chinedu
special Hair stylist and Mama Bomboy International Hair” The women and children called
every female who walked past…While she turned my hair…she chattered nonstop
to…mama Caro (236-7).
From this extract we realise the identity of mothers is crucial in getting business names. Such
identification serves to marginalize those who are childless.
Women are rarely been studied as daughters in literature since the identity of wives and mothers
overshadow other identities. This happens despite the affirmations of Oyewumi (1997, p.48) that
seniority; to be precise older or young is more important than sex or gender in African context.
She further points out that sex or gender are absolute: one is either a man or a woman or is not (for
the transsexuals) yet seniority is relational; one is young or older depending on the context and
situation. Seniority unlike gender is only graspable as part of relationships and neither rigidly
fixated on the body nor dichotomized. These insights are critical as we try to make sense of the
identity of women as daughters which is an identity in transition in the worlds of the two novels.
In Purple Hibiscus, the socialization of daughters produces docile, submissive and unimaginative
characters due to the oppressive and overly patriarchal environment they grow up in. To Papa,
Kambili should be God fearing and a ‘backyard snob’ as the girls in her class point out. She simply
33
does things in a weird way; isolating herself from the other students and remaining silent. Okuyade
(2007, p .6) affirms that silence in Purple Hibiscus is magnified to a level whereby it can be heard.
Kambili, Jaja and their mother are so oppressed that they speak with their spirits.
In a rare twist Mama kills her husband and that way frees herself and her children from the yoke
of domestic servitude. This killing is symbolic in that it points to the author’s desire of a world
free of gender-engineered violence at the domestic level. The Biblical allusion of Jesus serves to
exonerate Mama from the killing since Jaja and Kambili believe that someone has to die for some
other people to be saved. Kambili says:
‘God knows best,’ I said. ‘God works in mysterious ways.’ And I thought how Papa would
be proud that I had said that…Look what He did to his faithful servant Job, even to His
own son. But have you ever wondered why? Why did He have to murder his own son so
we would be saved? Why did He have to go ahead and save us? (289).
For the freedom of women to be fully realised sometimes drastic and radical measures must be
taken. In a different scenario Ifeoma goads the sister-in-law (Beatrice) to quit an abusive
marriage. In doing so Ifeoma braves those women living in abusive relationships to seek an
alternative lifestyle outside marriage. Ifeoma moreover disputes the undemocratic way of
appointing the sole administrator to have positive change in the manner the University is
managed. Although she is eventually sacked her efforts mean a lot since she provokes the other
lecturers to resist dictatorship from all fronts. The indispensable position taken by women in
Purple Hibiscus points to the need to center women issues in Adichie’s society.
34
We Should All Be Feminists
The book begins with a brief introduction, in which Adichie explains that the vignettes were
inspired by a lecture she gave during a conference focused on African culture and literature.
Admitting that she knew her discussion of feminism and the stereotypes that accompany the word
would be unpopular, she hoped that both the lecture and the subsequent book would lead to an
important conversation about both African and global feminism. (Adichie 2014.p.1-6)
The book then jumps into a series of vignettes, primarily about Adichie’s childhood in Lagos,
Nigeria. In the first story, Adichie recounts a conversation with her friend Okoloma, who died in
2005. She and Okoloma, close friends, enjoyed debating with each other about challenging topics,
including politics, books, culture, and religion. In a heated debate, Okoloma had called her a
feminist – though Adichie admits she didn’t know what the word meant at the time, Okoloma had
said it with malice, as one might say the word “terrorist.” Adichie never forgot that moment.
In another story from her childhood, she and a boy in the class were rivals for the position of hall
monitor. Though Adichie received the best score in the class on the most recent test, the teacher
selected the boy for the position. Although Adichie knew this was unfair at the time, she didn’t
understand that the teacher’s choice came from his own familiarity with seeing men in positions
of power. When Adichie finally asked the teacher why she didn’t get the position, the teacher said
he thought it was obvious that the position would have to go to a boy. Adichie takes on other
moments of sexism common in Nigerian culture when she writes about a male companion who
didn’t understand why she was upset when a valet thanked him for the tip she paid. Adichie had
to explain to him that despite the fact that she had given the valet the money, he assumed that
Adichie’s money must have come from a man, and thus thanked her male companion.
35
Adichie’s first novel, Purple Hibiscus, was released in 2003. The novel tells the story of a
prominent Nigerian hero prone to violent outbursts at home, whose wife, fed up with his violence
and her own fear and decides to poisons him. Many strangers approached Adichie after the
publication of her novel to tell her that despite her obvious interest in women’s rights, she shouldn’t
call herself a feminist. According to these men, feminists could never be married, and so, would
never find happiness. To fight back against feminist stereotypes, Adichie began to refer to herself
as a happy feminist, and then extended the definition repeatedly as people told her other stereotypes
they had about feminists: they don’t wear lip gloss, they don’t wear high heels, they can’t be
African and they hate men. Finally, Adichie became so fed up with the stereotypes, she stopped
adding to her long definition, instead, embracing herself as a feminist, in part, to prove that not all
feminists are the same. (Adichie, 2014 p. 14-21)
Ultimately, Adichie examines how gender roles and gender norms in Africa and beyond are
detrimental not only for women but for men as well as by limiting the roles that each gender can
play in society, everyone loses. She makes a plea at the end of her book for everyone, no matter
gender, country of origin, race, religion, or sexual preference, to embrace feminism. She
encourages men to consider how sexism has forced them to avoid being vulnerable, and how it
forces women to appear weak. At the end of the essay, Adichie defines feminists for herself, saying
that in her mind, feminism is the act of admitting that there is something wrong with gender as it
stands in the world today; feminists are the people who are invested in talking and doing something
about it.
36
2.4 GAPS TO FILL
This study is primarily focused on perception of feminism in the social media narrative of female
novelists in Nigeria. However, the study will also delve into the portrayal of feminism on social
media and its perception to social media users.
This research will be based therefore on social media and feminism and it will show how feminists
use social media, social media users interaction with feminist contents and how theses platforms
can actually promote a positive narrative of feminism.
37
2.5 REFERENCES
BOOKS
Akin- Aina, S. (2011). Beyond an epistemology of bread, butter, culture and power: Mapping the
African feminist movement.
Anderson, M. (2015). Men catch up with women on overall social media use. Pew Research
Center.
Arias, E. (2016). How Does Media Influence Social Norms? A Field Experiment on the Role of
Common Knowledge. Working Paper.
Aronson, P. (2003). Feminists or postfeminists? Young women‘s attitudes toward feminism and
gender relations. Gender & Society.
Bamidele (2012). Research Methodology and Precision Journalism, (1st Ed), Research for
Beginners. Micobod Publisher, Lagos.
Bamidele (2012).Research Methodology and Precision Journalism, (1st Ed), Research for
Badr, H. (2015). Limitations of the Social Media Euphoria in Communication Studies.
Egypt / Arab World.
Bailard, C. S. (2012). A field experiment on the Internet‘s effect in an African election: Savvier
citizens, disaffected voters, or both? Journal of Communication.
Barakso, M., & Schaffner, B. F. (2006). Winning coverage: News media portrayals of the
women's movement, 1969-2004. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics.
Begley, S. (2014). Ironic Misandry: Why Feminists Pretending to Hate Men Isn‘t Funny
Time.Com.
Beullens, K., Roe, K., & Van den Bulck, J. (2012). Music video viewing as a marker of driving
after the consumption of alcohol. Substance Use & Misuse.
Bronstein, C. (2005). Representing the third wave: Mainstream print media framing of a new
feminist movement. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly.
Briggs, A., & Burke, P. (2010). Social history of the media: from Gutenberg to the Internet.
Polity.
Butler.M. (2011).Clicktivism, Slacktivism, Real Activism Cultural Codes of American Activism in
the Internet Era (Doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado).
38
Carlson, L. (2010). Marketing and communications in social media: fruitful dialogues, strong
brand, increased sales, Kreafon.
Castells, M. (2007). Communication, power and counter-power in the network society.
International Journal of Communication, vol. 1.
Cheruiyot, K. K. (2010). The geography of the intra-national digital divide in a developing
country: A spatial analysis of regional-level data in Kenya. (Doctoral dissertation).
Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity rethinking the concept.
Gender & society.
Cottle, S. (2011). Media and the Arab Uprisings of 2011: Research notes. Journalism.
Darrah, K. (2011). Media Portrayal of the Feminist Movement: The Seattle Times Coverage
from 1970 to 1979 (Doctoral dissertation, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Wash.).
DelliCarpini, M. (2000). Gen.Com: Youth, civic engagement, and the new information
environment. Political Communication.
Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (2005). ―The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research‖ pg.
1-32 in the Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, Norman K. Denzin &Yvonne .S.
Lincoln eds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Drake, J. & Heywood, L. (Eds.) (1997). Third wave agenda: Being feminist, doing feminism.
Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Dux, M., & Simic, Z. (2008). The great feminist denial. Melbourne Univ. Publishing.
Eltantawy, N. & Wiest, J.B. (2011). Social media in the Egyptian revolution: reconsidering
resource mobilization theory ‘, International Journal of Communication.
Enjolras, B., Steen-Johnsen, K., &Wollebæk, D. (2013). Social media and mobilization to offline
demonstrations: Transcending participatory divides? New Media & Society.
Ephraim, P. E. (2013). African youths and the dangers of social networking: a culture-centered
approach to using social media. Ethics and information technology.
Eskola, J., &Suoranta, J. (1998). Introduction to qualitative research. Tampere: Vastapaino.
Frith, H. (2000). Focusing on sex: Using focus groups in sex research. Sexualities.
Gamble, S. (2001). Post feminism. In S. Gamble (Ed.), The Routledge companion to feminism
and post feminism. London, England and New York, NY: Routledge.
Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of
Communication.
Glasser, C. K. (1997). Patriarchy, mediated desire, and Chinese magazine fiction. Journal of
Communication.
Griffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
39
Hall, E. J., & Rodriguez, M. S. (2003). The myth of post feminism. Gender and Society, 17(6),
878-902.
Hampton, K. N., Rainie, L., Lu, W., Dwyer, M., Shin, I., & Purcell, K. (2014). Social media and
the spiral of silence. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
Hawkesworth, M.E. (2006). Globalization and Feminist Activism. Rowman & Littlefield.
Hinchcliffe, D. (2006). The state of web 2.0, Web Services Journal.
Hooks, b. (1984). Feminist Theory from Margin to Center. New York, NY: South End Press.
Hooks, b. (2000). Feminism Is for Everybody: Passionate politics. Cambridge, Mass.: South
End Press.
Hopper, P. (2007). Understanding cultural globalization, Polity Press, Cambridge.
Hunt, N. R. (1989). Placing African Women's History and Locating Gender. Social History.
Jenkins, H., Puroshotma, R., Clinton, K., Weigel, M. & Robison, A.J. (2005). Confronting the
challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st
Century.www.newmedialiteracies.org.
.Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American psychologist.
Williamson, A. (2011, April). Driving civic participation through social media. Input of NECE
European workshop: Perspectives of Web 2.0 for Citizenship Education in Europe, Brno,
Czech Republic.
Wipper, A. (1975). The MaendeleoYaWanawake Organization: The Co-Optation of Leadership.
African Studies Review.
Wyche, S. P., Forte, A., &Yardi-Schoenebeck, S. (2013a, April). Hustling online: understanding
consolidated Facebook use in an informal settlement in Nairobi. In Proceedings of the Sigchi
conference on human factors in computing systems, Paris, France. ACM Press.
Xinari, C. (2010). From new woman to ―new‖ feminism: Some thoughts on the postfeminist
era. Journal of critical studies in business & society.
Zhang, W. (2013). Redefining youth activism through digital technology in Singapore. The
International Communication Gazette.
INTERNET SOURCES
Bisignani, D. (2015). History of Feminism in the U.S.: The First Wave. The Gender Press.
Retrieved on 20/10/2019 from:
https://genderpressing.wordpress.com/2015/01/23/feminism-the-first-wave-2/
Boguhn, A. (2014). You Don‘t Have to Hate Women to Be Sexist: Everyday Ways You May Be
Sexist Without Knowing It. Retrieved on 20/10/2019 from:
40
http://everydayfeminism.com/2014/12/everyday-ways-you-may-be-sexist-
Communications Authority of Kenya. (2014). Quarterly sector statistics report. First quarter of the
financial year 2014/15. Retrieved on 20/10/2019 from:
http://www.ca.go.ke/images/downloads/STATISTICS/Sector%20Statistics%20Report
Danish Trade Union & Council for International Development Cooperation. (2014) Labour
Market Profile-Kenya. Retrieved on 21/10/2019 from:
http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/sites/default/files/uploads/public/PDF/LMP/lmp_ke_
Internet world stats. (2012). Internet users in Africa [Data file]. Retrieved on 22/10/2019
From: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm
Kaplan, M. &Blakely, J. (2009) The Business and Culture of Social Media. Retrieved on
22/10/2019 from: http://www.learcenter.org/pdf/businessandcultureofsocialmedia.pdf
Super Summary (n.d) Retrieved on 23/10/2019 from:
http://www.supersummary.com/we-should-all-be-feminists/summary/
World Wide Web Foundation. (2015). Women‘s Rights Online: Translating Access into
Empowerment. Retrieved on 24/10/ 2019 from;
http://webfoundation.org/wp-
41
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on the research method and design, the study population, sampling method,
source of data, validity and reliability of data as well as the data collection techniques used in
carrying out this study.
3.1 RESTATEMENT OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study will find answers to the following research questions;
1. How is feminism portrayed on social media?
2. What are the perceptions of feminism by social media users?
3. What is the feminist profile in social media narrative of popular female novelists?
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
The term ‘research’ comes from the French word ‘recerche’ which means to investigate something
thoroughly, to search for information, to try to find out about something that is of interest (Berger,
1998) as cited in ( Onabanjo 2010, p.129).
A research design is the plan that specifies who to be studied, where they will be studied, when
they will be studied and how they will be studied. (Ugo 2002 as cited in Onabanjo 2010, p.9). This
study employed the use of survey method to gather data for the study “Perception of feminism in
the social media narrative of female novelist in Nigeria” this study will require questionnaires in
gathering data on various criterions peculiar to the study.
Predominantly, survey research is a method of data collection which involves creating a set of
questions which specific representatives of a large audience are expected to respond to. (Schaefer
42
et al (1997) as citied in Ogbonna, Alaka & Alao, 2016, p.88) sees survey research as a study,
generally in form of an interview or questionnaire which provides information about the way
people think and act.
Survey method is used by scientists interested in collecting original data for describing a
population too large to observe directly. Survey uses tabulation to analyze and report a research
with other instruments; it also adopts the use of questionnaire to elicit necessary data from the
respondents.
The source of data collection for the project is self-administered questionnaire for valid and reliable
account. (Onabanjo, 2010p.58.) This explains self-administered questionnaire,” The interviewer
gives the instrument to the respondent to fill out, probably at his own convenience, or leaves it for
him or her if the interviewee is not available at that point in time.
3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY
For any research work to be successfully carried out, a well-defined population must be clearly
surveyed. A research study population is a well-defined collection of individuals and objects
known to have similar characteristics (Osuala,2001:55) as citied in (Noheli,2012) This because the
outcome of the research work is to be based on the information provided by the population. The
population of this work will consist students (youths) in Caleb University, Imota Lagos state and
also students in Lagos state polytechnic.
43
3.4 STUDY SAMPLES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sampling is the act, process or technique of selecting a suitable sample. Sample itself is a subject
of the population that is taken to be representative of the entire population. (Onabanjo 2015, p.128).
Sampling is done in order that the researcher may take some elements, subjects or respondents in
the population to represent that population. (Sobowale 2008 as cited in Onabanjo, 2010, p.129).
Basically, there are two main sampling techniques. The probability and non-probability sampling
techniques. (Onabanjo 2015, p.133). The stratified random sampling technique of the probability
sample method will be used. This approach involves using a random sample from identifiable
groups (strata) that are homogeneous for the desired characteristics. (Onabanjo 2015, p.134).
Although, respondents are selected randomly even within the group (since not all members of the
group can be reached) to respond or react to questions. This method will be used based on the
scope of the study as well as the strong need for feasible data that can only be derived from
respondents with large heterogeneous characteristics.
Thus, the Taro Yamane formula with a 95% confidence level has been chosen to calculate the
sample size for this study (Saxena, 2015. Para.2)
The calculation formula of Taro Yamane is presented as follows;
𝑛= N
1+N (𝑒)2
44
Where:
n = The sample size
N = The population size
e = The accepted sample error (a small amount that is allowed in case of miscalculation or change
in circumstances in order to ascertain the validity of the study) = 0.05.
Therefore,
Sample Size (n) = Total population in Caleb University and Lagos State Polytechnic
1 + (Total Population in the schools)0.052
Sample Size (n) = 2922 + 50000
1+52922 (0.052)
Sample Size (n) = 52922
1+52922 (0.0025)
1 + 132.31
133.31
Sample Size (n) = 396.98
Sample Size (n) = 400 approximately.
The population of this work will consist of two hundred students (youths) in Caleb University,
Imota Lagos state (200) and also, another two hundred students Lagos state polytechnic (200).
45
3.5 SOURCES OF DATA
The source of data for this research work is the primary source which involves the researcher’s act
of gathering or collecting raw or unprocessed information from various sources ( such as, churches,
schools, local government areas and companies) which he or she works on till it becomes
interpreted, objective and a detailed fact. For this study, the questionnaires to be given to
respondents in their natural environment will be used in arriving as detailed facts on the subject;
this source of data is a primary source.
3.6 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE
This aspect elicits the tools used to collect data from the area of study. The questionnaire is the
instrument of investigation in the social sciences, the questionnaire is a sequence of question
designed to collect data on a specified subject, usually from respondent. Questionnaires must not
common leading or, is leading questions, neither must it be capable of double interpretation
(Onabanjo, p.138).
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of
gathering information from respondents. It can be thought of as a kind of written interview which
can be administered face to face, by telephone, computer or mail (McLeod, 2018 para.1).
Therefore for the purpose of this study, 400 copies of questionnaires will be circulated among
selected respondents; two hundred students (youth) in Caleb University, Imota Lagos state (200)
and also, another two hundred students Lagos state polytechnic (200).
This will be divided into two sections; Section A which will deal with the Demographic Data of
respondents and section B formed out of the research questions, containing open and closed-ended
questions.
46
3.7 INSTRUMENT VALIDATION
Validity is the quality of being well-grounded, sound or correct. (Merriam Webster Online, 1828).
Thus, validity is how well an assessment measures what it’s meant to measure. It is credibility and
believability of this research work. The validity of the data collection instrument will be done with
the help of the project supervisor for verification and correction so as to establish accurate criterion
on the validity of the instrument. This will help to confirm that the data derived after the instrument
has been administered, contains a sound basis in logic and facts.
3.8 RELIABILITY OF DATA
The data that will be derived from the primary sources has a very high level of reliability, since it
is obtained directly by the researcher, and the instrument or source of data selected is most suitable
when attempted to reduce errors of measurement.
3.9 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSES
Marshal and Rossman (as citied in Abd Manaf, Harries and Clare, 2011p.170.) defines data
analysis as the process of bringing order, structures and meaning to the mass of collected data.
Hence, the analysis will involve descriptive statistics using tables, charts, simple frequency counts
and percentages.
47
3.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
This research work will be built on objectivity, genuinely, sincerity, mindfulness and the respect
for respondents’ privacy. Therefore, all information received while administering the
questionnaire will be treated in confidence and solely for academic purposes. The names of
respondents will not be specified in the study.
48
3.11 REFERENCES
BOOKS
Bamidele (2012) Research Methodology and Precision Journalism, (1st Ed), Research for
Onabanjo (2010): Foundations of Communication Research, Lagos, Nigeria: Sibon Books
Limited, Lagos.
Ogbonna, S., Alaka, O., & Alao, A. (2016). Foundation of communication research. Mushin,
Lagos State. Charitext Press.
INTERNET SOURCES
(Validity, 1828).In Merriam Webster Online. Retrieved on 10/11/2019 from:

https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus
McLeod, S. (2018). Simply Psychology: Questionnaire. Retrieved on 23/10/2019 from:

http://www.simplypschology.org/questionnaires.html
Abd Manaf, A., Harries, M. & Clare, M. (2011). Understanding Quality of Marriage among
Malays. Retrieved on 23/10/2019 from:
https://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/understanding-quality-of-marriage-among-
malays
Saxena, V. (2015). What is the Yamane simple calculation? Retrieved on 23/10/2019 from:
https://www.quora.com/What-is-Yamane-sample-calculation
49
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION
4.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on the presentation of data, analyses, interpretation and discussion of findings
gathered on the study; perception of feminism in the social media narrative of female novelists in
Nigeria. The data was sourced from the selected study areas; Caleb University and Lagos State
Polytechnic. A total of 400 copies of questionnaires were administered in the study areas.
4.1 DISTRIBUTION AND RETRIEVAL OF QUESTIONNAIRES

Table 1
Questionnaires Frequency Percentage
Returned questionnaire 387 96.8
Unreturned questionnaire 13 3.3
Total 400 100
Source: Field Survey, 2019.
Table 1 shows that 387 copies of questionnaires (96.8%) were completed and returned in good
condition. From the remainder of 13 copies of questionnaire, some were in bad condition, not
properly filled and others were misplaced during the course of distribution.
4.2 DATA PRESENTATION ANALYSIS

The data collected has been presented sequentially thus, demographic data is presented in
SECTION A, after which all other information contained in the research instrument used has been
provided in SECTION B.
SECTION A: Demography of Respondents

Table 2: Gender
Gender Frequency Percentage (%)
50
Male 127 32.8

Female 260 67.2
Total 387 100
The table 2 shows that female respondents are more represented in the study with 67.2% while
32.8% were male respondents with a difference of 35% that is an added frequency of 133 male
respondents.
Table 3: Age
Age Frequency Percentage (%)
15 – 18 131 33.9
19 – 21 183 47.3
22 – 30 62 16
30 > 9 2.3
Missing value 2 0.5
Total 387 100
The results show that the selected respondents were within the ages of 15-18, 19-21, 22-30 and
30>. 33.9% of the respondents were between ages 15 and 18, 47.3% were between 19 and 21 years
of age, 16% were between 22 and 30 years of age. Respondents who are above 30 years of age
makes up 2.3% and 0.5% of the respondents did not provide any responses on their age.
Table 4: Marital Status

Marital Status Frequency Percentage
Single 344 88.9
Married 32 8.3
Divorced 7 1.8
Others 1 0.3
Missing response 3 0.8
Total 387 0.8
From the data presented in table 4, marital status of the respondents could be seen segmented into
4 categories; single, married, divorced and others.
51
Respondents who are single make up the highest frequency with 88.9%. This is followed by
married respondents who make up 8.3% of the respondents. 1.8% of the respondents are divorced
and respondents who have other marital status amounted to 0.3% as missing responses accounted
for 0.8%.
Table 5: Educational Qualifications

Educational Qualifications Frequency Percentage
WASSCE/NECO 129 33.7
OND/HND 31 8
BSC 186 48.1
PHD 4 1
Missing response 4 1
Total 387 100
The results in Table 5 show that 33.7% of the respondents had only written WAEC/NECO and
therefore had Secondary School Certificate (SSCE) qualification, 8% had OND/HND as their
educational qualification, and respondents who had acquired BSc. Degree make up 48.1%. 4
respondents, 1%, had PhD and there was a missing response of 1% who did not state their
educational qualification.
Table 6: Occupation
Occupations Frequency Percentage

Artisan 31 8
Teacher/Lecturer 17 4.4
Doctor 11 2.8
Lawyer 15 3.9
Engineer 17 4.4
Student 258 66.7
Others 16 4.1
Total 387 100
Table 6 shows the various occupations of the respondents within the study areas. It could be seen
that majority of the respondents were ‘students’, 258, with 66.7%. 8% of the respondents stated
52
they were artisans, 4.4% stated they were teachers or lecturers. There were 2.8% who were doctors,
3.9% who were lawyers and 4.4% who were engineers. Other professions made up 4.1% of the
responses while 5.7% did not state their profession.
SECTION B:
4.3 RESEARCH QUESTION 1: How is feminism portrayed on social media?
The first item which provides answer to the research question one is on the portrayal of feminism
on social media. The results are seen in Table 7.
Table 7: What does feminism mean to you?
Variable Frequency Percentage

Equality of both genders 193 49.9
Hating/being aggressive/discriminating against men 48 12.4
Acknowledging women get unfair treatment in many areas in life 128 33.1
and society
Others 5 1.3
Missing system 13 3.4
Total 387 100
According to Table 7, it could be seen that most respondents are of the opinion that equality of
both genders is what feminism means to them, this category makes up 49.9%. This is followed by
respondents who are of the opinion that feminism is the acknowledgement of women getting unfair
treatment in the society with 33.1%. 12.4% of the respondents are of the view that feminism means
hating, being aggressive and discriminating against men. These show that the popular opinions of
respondents on feminism is on equality of both genders followed by an acknowledgement woman
get unfair treatment in many areas in life and society. 1.3% of the respondents also gave other
responses like feminism being an excuse women make to justify unnecessary actions. There was
also 3.4% missing response.
53
Table 8: Do you consider yourself a feminist?

Yes 139 35.9
No 126 32.6
Maybe 90 23.3
I don’t know 27 7
Total 387 100
From the results presented in Table 8, it could be seen that 35.9% of the respondents consider
themselves feminists closely followed by respondents who do not consider themselves feminist,
32.6%. This shows that there is a difference of only 13 respondents between those who consider
themselves feminists and those who do not. Furthermore, 23.3% of the respondents chose maybe
while 7% do not know if they are feminists or not. There was also 1.3% missing response.
Table 9: Do you think only women are feminists?

Yes 117 30.2
No 198 51.2
Maybe 45 11.6
I don’t know 23 5.9
Missing response 4 1
Total 187 100
According to Table 9, it can be deduced that 30.2% of the respondents are of the view that only
women are feminists. However, 51.2% chose that not only women are feminists while 11.6% of
the respondents chose maybe as 5.9% do not know.
Table 10: What are the issues in feminism that are of interest to you?
Gender equality 165 42.6
Job discrimination 66 17.1
Cases of rape and sexual assault 124 32
54
Others 11 2.8
Total 387 100
The results show that gender equality is of interest to most of the respondents with 42.6%. This is
followed by cases of rape and sexual assault which makes up 32%. Job discrimination was also an
issue to 17.1% of the respondents. Respondents who are interested in other issues such as domestic
violence aside the ones listed are 2.8% while 5.4% of the respondents did not provide any
responses.
Table 11: How regularly do you access social media?

At least once a day 301 77.8
At least once a week 65 16.8
At least once a month 12 3.2
Total 387 100
The responses presented in Table 9 show that the majority of the respondents access social media
at least once a day, this accounts for 77.8% of the respondents. This is followed by 16.8% of the
respondents who access social media at least once a week. 3.2% of the respondents also access
social media platforms at least once a month while 2.3% did not provide any responses
Table 12: What social media platforms do you often see feminism contents?
Twitter 117 30.2
Whatsapp 49 12.7
Instagram 159 41.1
Facebook 51 13.2
Total 387 100
According to the responses, feminism contents could be seen mostly on Instagram (411%). This
is followed by 30.2% of the respondents who chose twitter. Respondents who see feminism
55
contents on Whatsapp are 12.7% of the respondents while 13.2% of the respondents see such
contents on Facebook. 2.8% of the respondents did not also provide responses.
Table 13: Do you read feminism content on social media?

Variables Frequency Percentage
Yes 227 58.7
No 79 20.4
Maybe 70 18.1
Total 387 100
Table 13 shows that 58.7% of the respondents read feminist contents on social media while 20.4%
do no read feminist contents on social media. 18.1% of the respondents are not sure as they chose
‘maybe’ while 2.1% do not know. There is also 0.8% of respondents who did not provide any
responses. These shows that most respondents come across feminists contents on social media.
Table 14: Feminism is it about hate speech against men?

Yes 48 12.4
No 222 57.4
Maybe 76 19.6
Total 387 100
The research instrument also collected responses on feminism being about hate speech against
men. The results show that 57.4% of the respondents are of the opinion that feminism is not about
hate speech against men while 12.4% responded in the affirmative that feminism is about hate
speech against men. 19.6% of the respondents chose ‘maybe’ while 8.3% do not know if feminism
is about hate speech against men.
56
Table 15: How does Social Media portray feminism?

Negatively 163 42.1
Positively 162 41.9
Both 6 1.6
Others 40 10.3
Total 387 100
The results show that the portrayal of feminists on social media is close between negative and
positive. 42.1% of the respondents are of the opinion that social media platforms portray feminism
negatively while 41.9% of the respondents are of the opinion that social media portrays feminism
positively. 1.6% of the respondents opted for both negative and positive portrayal of feminism on
social media while 4.1% accounted for missing response.
From the responses, therefore, it can be concluded that the portrayal of feminism on social media
is both negative (163 respondents) and positive (162 respondents) i.e., there are both positive and
negative contents about feminism on the social media.
4.4 RSEARCH QUESTION 2: What are the perceptions of feminism by social media users?
In order to ascertain the perceptions of feminism by social media users, respondents were asked
on how often they read contents of feminism on social media as seen in Table 16.
Table 16: How often do you read content of feminism on social media?
Daily 84 21.7
Weekly 161 41.6
Monthly 97 25.1
Rarely 19 4.9
Total 387 100
57
The results from Table 16 show that 41.6% of the respondents read feminism contents daily on
social media. 21.7% of the respondents read social media contents daily while 25.1% read feminist
contents monthly. 4.9% of the respondents rarely read feminist contents. This shows that most
respondents read feminists contents weekly.
Table 17: What do you consider as the general perception of feminism by social media users?
Promotion of hate speech 99 25.6
Promotion of equality 274 70.8
Others 5 1.3
Total 387 100
The results as seen in Table 17 show that 70.8% of the respondents consider the general perception
of feminism by social media users to be promotion of equality between men and women 25.6% of
the respondents are of the general perception of feminism as promotion of hate speech. 1.3% of
the respondents have other perceptions such as promotion of violence against men etc. while 2.3%
of the respondents did not provide any response.
The responses show that most responses come across feminist contents on social media weekly
while the general perception of feminism is mostly promotion of equality.
4.5 RESEARCH QUESTION 3: What is the Feminist profile in social media narrative of
popular female novelists?
To answer the research question three, the research instrument solicited responses on how often
popular female feminist novelists post about feminism on the social media, the results are seen in
Table 14;
Table 18: How often do feminist novelists post about feminism on the social media?
Daily 144 37.2
Weekly 140 36.2
58
Monthly 71 18.3
Total 387 100
The results show that 37.2% of the respondents are of the opinion that feminist novelists post
feminist contents daily while 36.2% chose weekly. 18.3% of the respondents also ticked monthly
while 8.3% of the respondents did not provide any response. Therefore, it can be deduced that
most of the respondents view feminist posts from feminists’ novelists both daily and weekly.
Furthermore, in order to ascertain the feminist profile in social media narrative of the popular
novelists, responses were collected on the attitude of feminists on social media. The results are
seen in Table 14;
Table 19: What do you think of the attitude of the feminists on social media?
Variables Frequency Percentage
Promote hate speech against 104 26.9
men
Promote equality 244 63
Others 23 5.9
Total 387 100
Table 19 shows that the attitude of most feminists on social media is to promote equality while a
smaller percentage, 26.9%, is to promote hate speech against men. Other responses such as
feminists being rude and unyielding make up 5.9% of the respondents while 4.1% of the
respondents did not respond.
Hence, it can be concluded that feminist profile in social media narrative mostly accounts for the
promotion of equality between men and women.
59
4.6 Discussion of Findings
This study seeks to analyze perception of feminism in the social media narrative of female
novelists in Nigeria. Based on three research questions; how is feminism portrayed on social
media? What is the perception of feminism by social media users? What is the feminist profile in
social media narrative of popular female novelists? The research instrument was administered and
responses were collected and analyzed.
The results show that most of the respondents view feminism as a front for equality of both genders
while others see it as an acknowledgement of women being unfairly treated in the society. Also,
more than half of the respondents are of the view that men can also be feminists while gender
equality appeared to be most important feminism issues respondents are interested in followed by
cases of rape and sexual assault.
Feminism also appears to be prevalent on social media platforms especially on Instagram followed
by Twitter. The results then showed that the portrayal of feminism on social media is both positive
and negative.
Furthermore, the results show that most respondents come across feminism contents on social
media platforms weekly and the general perception of feminism by social media users is on the
promotion of equality while less than 30% of the respondents are of the perception that feminism
is the promotion of hate speech.
Finally, it was also seen that female novelists post about feminism on social media often. The
responses further showed that the attitude of most feminist on social media is to seek the promotion
of gender equality. Therefore, the feminist profile in the social media narrative on feminism in
Nigeria is the promotion of equality between men and women as seen in the results presented.
60
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter summarized the research work, it includes a summary, conclusions, recommendations
and suggestions for further studies.
5.1 SUMMARY
This research was perception of feminism in the social media narrative of female novelists in
Nigeria.
In achieving this, the specific aims and objectives of this study are; to determine how feminism is
portrayed on social media, to determine the perception of feminism by social media users and to
determine the feminist profile in social media narrative of popular female novelists.
This process required the survey research method which used questionnaires as the research
instrument, based on the stratified random sampling technique that covered 400 respondents in
two study areas; Caleb University, Imota and Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu.
From the 387 copies of questionnaires retrieved at the end of the survey, it was revealed that the
feminist profile in the social media narrative on feminism in Nigeria is mainly hinged on the
promotion of equality between men and women.
5.2 CONCLUSION
Based on the data derived from the survey, it can be concluded that;
61
a. Feminism is mainly viewed as a front for equality of genders and an acknowledgement of
women unfair treatment in the society.
b. Feminism portrayal on the social media is negative.
c. Feminism is an active discourse on social media platforms.
d. The feminist perception in the social media is the promotion of equality.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the results got at the end of the research, the following are recommendations;
a. Popular female novelists should take up the responsibility of educating people on the core
concepts of feminism.
b. Social media administrators can also change the narrative by censoring posts by feminists
that contain hate speech.
c. Feminists (Male and Female) could also endeavour to inform themselves of the various
socio-cultural factors like religion and family that can shape individuals perception of both
genders and their rights.
d. Feminist should endeavor to be good representative of the course they represent.
e. There is also need to further the cause of gender equity in public places, religious and
institutions.
f. Feminist novelists can also portray feminism positively other than negative portrayals
available in the mainstream.
g. Feminist novelists should also look to engage male audience more.
62
5.4 AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Since the study was limited to two study areas, future researchers can include other study areas
including post graduates or secondary school students so as to be able to make a larger
generalization. For the sake of advancement of knowledge, further researchers can investigate
more on some other psychosocial factors such as family, tribe socio-economic status and its
influence on the perception of feminism.
63
5.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Adichie, N.C. (2014). We all should be Feminists (1st ed.). London, Great Britain: HarperCollins
Publishers.
Adichie, N.C. (2007). Half of a Yellow Sun (1st ed.). London, Great Britain: HarperCollins
Publishers.
Atta, S. (2005). Everything Good will Come (1st ed). Northampton, Massachusetts, USA:
Interlink Publishing Pub Group, Inc.
Akin- Aina, S. (2011). Beyond an epistemology of bread, butter, culture and power: Mapping the
African feminist movement.
Anderson, M. (2015). Men catch up with women on overall social media use. Pew Research
Center.
Arias, E. (2016). How Does Media Influence Social Norms? A Field Experiment on the Role of
Common Knowledge. Working Paper.
Aronson, P. (2003). Feminists or postfeminists? Young women‘s attitudes toward feminism and
gender relations. Gender & Society.
Bamidele (2012). Research Methodology and Precision Journalism, (1st Ed), Research for
Badr, H. (2015). Limitations of the Social Media Euphoria in Communication Studies.
Egypt / Arab World.
Bailard, C. S. (2012). A field experiment on the Internet‘s effect in an African election: Savvier
citizens, disaffected voters, or both? Journal of Communication.
Barakso, M., & Schaffner, B. F. (2006). Winning coverage: News media portrayals of the
women's movement, 1969-2004. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics.
Begley, S. (2014). Ironic Misandry: Why Feminists Pretending to Hate Men Isn‘t Funny
Time.Com.
Beullens, K., Roe, K., & Van den Bulck, J. (2012). Music video viewing as a marker of driving
after the consumption of alcohol. Substance Use & Misuse.
64
Bronstein, C. (2005). Representing the third wave: Mainstream print media framing of a new
feminist movement. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly.
Briggs, A., & Burke, P. (2010). Social history of the media: from Gutenberg to the Internet.
Polity.
Butler.M. (2011).Clicktivism, Slacktivism, Real Activism Cultural Codes of American Activism in
the Internet Era (Doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado).
Carlson, L. (2010). Marketing and communications in social media: fruitful dialogues, strong
brand, increased sales, Kreafon.
Castells, M. (2007). Communication, power and counter-power in the network society.
International Journal of Communication, vol. 1.
Cheruiyot, K. K. (2010). The geography of the intra-national digital divide in a developing
country: A spatial analysis of regional-level data in Kenya. (Doctoral dissertation).
Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity rethinking the concept.
Gender & society.
Cottle, S. (2011). Media and the Arab Uprisings of 2011: Research notes. Journalism.
Chuma-Udeh, N. (2007). Echoes of a New Dawn. Onitsha, Anambra State: Malchjay Nigeria
Ltd.
Darrah, K. (2011). Media Portrayal of the Feminist Movement: The Seattle Times Coverage
from 1970 to 1979 (Doctoral dissertation, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Wash.).
Dellicarpini, M. (2000). Gen.Com: Youth, civic engagement, and the new information
environment. Political Communication.
Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (2005). ―The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research‖ pg.
1-32 in the Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, Norman K. Denzin &Yvonne .S.
Lincoln eds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Drake, J. & Heywood, L. (Eds.) (1997). Third wave agenda: Being feminist, doing feminism.
Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Dux, M., & Simic, Z. (2008). The great feminist denial. Melbourne Univ. Publishing.
Eltantawy, N. & Wiest, J.B. (2011). Social media in the Egyptian revolution: reconsidering
resource mobilization theory ‘, International Journal of Communication.
Enjolras, B., Steen-Johnsen, K., &Wollebæk, D. (2013). Social media and mobilization to offline
demonstrations: Transcending participatory divides? New Media & Society.
Ephraim, P. E. (2013). African youths and the dangers of social networking: a culture-centered
approach to using social media. Ethics and information technology.
Eskola, J., &Suoranta, J. (1998). Introduction to qualitative research. Tampere: Vastapaino.
65
Frith, H. (2000). Focusing on sex: Using focus groups in sex research. Sexualities.
Gamble, S. (2001). Post feminism. In S. Gamble (Ed.), The Routledge companion to feminism
and post feminism. London, England and New York, NY: Routledge.
Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of
Communication.
Glasser, C. K. (1997). Patriarchy, mediated desire, and Chinese magazine fiction. Journal of
Communication.
Griffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Hall, E. J., & Rodriguez, M. S. (2003). The myth of post feminism. Gender and Society, 17(6),
878-902.
Hampton, K. N., Rainie, L., Lu, W., Dwyer, M., Shin, I., & Purcell, K. (2014). Social media and
the spiral of silence. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
Hawkesworth, M.E. (2006). Globalization and Feminist Activism. Rowman & Littlefield.
Hinchcliffe, D. (2006). The state of web 2.0, Web Services Journal.
Hooks, b. (1984). Feminist Theory from Margin to Center. New York, NY: South End Press.
Hooks, b. (2000). Feminism Is for Everybody: Passionate politics. Cambridge, Mass.: South
End Press.
Hopper, P. (2007). Understanding cultural globalization, Polity Press, Cambridge.
Hunt, N. R. (1989). Placing African Women's History and Locating Gender. Social History.
Jenkins, H., Puroshotma, R., Clinton, K., Weigel, M. & Robison, A.J. (2005). Confronting the
challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st
Century.www.newmedialiteracies.org.
.Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American psychologist.
Onabanjo (2010): Foundations of Communication Research, Lagos, Nigeria: Sibon Books
Limited, Lagos.
Ogbonna, S., Alaka, O., & Alao, A. (2016). Foundation of communication research. Mushin,
Lagos State. Charitext Press
66
Williamson, A. (2011, April). Driving civic participation through social media. Input of NECE
European workshop: Perspectives of Web 2.0 for Citizenship Education in Europe, Brno,
Czech Republic.
Wipper, A. (1975). The MaendeleoYaWanawake Organization: The Co-Optation of Leadership.

African Studies Review.
Wyche, S. P., Forte, A., &Yardi-Schoenebeck, S. (2013a, April). Hustling online: understanding
consolidated Facebook use in an informal settlement in Nairobi. In Proceedings of the Sigchi
conference on human factors in computing systems, Paris, France. ACM Press.
Xinari, C. (2010). From new woman to ―new‖ feminism: Some thoughts on the postfeminist
era. Journal of critical studies in business & society.
Zhang, W. (2013). Redefining youth activism through digital technology in Singapore. The
International Communication Gazette.
INTERNET SOURCES
Abd Manaf, A., Harries, M. & Clare, M. (2011). Understanding Quality of Marriage among
Malays. Retrieved 23/10/2019 from:
https://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/understanding-quality-of-marriage-among-
malays
Answers Africa. (n.d). Retrieved on 29/08/2019 from:
https://answersafrica.com
Bisignani, D. (2015). History of Feminism in the U.S.: The First Wave. The Gender Press.
Retrieved on 20/10/2019 from:
https://genderpressing.wordpress.com/2015/01/23/feminism-the-first-wave-2/
Boguhn, A. (2014). You Don‘t Have to Hate Women to Be Sexist: Everyday Ways You May Be
Sexist Without Knowing It. Retrieved on 20/10/2019 from:
http://everydayfeminism.com/2014/12/everyday-ways-you-may-be-sexist-
Clemdon, E. S. (2017). Feminism in Sefi Atta’s Everything Good will Come and Chimamanda
Adichie‘s half of a Yellow Sun. Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:
https://eduproject.com.ng/linguistics/feminism-in-sefi-attas-everything-good-will-come-and-
chimamanda-adichies-half-of-a-yellow-sun/index.html
Chelette, .B. (2018). How does Media Portray Feminism? Retrieved on 29/08/2019 from:
https://thewom enscode.com/how-does-media-portray-feminism/
67
Communications Authority of Kenya. (2014). Quarterly sector statistics report. First quarter of the
financial year 2014/15. Retrieved on 20/10/2019 from:
http://www.ca.go.ke/images/downloads/STATISTICS/Sector%20Statistics%20Report
Danish Trade Union & Council for International Development Cooperation. (2014) Labour
Market Profile-Kenya. Retrieved on 21/10/2019 from:
http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/sites/default/files/uploads/public/PDF/LMP/lmp_ke_
Edochie, .C. (2010). 5 Questions with Sefi Atta. Retrieved on 30/08/2019 from:
https://sycamorereview.com/2010/07/18/5-questions-with-sefi-atta/amp/
Esheriff. (@eshriff237). (June 8, 2018). Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:
https://twitter.com/esheriff237/status/1004879825968828416?s=12
Eke, .I. (@ivysoclassy). (June 8, 2018). Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:
https://twitter.com/ivysoclassy/status/1004991988897402880?s=12
History and Theory of Feminism. (n.d). Retrieved on 30/08/2019 from:
http://www.gender.cawater-info.net/knowledge_base/rubricator/feminism_e.htm
Kaplan, M. &Blakely, J. (2009) The Business and Culture of Social Media. Retrieved on
22/10/2019 from: http://www.learcenter.org/pdf/businessandcultureofsocialmedia.pdf
Michelle Potter. (2017).The Etymology of Feminism. Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:

https://medium.com/media-theory-and-criticism-2017/the-etymology of-feminism-4ca3caec9ad0
McLeod, S. (2018). Simply Psychology: Questionnaire. Retrieved on 23/10/2019 from:
http://www.simplypschology.org/questionnaires.html
Saxena, V. (2015). What is the Yamane simple calculation? Retrieved on 23/10/2019 from:
68
https://www.quora.com/What-is-Yamane-sample-calculation
Super Summary (n.d) Retrieved on 23/10/2019 from:
http://www.supersummary.com/we-should-all-be-feminists/summary/
(Twitter, n.d). In Business Dictionary Online. Retrieved on 28/08/2019 from:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Twitter.html
Uzuegbu, .O.J. (2014). Female Writers in Modern African Literature: A Study of Sefi Atta’s
Everything Good Will Come and Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo’s Roses and Bullets. Retrieved on
30/08/2019 from:
https://oer.unn.edu.ng/download/female-writers-in-modern-african literature-a-study-of-sefi-
attas-everything-good-will-come-and-akachi-adimora-ezeigbos-roses-and-bullets
(Validity, 1828).In Merriam Webster Online. Retrieved on 10/11/2019 from:

https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus
World Wide Web Foundation. (2015). Women‘s Rights Online: Translating Access into
Empowerment. Retrieved on 24/10/ 2019 from;
http://webfoundation.org/wp-
69
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
CALEB UNIVERSITY, IMOTA, LAGOS

COLLEGE OF ARTS, SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
QUESTIONNAIRE
Dear respondent,
I am a Remi Oluwoye, a final year student of the above named institution and department, currently
conducting a research titled: “Perception of Feminism in the Social Media Narrative of Female
Novelist in Nigeria”. The purpose of this research is to determine the influence of social media
narrative on feminism in Nigeria. I kindly ask for your honest responses to these questions in order
to successfully conduct this research. Your responses will be treated with strict confidence and no
identity will be revealed whatsoever as you will remain anonymous.
Thank you.
INSTRUCTIONS
Please provide answers to the following questions by ticking the box beside your choice answer.
SECTION A – Demographic Data
1. Sex: Male ( ) Female ( )
2. Age: 15-18 ( ) 19- 21 ( ) 22-30 ( ) Above 30 ( )
3. Marital Status: Single ( ) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) Others (please
specify)………………………………………………..
70
4. Educational Qualification: WASSCE/NECO ( ) H.N.D/O.N.D ( ) BS.C. ( ) MSC.

( ) PHD. ( ) Others (please specify)………………………………………………………….
5. Occupation: Artisan ( ) Teacher/Lecturer ( ) Doctor ( ) Lawyer ( ) Engineer ( )
Others (please specify)………………………………………………..
SECTION B
1. What does “feminism” mean to you?
(a) Equality of both genders (b) Hating/being aggressive/discriminating against men
(c)Acknowledging women get unfair treatment in many areas in life and society (d)
Others (please specify)………………………………………………..
2. Do you consider yourself a feminist?

(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) (c.) Maybe ( ) (d.)I don’t know ( )
3. Do you think only women are feminist?

(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) (c.) Maybe ( ) (d.)I don’t know ( )
4. What are the issues in feminism that are of interest to you?

(a) Gender equality (b) Job discrimination (c) Cases of rape or sexual assault (d)
Others (please specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
5. How regularly do you access social media?

(a.) At least once a day ( ) (b.) At least Once a week ( ) (c.) At least once a month ( )
6. What social media platforms do you often see feminism content?

(a) Twitter (b) Whatsapp (c) Instagram (d) Facebook
7. Do you read feminism content on social media?

(a.) Yes ( ) (b.) No ( ) (c.) Maybe ( ) (d.) I don’t know ( )
8. Is feminism about hate speech against men?

(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) (c.) Maybe ( ) (d.) I don’t know ( )
9. How often do you read content of feminism on social media?

(a.) Daily ( ) (b.) Weekly ( ) (c.) Monthly ( )
10. How often do female feminist novelists post about feminism on the social media?
71
(a.) Daily ( ) (b.) Weekly ( ) (c.) Monthly ( )
11. How does social media portray Feminism?

(a) Negatively (b) Positively (c) Others (please specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………
12. What do you consider as the general perception of feminism by social media users?
a) Promote hate speech against men (b) Promote equality (c) Others (please specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
13. What do you think of the attitude of feminist on social media?

(a) Promote hate speech against men (b) Promote equality (c) Others (please specify)
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
72
73

Oluwaremilekun Oluwoye's Final Year Project PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Oluwaremilekun Oluwoye's Final Year Project PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Oluwaremilekun Oluwoye's Final Year Project PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PERCEPTION OF FEMINISM IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA NARRATIVE OF FEMALE

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS

SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR NOSA OWENS-IBIE

materials directly used in the research are appropriately attributed.

matriculation number 16/3332 of department of Mass Communication, College of Social and

(B. Sc.) degree in Mass Communication.

Prof. Nosa Owens-Ibie Date

Dr. Olumuyiwa Olamade Date

External Examiner Date

my amazing sister, Bunmi Oluwoye and my mentor.

Sharon, Tomilola and Tomiwa.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.0 BACKGROUNG OF THE STUDY 1

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 3

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY 4

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 4

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 5

1.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 5

1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TERMS 5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 28

2.3 EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK 30

2.4 GAPS TO FILL 37

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESTATEMENT OF RESEARCH QUESTION 42

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 42

3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY 43

3.4 STUDY SAMPLES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE 44

3.5 SOURCE OF DATA 46

3.6 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE 46

3.7 INSTRUMENT VALIDATION 47

3.8 RELIABILITY OF DATA 47

3.9 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS 47

3.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 48

4.1 DISTRIBUTION AND RETRIEVAL OF QUESTIONNAIRE 50

4.2 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 50

4.3 RESEARCH QUESTION ONE 53

4.4 RESEARCH QUESTION TWO 57

4.5 RESEARCH QUESTION THREE 58

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.4 AREA OF FURTHER RESEARCH 63

Table 1: Distribution and retrieval of questionnaires

Table 2: Gender of respondents

Table 3: Age of respondents

Table 4: Respondents’ marital status

Table 5: Respondents’ educational qualifications

Table 6: Respondents’ occupation

Table 7: What does feminism mean to you?

Table 8: Do you consider yourself a feminist?

Table 9: Do you think only women are feminists?

Table 11: How regularly do you access social media?

Table 13: Do you read feminism content on social media?

Table 15: How does social media portray feminism?

1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

meaning advocacy of women’s rights (The Etymology of Feminism, 2017, para.1-2).

Feminism, n.d para.2).

of performing traditional morning rites.

using literary work. (Uzuegbu, 2014 p.11).

in length. (Business Dictionary online, n.d).