Submitted by: Habib Ahmed Bhatti

Submitted to: Sir Usman Zahid

Roll Number: BSEET01183015-A

Semester: 𝟔𝒕𝒉

Subject: Industrial Drives & PLC

Lab Report

Department of Technology
The University of Lahore
1-Km, Raiwind Road, Lahore
 Lab #1
Introduction of Lab equipment’s and lab manual.
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of Lab equipment’s and lab
manual.
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about equipment’s, DC drives its types,
AC drives its types and PLC based equipment’s.
Theory
1. Introduction of Lab Manual:

This Lab manual discusses following types of experiments:

 DC Drives Experiment’s.
 AC Drives Experiment’s.
 PLC Based Experiment’s.

2. Introduction to DC drives and its types.

3. Control and drives parameter setting of DC drives.
4. Control of DC Servo/Stepper motor using DC drives.
5. Introduction to AC drives and its types.
6. Control and drives parameter setting of AC drives.
7. Control of AC Servo/Single or three phase motor using AC drives.
8. Introduction to PLC and its types.
9. Introduction to ladder logic complaining software.

10. Write a ladder logic based program to contest multiple I/O’s.

11. Write a ladder logic based program to read multiple sensors
and actuator
12. Ladder Programming to control DC drives.
13. Ladder Programming to control stepper motor using DC drives
14. Ladder Programming to control AC drives.
15. Ladder programming to control servo motor using servo drives.

16. Introduction to HMI and Programming.

17. Communication b/w HMI and programming
18. Design and industrial trainer of PLC.
Introduction of Lab Equipment’s:
 AC Drives.

 DC Drives.

 AC and DC Drive system.

 DC and stepper motor.

 AC servo motor.

 DC servo motor.

 Sensor and Actuators.

 PLC

 Pneumatic and hydraulic actuators and control.

Review Questions
Question 1
Define servo motor?
A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of
angular or linear position, velocity and acceleration.[1] It consists of a suitable motor
coupled to a sensor for position feedback. It also requires a relatively sophisticated
controller, often a dedicated module designed specifically for use with servomotors.
Question 2
Define sensors?
A sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem whose purpose is to detect events
or changes in its environment and send the information to other electronics, frequently
a computer processor. A sensor is always used with other electronics.

Question 3
Define Actuator?
An actuator is a part of a device or machine that helps it to achieve physical movements
by converting energy, often electrical, air, or hydraulic, into mechanical force. Simply
put, it is the component in any machine that enables movement
 Lab #2
Introduction of DC drives and its types.

Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of DC drives and its
different types.
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the DC drives and also its types.
DC Drives:
DC drive is basically a DC motor speed control system that supplies the voltage to the
motor to operate at desired speed. Earlier, the variable DC voltage for the speed control
of an industrial DC motor was generated by a DC generator. DC drive technology is
efficient, reliable, cost effective, operator friendly and relatively easy to implement. DC
drive provides many advantages over AC drives, especially for regenerative and high
power applications. DC drives have been widely used in industrial drive applications in
order to offer very precise control. Of course, variable frequency drives (VFDs) and AC
motors are now offering an alternative to DC drives and motors, but there are many other
applications where DC drives are extensively used including crane and hoists, elevators,
spindle drives, winders, paper production machines, crushers, etc. due to the advantages
of DC drives.
Types of DC Drives:
 Single Phase DC drives
 Three Phase DC drives
 DC-DC converter drives
Single Phase DC drives:
Single Phase drives are used in low power application in range upto 100KW
Three Phase DC Drives:
Three Phase DC drive are used in High power application in range 100KW to 500KW

DC-DC converter Drive:

The converter are also connected in series and parallel to produce12-pulses output. The
power range can go as high a 1 MW for high-power drives. These drive generally
requires harmonic filters and their size could be quite bulky
Review Questions
Question 1
Define Single Phase DC drives?

Single Phase drives are used in low power application in range upto 100KW

Question 2
Define Three Phase DC drives?

Three Phase DC drive are used in High power application in range 100KW to 500KW
 Lab#3
Control and drives parameter setting of dc drive
DC Drives Parameter Setting/Programming
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of Control and drives
parameter setting of dc drive DC Drives Parameter Setting/Programming
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the Controling and drives
parameter setting of dc drive DC Drives Parameter Setting/Programming
Theory
Programming parameter’s associated with DC drives are expensive & similar to those
used in conjunction with AC drives. An operator’s panel is used for programming of
control setup & operating parameters for a drive
Procedure
DC Drives Parameter Setting / Programming
 SPEED SETPOINT. This signal is derived from a closely regulated fixedvoltage
source applied to a potentiometer. ...
 SPEED FEEDBACK INFORMATION. ...
 CURRENT FEEDBACK INFORMATION. ...
 MINIMUM SPEED. ...
 MAXIMUM SPEED. ...
 IR COMPENSATION. ...
 ACCELERATION TIME. ...
 DECELERATION TIME.

SPEED SETPOINT:
This signal is derived from a closely regulated fixed voltage source applied to a
potentiometer. The potentiometer has the capability of accepting the fixed voltage
& dividing it down to any value,
SPEED FEEDBACK INFORMATION:
In order to "close the loop" & control motor speed accurately, it's necessary to
provide the control with a feedback signal related to motor speed. The standard
method of doing this in a simple control is by monitoring the armature voltage &
feeding it back into the drive for comparison with the input set point signal.
CURRENT FEEDBACK INFORMATION:
The second source of feedback information is obtained by monitoring the motor
armature current. This is an accurate indication of the torque required by the load.
MINIMUM SPEED:
The typical minimum speed adjustment is from 0 to 30 percent of motor base
speed.
MAXIMUM SPEED:
The maximum speed adjustment sets the maximum speed attainable.
IR COMPENSATION:
IR compensation is a method used to adjust for the drop in a motor's speed
due toarmature resistance. This helps stabilize the motor's speed from a no-
load to full- load condition. IR compensation should be applied only to
voltage-regulated drives.

ACCELERATION TIME:
As its name implies, the acceleration time adjustment will extend or shorten the
amount of time for the motor to go from zero speed up to the set speed.

DECELERATION TIME:
The deceleration time adjustment allows loads to be slowed down over an
extended period of time.
Review Questions
Question 1
Define SPEED SETPOINT?
This signal is derived from a closely regulated fixed voltage source applied to a
potentiometer. The potentiometer has the capability of accepting the fixed voltage&
dividing it down to any value
Question 2
Define ACCELERATION TIME?
As its name implies, the acceleration time adjustment will extend or shorten the
amount of time for the motor to go from zero speed up to the set speed.
 Lab #4
Control/operating of DC Stepper/Servo Motor using DC Drive
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of Control/operating of
DC Stepper/Servo Motor using DC Drive
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the controlling/operating of
DC stepper motor
Controlling Modes of DC Drives:
 Position Control Mode
 Speed Control Mode
 Torque Mode Control Mode
Position Control:
It is accomplished through a control switch or via an electronic drive controller and
entails reversing the polarity of the armature connections, which can be done with
a push button control of mechanically interlocked forward and reverse buttons or
programming the electronic drive controller for reverse operation
Speed Control:
A D.C. motor’s speed can be varied throughout the continuous speed range by
varying the armature current by using a resistor or an electronic drive controller
Torque Mode Control:
When power is removed from a motor, it begins to coast to a stop and is time-
dependent upon the inertia and the load. Coasting is impractical in some
applications because the motor would take too long to stop. In these cases, a brake
can be used to stop the motor quickly. There are four types of brakes: mechanical,
magnetic clutch/eddy current, dynamic and regenerative brakes. Dynamic braking
is accomplished by dissipating the kinetic energy in the armature across a braking
resistor. During stopping, while the armature is rotating, it acts as a generator. The
dynamic braking resistor becomes this generator’s load, thus, a transfer of energy
occurs from the armature (acting as a generator) into the resistor, which dissipates
the energy in the form of heat, causing the motor to slow down.
Operating Modes:
The Operating modes of stepper motor using DC drives are as follows.
 Motoring
 Regenerative Breaking
 Dynamic Breaking
 Plugging
 Four Quadrants
Motoring:
The arrangement of motoring are shown in fig 1. Back emf 𝐸𝑔 is less han supply
voltage 𝑉𝑎 . Both armature and field current are positive. The motor develops
torque to meet the load current.

Fig.1.Motoring
Regenerative Breaking:
The arrangement for regenerative braking are shown in fig 2. The motor act as a
generator and develop an induced voltage 𝐸𝑔 , 𝐸𝑔 is must be greater than the supply
voltages 𝑉𝑎 . The armature current is negative, but the field current is positive. The
kinetic energy of the motor is returned to the supply.

Fig.2.Regenrative Braking
A series motor is usually connected as a self-excited generator. For self-excitation,
it is necessary that the field current aids the residual flux. This is normally
accomplished by reserving the armature terminals or the field terminals.
Dynamic braking:
The arrangement shown in fig 3 are similar to those of regenerative braking, except
the supply voltage 𝑉𝑎 is replaced by a braking resistance. The kinetic energy of the
motor is dissipated in R.

Fig.3.Dynamic braking

Plugging:
Plugging is a type of braking. The connections for plugging are shown in fig 4. The
armature terminals are reserved while running. The supply voltage 𝑉𝑎 and the
induced voltage 𝐸𝑔 act in a same direction. The armature current is reversed,
thereby producing a braking torque. The field current is positive. For a series
motor, either the armature terminals or field terminals should be reserved, but not
both.

Fig.4.Plugging
Four Quadrants:
Fig 5 shows the polarity of a supply voltage 𝑉𝑎 , back emf 𝐸𝑔 , and armature current
𝐼𝑎 for separately excited motor. In forward motoring (quadrant I), 𝐸𝑔 , 𝑉𝑎 , 𝐼𝑎 are all
positive. The torque and speed are also positive in this quadrant.
During forward braking (quadrant II), the motor runs in the forward direction and
the induced emf 𝐸𝑔 continues to be positive. For the torque to be negative and the
direction of the energy flow to reserve, the armature current must be negative. The
supply voltage 𝑉𝑎 should be kept less than 𝐸𝑔 .
In reverse motoring (quadrant III), 𝐸𝑔 , 𝐼𝑎 , 𝑉𝑎 are all negative. The torque and speed
are also negative in this quadrant. To keep the torque negative and the energy
flows from the force to the motor. The back emf 𝐸𝑔 must satisfy the condition
|𝑉𝑎 | > |𝐸𝑔 |. The polarity of 𝐸𝑔 can be reserved by changing the direction of field
current or by reserving the armature terminals.
During reverse braking (quadrant IV), the motor run in the reverse direction
𝐸𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑎 continue to be negative. For the torque to be negative and the energy to
flow from the motor to the source, the armature current must be positive. The
induced emf 𝐸𝑔 must satisfy the condition |𝑉𝑎 |<|𝐸𝑔 |

Fig.5. Four Quadrant

Review Questions
Question 1
Define regenerative motoring?
The arrangement for regenerative braking are shown in fig 2. The motor act as a
generator and develop an induced voltage 𝐸𝑔 , 𝐸𝑔 is must be greater than the supply
voltages 𝑉𝑎 . The armature current is negative, but the field current is positive. The
kinetic energy of the motor is returned to the supply.

Question 2
Define plugging?
Plugging:
Plugging is a type of braking. The connections for plugging are shown in fig 4. The
armature terminals are reserved while running. The supply voltage 𝑉𝑎 and the
induced voltage 𝐸𝑔 act in a same direction. The armature current is reversed,
thereby producing a braking torque. The field current is positive. For a series
motor, either the armature terminals or field terminals should be reserved, but not
both.
 Lab #5
Introduction of AC drives and its types.

Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of AC drives and its
different types.
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the AC drives and also its
types.
Theory
AC Drives:
When it comes to the a word “AC drive” at several occasions, it is a device that
controls number of rotations of motors, which are for example loaded in air
conditioners, refrigerators and fluorescent lights and even elevators or bullet trains.
In case of air conditioner, AC drive changes the number of rotation of motors, and
you may be able to stay at comfortable temperature by adjusting the air volume.
Because an AC drive controls the rotation not to rotate motors more than
necessary, it contributes to energy saving and CO₂ reduction.

Fig.1.AC Drives
Types of AC Drives:
 Induction Motor Drives
 Synchronous Motor Drives
 Stepper Motor Drives
 Linear Induction Motor Drives
Induction Motor Drives:
Induction motors or asynchronous motors are often called the workhorses of the
industry. This is the outcome of lot of advantages of the induction motor over other
technologies. The motor has a low maintenance need. The only parts that can fray
are the bearings. If the induction motor isn't used excessively (to high voltage,
current or mechanical impact) the bearings determine the life cycle of the induction
motor. There is unlike a DC-motor no need for carbon brushes to commute the
current. The induction motor can be made easily and with that the price is rather
low compared with other technologies. The induction motor doesn't use a
combustion process to deliver power so there is no need to (re)fuel or air. The
cooling can be integrated so that the induction motor can work in a hermetically
sealed environment for instance under water. The induction motor has a high
power to weight ratio. Another advantage is the high start torque so that starting
under load is possible. Since the development of variable frequency drives and
vector control systems, this induction motor is also easy to control in speed and
torque. This gave a lot of opportunities in automation processes

Fig.2.Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor

Synchronous Motor Drives:

The speed of a synchronous motor can be controlled by varying frequency of its
source. Due to non-availability of economical variable frequency sources, this
method of speed control was not used in the past. Synchronous motors were
mainly used in constant speed applications. The development of semiconductor
variable frequency sources such as inverters and cyclo converters has allowed their
use in variable speed applications such as high power and high-speed compressors,
pumps and stone crushers. Medium and large size synchronous motors find
application in paper and cement industry. Higher efficiency and inherent ability to
correct power factor can make synchronous motors economically attractive in spite
of higher capital cost. The Synchronous motors can be classified into six types:
 Cylindrical Rotor Motors
 Salient-Pole Motors
 Reluctance Motors
 Permanent-magnet Motors
 Switched Reluctance Motors
 Brushless Dc and Ac motors

Fig.3.Synchronous Drive
Stepper Motor Control:
A stepper motor is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that converts digital
pulses into mechanical shaft rotation. Every revolution of the stepper motor is
divided into a discrete number of steps, in many cases 200 steps, and the motor
must be sent a separate pulse for each step. The stepper motor can only take one
step at a time and each step is the same size. Since each pulse causes the motor to
rotate a precise angle, typically 1.8°, the motor's position can be controlled without
any feedback mechanism. As the digital pulses increase in frequency, the step
movement changes into continuous rotation, with the speed of rotation directly
proportional to the frequency of the pulses. Step motors are used every day in both
industrial and commercial applications because of their low cost, high reliability,
high torque at low speeds and a simple, rugged construction that operates in almost
any environment. Stepper motors are fall into two types;
 Variable-reluctance stepper motor
 Permanent-magnet stepper motor
Linear Induction Motor:
A linear induction motor (LIM) is an alternating current (AC), asynchronous linear
motor that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but is
typically designed to directly produce motion in a straight line. Characteristically,
linear induction motors have a finite primary or secondary length, which generates
end-effects, whereas a conventional induction motor is arranged in an endless loop.
Despite their name, not all linear induction motors produce linear motion; some
linear induction motors are employed for generating rotations of large diameters
where the use of a continuous primary would be very expensive.
As with rotary motors, linear motors frequently run on a three-phase power supply
and can support very high speeds. However, there are end-effects that reduce the
motor's force, and it is often not possible to fit a gearbox to trade off force and
speed. Linear induction motors are thus frequently less energy efficient than
normal rotary motors for any given required force output.

Fig.4.Linear Induction Motor

Review Questions
Question 1
Define Variable-reluctance stepper motor?
The principle of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor is based on the property of the
flux lines which capture the low reluctance path. The stator and the rotor of the
motor are aligned in such a way that the magnetic reluctance is minimum.
Question 2
Define Permanent-magnet stepper motor?
Permanent magnet stepper motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and
operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator
electromagnets. ... The maximum torque the motor can hold in place with rated DC
current, is the rated holding torque.
 Lab #6

Control and drives parameter setting of AC drive

AC Drives Parameter Setting / Programming
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of Control and drives
parameter setting of dc drive DC Drives Parameter Setting/Programming
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the Controling and drives
parameter setting of dc drive DC Drives Parameter Setting/Programming
Theory
Programming parameter’s associated with DC drives are expensive & similar to
those used in conjunction with AC drives. An operator’s panel is used for
programming of control setup & operating parameters for a drive
Procedure
DC Drives Parameter Setting / Programming
 SPEED SETPOINT. This signal is derived from a closely regulated fixed
voltage source applied to a potentiometer. ...
 SPEED FEEDBACK INFORMATION. ...
 CURRENT FEEDBACK INFORMATION. ...
 MINIMUM SPEED. ...
 MAXIMUM SPEED. ...
 IR COMPENSATION. ...
 ACCELERATION TIME. ...
 DECELERATION TIME.

SPEED SETPOINT:
This signal is derived from a closely regulated fixed voltage source applied to
a potentiometer. The potentiometer has the capability of accepting the fixed
voltage& dividing it down to any value,

SPEED FEEDBACK INFORMATION:

In order to "close the loop" & control motor speed accurately, it's necessary to
provide the control with a feedback signal related to motor speed. The standard
method of doing this in a simple control is by monitoring the armature voltage
 &feeding it back into the drive for comparison with the input set point signal.

CURRENT FEEDBACK INFORMATION:

The second source of feedback information is obtained by monitoring the
motor armature current. This is an accurate indication of the torque required by
the load.

MINIMUM SPEED:
The typical minimum speed adjustment is from 0 to 30 percent of motor base
speed.

MAXIMUM SPEED:
The maximum speed adjustment sets the maximum speed attainable.
IR COMPENSATION:
IR compensation is a method used to adjust for the drop in a motor's speed
due toarmature resistance. This helps stabilize the motor's speed from a no-
load to full- load condition. IR compensation should be applied only to
voltage-regulated drives.

ACCELERATION TIME:
As its name implies, the acceleration time adjustment will extend or shorten the
amount of time for the motor to go from zero speed up to the set speed.

DECELERATION TIME:
The deceleration time adjustment allows loads to be slowed down over an
extended period of time.
Review Questions
Question 1
Define SPEED SETPOINT?

In cybernetics and control theory, a setpoint (also set point or set-point) is the
desired or target value for an essential variable, or process value of a system.
Departure of such a variable from its setpoint is one basis for error-controlled
regulation using negative feedback for automatic control. The set point is usually
abbreviated to SP, and the process value is usually abbreviated to PV.
Block diagram of a negative feedback system used to maintain a setpoint in the
face of a disturbance using error-controlled regulation. Positive error means
feedback is too small (controller calls for an increase), and negative error means
feedback is too large (controller calls for a decrease).
Question 2
Define ACCELERATION TIME?
In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with
respect to time. Accelerations are vector quantities. The orientation of an object's
acceleration is given by the orientation of the net force acting on that object.
Unit of acceleration is the metre per second per second (m/s2). Definition. The
snewton is that force which, when acting on a mass of one kilogramme, produces
an acceleration of one metre per second per second.
Formula
\overline{a} = \frac{v - v_0}{t} = \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t}
\overline{a} = average acceleration
v = final velocity
v_0 = starting velocity
t = elapsed time
 Lab #7
Control/operating of AC Servo/single three phase Motor using AC
Servo Drive
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of Control/operating of
AC Stepper/Servo Motor using AC Drive
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the controlling/operating of
AC servo motor
Theory

One of the key features of single-level and mixed mode power conversation
processing, architecture is the integration of the gate drive. Protection, and sensing
functions. The integration is implemented in a high voltage integrated circuit
(HVIC) technology. Multifunction sensing chips that integrate current and voltage
feedback with both amplitude and phase information can simplify the design of ac
or brushless DC (BLDC) motor drives. Monolithic integration of the gate drive,
protection, linear current sensing, and more function in a single piece of silicon
using HVIC technology is the ultimate goal. Thus, all power conversion functions
for robust, efficient, cost effective, compact motor drive should ideally be
integrated in modular fashion with appropriately defined serial communication
protocol for local or remote control. The three major parts of this fig are as follows.
 Control Block
 Drive Block
 Power Block
Control Block
The control block has a multiple option in it like discrete input the discrete port is
available which take discrete input and provide discrete output and for analog input
the analog I/O’s port is available which take analog input whereas for serial comm
the serial communication port is available. This block also has a microcontroller in
it which is used for the controlling purpose.

Drive Block:
Drive block is simply used for the purpose of Drive the circuit. Drive blocks
contains OPTs coupling which is used for the purpose of coupling, it also contains
PWM AD/DA DIO, Current feedback IC’s and also have Gate Drive and
Protection.
Power Block:
Power block consists of two parts:
 Three Phase Bridge Rectifier
 Inverter
Three Phase Bridge Rectifier:
The full-wave three-phase uncontrolled bridge rectifier circuit uses six diodes, two
per phase in a similar fashion to the single-phase bridge rectifier. A 3-phase full-
wave rectifier is obtained by using two half-wave rectifier circuits. The advantage
here is that the circuit produces a lower ripple output than the previous half-wave
3-phase rectifier as it has a frequency of six times the input AC waveform.
Also, the full-wave rectifier can be fed from a balanced 3–phase 3-wire delta
connected supply as no fourth neutral (N) wire is required. Consider the full-wave
3-phase rectifier circuit below.

As before, assuming a phase rotation of Red-Yellow-Blue (VA – VB – VC) and

the red phase (VA) starts at 0o. Each phase connects between a pair of diodes as
shown. One diode of the conducting pair powers the positive (+) side of load,
while the other diode powers the negative (-) side of load.
Diodes D1 D3 D2 and D4 form a bridge rectifier network between phases A and B,
similarly diodes D3 D5 D4 and D6 between phases B and C and D5 D1 D6 and
D2 between phases C and A.
Thus diodes D1 D3 and D5 feed the positive rail and depending on which one has
a more positive voltage at its anode terminal conducts. Likewise, diodes
D2 D4 and D6 feed the negative rail and whichever diode has a more negative
voltage at its cathode terminal conducts.
Then we can see that for three-phase rectification, the diodes conduct in matching
pairs giving a conduction pattern for the load current of: D1-2 D1-6 D3-6 D3-
6 D3-4 D5-4 D5-2 and D1-2 as shown.
Inverters:
180–Degree Conduction:
The ideal circuit is drawn before it can be divided into three segments namely
segment one, segment two & segment three and we will use these notational in the
later section of the article. Segment one consists of a pair of switches
S1&S2, segment two consists of switching pair S3 &S4 and segment
three consists of switching pair S5&S6. At any given time both the switches in the
same segment should never be closed as it leads to battery short circuits failing the
entire setup, so this scenario should be avoided at all times.
Now let’s start switching sequence by closing the switch S1 in the first segment of
the ideal circuit and let’s name the start as 0º. Since the selected time of conduction
is 180º the switch S1 will be closed from 0º to 180º.
But after 120º of the first phase, the second phase will also have a positive cycle as
seen in the three-phase voltage graph, so switch S3 will be closed after S1. This S3
will also be kept closed for another 180º. So S3 will be closed from 120º to
300º and it will be open only after 300º.Similarly, the third phase also has a
positive cycle after 120º of second phase positive cycle, as shown in the graph at
the beginning of the article. So the switch S5 will be closed after 120º S3 closing
i.e. 240º. Once the switch is closed it will be kept closed for coming 180º before
being opened, with that the S5 will be closed from 240º to 60º (second cycle). Up
until now, all we did was assume that’s the conduction is done once the top layer
switches are closed but for current flow from the circuit must be completed. Also,
do remember that both switches in the same segment should never be in the closed
at the same time, so if one switch is closed then another must be open.
For satisfying the above both conditions, we will close S2, S4& S6 in a
predetermined order. So only after S1 gets opened we will have to close S2.
Similarly, S4 will be closed after S3 gets opened at 300º and in the same way S6
will be closed after S5 completes the conduction cycle. This cycle of switching
between switches of the same segment can be seen below figure. Here S2
followsS1, S4 follows S3 and S6 follows S5.
Review Questions
Question 1
Define three phase Ac drives?
Three-phase motors are a type of AC motor that is a specific example of a
polyphase motor. These motors can be either an induction motor (also called an
asynchronous motor) or a synchronous motor. The motors consist of three main
components – the stator, the rotor, and the enclosure.

Question 2
Define three phase bridge rectifier?
A 3 Phase rectifier is a device which rectifies the input AC voltage with the use of
3 phase transformer and 3 diodes which are connected to each of the three phases
of transformer secondary winding.
 Lab #8
Introduction of PLC and types of PLC
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of PLC and its types.
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the PLC and its types
Theory:
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) also known as Industrial Computer is the
major component in the industrial automation sector. Due to its robust
construction, exceptional functional features like PID controllers, sequential
control, timers and counters, ease of programming, reliable controlling capabilities
and ease of hardware usage – this PLC is more than a special-purpose digital
computer in industries as well as in other control-system areas. Different types of
PLCs from vast number of manufacturers are available in today’s market.
What is a PLC System?
PLC is invented to replace traditional control panels whose operations depend on
the electromagnetic logic relays that are based on timers in industrial control
systems. PLCs are capable of monitoring the inputs continuously from sensors and
producing the output decisions to operate the actuators based on the program.
Every PLC system needs at least these three modules:
 CPU Module
 Power Supply Module
 One or more I/O Module
CPU Module:

CPU Module of PLC

CPU module consists of a central processor and its memory. The Processor is
responsible for doing all the necessary computations and data processing by
accepting the inputs and producing appropriate outputs. Memory includes both
ROM and RAM memories. The ROM memory contains the operating system,
driver and application programs, whereas the RAM stores user-written programs
and working data. These PLCs use retentive memory to save user programs and
data when the power supply breaks or fails and to resume the execution of a user
program ones the power is restored. Thus, these PLCs do not need any use of a
keyboard or monitor for reprograming the processor each time. The retentive
memory can be implemented with the use of long-life batteries, EEPROM
modules and flash memory methods.
Power Supply Module
These modules supply the necessary power required for the whole system by
converting the available AC power to DC power required for CPU and I/O modules.
The output 5V DC drives the computer circuitry, and in some PLCs 24DC on the
bus rack drives few sensors and actuators.
I/O Modules

PLC I/O Modules

Input and output modules of the PLC allow to connect the sensors and actuators to
the system to sense or control the real-time variables such as temperature, pressure
flow, etc. These I/O modules vary in type, range, and capabilities and some of
these include the following:
Digital I/O module:
These are used to connect the sensors and actuator that are of digital in nature, i.e.,
only for switch ON and OFF purpose. These modules are available on both AC and
DC voltages and currents with variable number of digital inputs and outputs.
Analog I/O modules:
These are used to connect the sensors and actuators that provide the analog electric
signals. Inside these modules, analog to digital converter is used to convert the
analog to processor understandable data, i.e., digital data. This module’s number of
channel’s availability is also can be varied depending on the application,
Communication Interface Modules:
These are intelligent I/O modules that exchange the information between a CPU
and communication network. These are used for communicating with other PLCs
and computers that are placed at a remote or far away distance.
Types of PLCs
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are integrated as either single or modular
units.
An integrated or Compact PLC is built by several modules within a single case.
Therefore, the I/O capabilities are decided by the manufacturer, but not by the user.
Some of the integrated PLCs allow to connect additional I/Os to make them
somewhat modular.

Integrated or Compact PLCs

A modular PLC is built with several components that are plugged into a common
rack or bus with extendable I/O capabilities. It contains power supply module,
CPU and other I/O modules that are plugged together in the same rack, which are
from same manufacturers or from other manufacturers. These modular PLCs come
in different sizes with variable power supply, computing capabilities, I/O
connectivity, etc.

A modular Types of PLC

Modular PLCs are further divided into small, medium and large PLCs based on the
program memory size and the number of I/O features.

Small, Medium and Large sized Types of PLCs

Small PLC is a mini-sized PLC that is designed as compact and robust unit
mounted or placed beside the equipment to be controlled. This type of PLC is used
for replacing hard-wired relay logics, counters, timers, etc. This PLC I/O module
expandability is limited for one or two modules and it uses logic instruction list or
relay ladder language as programming language.
Medium-sized PLC is mostly used PLC in industries which allows many plug-in
modules that are mounted on backplane of the system. Some hundreds of input/
output points are provided by adding additional I/O cards – and, in addition to
these – communication module facilities are provided by this PLC.
Large PLCs are used wherein complex process control functions are required.
These PLCs’ capacities are quite higher than the medium PLCs in terms of
memory, programming languages, I/O points, and communication modules, and so
on. Mostly, these PLCs are used in supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) systems, larger plants, distributed control systems, etc.
Applications of PLC
The below figure shows the operation of a PLC for a simple process control
application wherein the conveyor belt operation, the number of boxes’
measurement and other control operations are performed by the PLC. Here, the
position sensor and other sensor outputs are connected to the input module of the
PLC, and from the output modules – a motor is controlled. When the sensors are
activated, then the CPU of the PLC reads the inputs, and correspondingly
processes them according to the program and produces the outputs to operate the
motor so that the conveyor is controlled.

Applications of PLC
PLC and SCADA combination of control structure is mostly used in industrial
automation sector and also in electrical utility systems like power transmission and
distribution systems. Programmable sequential switching operation is another
major application area of the PLC.
Review Questions
Question 1
Define PLC?
A programmable logic controller or programmable controller is an industrial
computer that has been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing
processes, such as assembly lines, machines, robotic devices, or any activity that
requires high reliability, ease of programming, and process fault diagnosis.
Question 2
Write Applications of PLC?
The PLC is also commonly used in civil applications such as in washing machines
and for controlling traffic signals and elevators. They are used in many industries
to monitor and control production processes and building systems.
 Lab #9
Introduction of ladder logic compiling software
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of ladder logic
compiling software.
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the ladder logic compiling
software.
Theory:
What is Ladder Logic?
Ladder logic (also known as ladder diagram or LD) is a programming language
used to program a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller). It is a graphical PLC
programming language which expresses logic operations with symbolic notation.
Ladder logic is made out of rungs of logic, forming what looks like a ladder –
hence the name ‘Ladder Logic’.
Ladder logic is mainly for bit logic operations, although it is possible to scale a
PLC analog input. Even simple bit logic operations can be beneficial in more
advanced PLC programs and SCADA system programming.
The people or the organization that sets the standards for ladder logic is PLC Open.
Ladder logic is not only a programming language for PLC’s. It is one of the
standardized PLC programming languages. This simply means that ladder logic is
described in a standard. That standard is called IEC 61131-3. But for now, the only
thing you need to know is that there is a standard describing this programming
language.
Introduction to Ladder Logic:
To get you started with ladder logic there are a few things you should know about the programming
language. You should know why ladder logic was invented because then it will be much easier for
you to understand it. Especially if you have prior experience with electrical circuits and relays or
some boolean logic.

Invented for Technicians:

Ladder logic is a graphical programming language which means that instead of text, the
programming is done by combining different graphic elements. These graphic elements are called
symbols.
One of the smart things about the ladder logic symbols is that they are made to look like electrical
symbols. Ladder logic was originally created for technicians, electricians, and people with an
electrical background. People who are used to look at electrical diagrams and schematics.
Take a look at the symbols and see if you think they look familiar.
Just as in electrical diagrams ladder logic have symbols for contacts and relays (which are called
coils in ladder logic). The symbols may look a little different from the ones you find in electrical
schematics, but they have almost the same functions.
Relay Ladder Logic:
As I said before ladder diagrams can look a lot like electrical schematics going
vertical. Most people learn to draw ladder logic diagrams this way – by building
them as electrical schematics. But there are some differences. This is why I will
advise you to learn it in a different way.
I will explain this way in this ladder logic tutorial.
The problem here is that electrical control systems and the PLC work in different
ways. Here are the biggest differences:
The PLC takes one ladder logic line (rung) and executes that and then goes to the
next line
In electrical systems, multiple lines (current pathways) can be executed (activated)
at the same time
With these crucial differences in mind, let’s get into it. It’s time to learn some
ladder logic.
Ladder Logic Programming:
Figure 1 shows electrical continuity, when SW1 is closed, the current will flow
from L-1 to L-2 and energize the load.

Figure 1: Hardwire switch-lamp circuit

Even though PLC ladder logic was modeled after the conventional relay ladder,
there is no electrical continuity in PLC ladder logic. PLC ladder rungs should have
logical continuity in order for the output to be energized. PLC ladder program uses
familiar terms like “rungs”, “normally open” and “normally closed” contacts, as
illustrated in table .
 Table: Fundamental contacts and coils instructions of PLC ladder logic
programming
In a ladder logic program, there is no physical conductor that carries the input
signal through to the output. Each rung in the ladder diagram is a program
statement. This program statement consists of a condition or sometimes conditions,
along with some type of action. Inputs are the conditions, and the action, or output,
is the result of the conditions. As in case of physical wiring hardware devices
connected in series or parallel, PLC also combines ladder program instructions in
series or parallel. However, rather than working in series or parallel, the PLC
combines instructions logically using logic operators like: AND, OR, and NOT.
These operators are used to combine the instructions on a PLC rung to make the
outcome of each rung either true or false.
AND-logic function:
A series circuit of two switches can be regarded as AND logic function. In figure
4, both switches (SW1 AND SW2) must be closed to have electrical continuity to
energize the output (Light-1). Hence the keyword here is AND.

Figure 2: AND-logic function

The circuit shown in figure 3 represents a schematic ladder logic rung for the circuit shown
in figure 2. When switch 1 and switch 2 are closed the output coil will be energized.
 Figure 3: Ladder logic diagram for AND function
1. OR-logic function:
A parallel circuit of two switches can be regarded as OR logic function. In figure 4,
one of the switches (SW1 OR SW2) must be closed to have electrical continuity to
energize the output (Light-1). Hence the keyword here is OR.

Figure 4: OR-logic function

The circuit shown in figure 5represents a schematic ladder logic rung for the circuit
shown in figure 4. If switch 1 or switch 2 is closed the output coil will be
energized.

Figure 5: Ladder logic diagram for OR function

2. The PARALLEL NOT logic function:

Figure 6 shows ladder diagram for the parallel NOT logic function and its truth
table is illustrated in table.
 Figure 6: Ladder logic diagram for parallel NOT function

Table : Parallel NOT logic function truth table

Review Questions
Question No 1:
Define OR-Logic function?
The Logic OR Function function states that an output action will become TRUE if
either one “OR” more events are TRUE, but the order at which they occur is
unimportant as it does not affect the final result. For example, A + B = B + A.
Question No 2:
Define AND-Logic function?
The Logic OR Function function states that an output action will become TRUE if
either one “OR” more events are TRUE, but the order at which they occur is
unimportant as it does not affect the final result. ... Thus a 2-input (A B) Logic OR
Gate has an output term represented by the Boolean expression of: A+B = Q.
 Lab #10
Write a Ladder logic based program to contest multiple I/O’s
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to write a Ladder logic based program to contest
multiple I/O’s
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the ladder logic based program
to contest multiple I/O’s
Theory:
What is Ladder Logic?
Ladder logic (also known as ladder diagram or LD) is a programming language
used to program a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller). It is a graphical PLC
programming language which expresses logic operations with symbolic notation.
Ladder logic is made out of rungs of logic, forming what looks like a ladder –
hence the name ‘Ladder Logic’.
Ladder logic is mainly for bit logic operations, although it is possible to scale a
PLC analog input. Even simple bit logic operations can be beneficial in more
advanced PLC programs and SCADA system programming.
The people or the organization that sets the standards for ladder logic is PLC Open.
Ladder logic is not only a programming language for PLC’s. It is one of the
standardized PLC programming languages. This simply means that ladder logic is
described in a standard. That standard is called IEC 61131-3. But for now, the only
thing you need to know is that there is a standard describing this programming
language.
Relay Ladder Logic:
As I said before ladder diagrams can look a lot like electrical schematics going
vertical. Most people learn to draw ladder logic diagrams this way – by building
them as electrical schematics. But there are some differences. This is why I will
advise you to learn it in a different way.
I will explain this way in this ladder logic tutorial.
The problem here is that electrical control systems and the PLC work in different
ways. Here are the biggest differences:
The PLC takes one ladder logic line (rung) and executes that and then goes to the
next line
In electrical systems, multiple lines (current pathways) can be executed (activated)
at the same time.
With these crucial differences in mind, let’s get into it. It’s time to learn some
ladder logic.
Ladder Logic Programming:
Figure 1 shows electrical continuity, when SW1 is closed, the current will flow
from L-1 to L-2 and energize the load.

Figure 1: Hardwire switch-lamp circuit

Even though PLC ladder logic was modeled after the conventional relay ladder,
there is no electrical continuity in PLC ladder logic. PLC ladder rungs should have
logical continuity in order for the output to be energized. PLC ladder program uses
familiar terms like “rungs”, “normally open” and “normally closed” contacts, as
illustrated in table.

Table: Fundamental contacts and coils instructions of PLC ladder logic

programming
In a ladder logic program, there is no physical conductor that carries the input
signal through to the output. Each rung in the ladder diagram is a program
statement. This program statement consists of a condition or sometimes conditions,
along with some type of action. Inputs are the conditions, and the action, or output,
is the result of the conditions. As in case of physical wiring hardware devices
connected in series or parallel, PLC also combines ladder program instructions in
series or parallel. However, rather than working in series or parallel, the PLC
combines instructions logically using logic operators like: AND, OR, and NOT.
These operators are used to combine the instructions on a PLC rung to make the
outcome of each rung either true or false.
1. AND-logic function:
A series circuit of two switches can be regarded as AND logic function. In figure
4, both switches (SW1 AND SW2) must be closed to have electrical continuity to
energize the output (Light-1). Hence the keyword here is AND.

Figure 2: AND-logic function

The circuit shown in figure 3 represents a schematic ladder logic rung for the
circuit shown in figure 2. When switch 1 and switch 2 are closed the output coil
will be energized.

Figure 3: Ladder logic diagram for AND function

2. OR-logic function:
A parallel circuit of two switches can be regarded as OR logic function. In figure 4,
one of the switches (SW1 OR SW2) must be closed to have electrical continuity to
energize the output (Light-1). Hence the keyword here is OR.
 Figure 4: OR-logic function
The circuit shown in figure 5represents a schematic ladder logic rung for the circuit
shown in figure 4. If switch 1 or switch 2 is closed the output coil will be
energized.

Figure 5: Ladder logic diagram for OR function

3. The PARALLEL NOT logic function:
Figure 6 shows ladder diagram for the parallel NOT logic function and its truth
table is illustrated in table .

Figure 6: Ladder logic diagram for parallel NOT function

 Table : Parallel NOT logic function truth table
Review Questions
Question No 1:
Define Ladder Logic?
Ladder logic is a programming language that creates and represents a program
through ladder diagrams that are based on circuit diagrams. It is mainly used in
developing programs or software for programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
which are used in industrial applications.
The language evolved from originally being a method for documenting the design
and construction of relay racks used in manufacturing and process control, with
each relay rack represented by a symbol on the ladder diagram that has connections
to devices below them that look like vertical rails. The relay symbols themselves
look like rungs in a ladder.
Question No 2:
Define Relay Ladder Logic?
Relay logic is a method of implementing combinational logic in electrical control
circuits by using several electrical relays wired in a particular configuration.
Contents. 1 Ladder logic; 2 Relay logic design; 3 Applications; 4.Other kinds
of relay apply to designing a relay logic diagram: 5. Define the process to be
controlled.
 Lab #11
Write a Ladder logic based program to read multiple
sensors and actuators
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to write a Ladder logic based program to read
multiple sensors and actuators.
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the ladder logic based program
to read multiple sensors and actuators.
Theory:
Wireless sensor networks provide a means for an easy to-deploy sensing and
communication infrastructure making them ideal solutions for Cyber-Physical
Systems (CPS) like those found in building and home automation. Nodes equipped
with sensors and actuators can be configured to perform tasks ranging from
lighting control to HVAC regulation. Modern building HVAC systems are
hundreds of sensor and actuator elements that communicate over expensive wired
buses. Oftentimes the interactions between these elements must be customized
based on unique building configuration parameters or user requirements.
A. Language Primitives:
A SAN-Logic system is described by boolean variables related to each other using
a combination of AND (*), OR (+) and NOT (!) logical operators. The language
supports timed asynchronous sequential logic [1]. Sequential logic, as opposed to
combinational logic, can feedback outputs from logical expressions to capture state
machines. Signals are used as a means to convey variable values from one
expression to another. A signal combines the current value of a variable with timing
parameters that govern its transmission. Even though the transmission of signals can be delayed,
upon reception, they are processed immediately and hence exhibit an asynchronous quality.
There are three types of signals: sensor signals, actuator signals, and intermediate signals. Sensor
and actuator signals generate the input and output of the system and hence require a description
of physical capabilities. This includes sensor/actuator type, the MAC address of the physical
node and a description of how the transducer should process the input or output data. In our logic
specification, variables are defined in the following format: #define variable_name
{actuator|sensor|int} < MAC address, type, operator, [params ] >
The type of the sensor indicates which existing low-level driver should be called
to generate the signal. This requires parameters that define attributes like the
thresholding mechanisms, threshold types, sampling rates, etc. Below is a typical
description of a sensor and an actuator: define x actuator <0x4a,AC_PWR,sock0>
define a sensor <0x03,LIGHT,gt,100>.
B.Logic Designer:
As described above, one possible method of describing a system is through a text
description of sensors, actuators and their interdependencies. However, to achieve
our goal of a truly user-friendly design framework, a graphical interface is
desirable. One option is to design a layout tool that provides a gate-level drawing
of circuits. This approach is commonly used in industrial automation to configure
PLCs using Relay Ladder Logic (RLL). RLL is a graphical diagram-based
language that connects components like elements in a circuit that can be captured
as a subset of SAN-Logic. Figure 4 shows an example ladder logic program that
describes the same interactions shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The vertical rail on
the left side of the figure represents power that flows to a ground rail on the right
side of the figure. Each horizontal rung represents a logical expression and can be
captured using boolean algebra. In RLL, the rungs are executed sequentially such
that any value computed in a higher rung is available in lower rungs. Ladder logic
can include delay blocks, but capturing intricate timing properties remains quite
difficult. Never-the-less, ladder logic is a simple initial interface for modeling
many sensor-actuator networks and is quite popular. Other possible approaches
include using hardware description languages like VHDL and Verilog. Procedural
and behavioral descriptions that can be synthesized into structural components can
be directly mapped to a SAN-Logic system description.
C. Logic Synthesizer:
There are two primary logic synthesis steps that are used to optimize designs for
particular QoS properties before deployment. The first is a logic synthesis step that
operates on the input logic without any notion of topology. During this stage, the
boolean expressions are manipulated to factor out common terms and reduce the
number of literals and operators in an expression. Next, a synthesis step occurs that
uses topology information collected from the sensor network. At this point,
additional Boolean operations can be performed, but the primary challenge is
associated with mapping signals to the topology. We discuss possible QoS metrics
of interest and detail various optimization techniques in Section IV.
D. Verification:
Verification and error checking are critical when designing complex distributed
systems that interact with the environment. In this section, we briefly summarize
the most common model checking techniques which exist in logic synthesis tools
that can be used to analyze SAN-Logic systems. One of the most fundamental
verification requirements is the ability to determine if one circuit is functionally
identical to another which is called equivalence checking. Equivalence checking
can be used to perform sanity checks on optimized components, or to compare
functionality of a circuit with that of a reference design. Though out of the scope of
this paper, techniques have been developed for both combinational as well as
sequential equivalence checking in the area of formal methods. The use of Binary
Decision Diagrams [4] (BDDs) provides a compact and efficient representation of
binary logic that aids in many of these algorithms. When a full representation of
the desired system is not available, test vector simulation can be used to verify a
subset of output values. Simulation of SAN-Logic without timing delays is
possible in most logic synthesizer packages. Minor adjustments would be required
to simulate the system given different transmit queue policies. Reach ability
analysis can be used to determine if all states in a sequential logic system can be
reached.
E. Logic Engine:
The logic engine is responsible for arbitrating all input and output signals based on
the given logic expressions and sensor-actuator configurations.
Review Questions:

Question 1
Define Logic Engine?
The logic engine is responsible for arbitrating all input and output signals based on
the given logic expressions and sensor-actuator configurations.
Question 2
Define Actuators?
An actuator is a part of a device or machine that helps it to achieve physical
movements by converting energy, often electrical, air, or hydraulic, into
mechanical force. Simply put, it is the component in any machine that enables
movement
 Lab #12
Write a Ladder programming to control DC drives
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to write a Ladder programming to control DC
drives.
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the ladder programming to
control DC drives.

Procedure:
The installed in the previous section’s motor-control-circuits work fine, but the
motor will run only as long as each push button switch is held down.
If we wanted to keep the motor running even after the operator takes his or her
hand off the control switch types (es), we could change the circuit in a couple of
different ways: we could replace the push button switches with toggle switches, or
we could add some more relay logic to “latch” the control circuit with a single,
momentary actuation of either switch.
Let’s see how the second approach is implemented since it is commonly used in
industry:

When the “Forward” pushbutton is actuated, M1 will energize, closing the

normally-open auxiliary contact in parallel with that switch.
When the pushbutton is released, the closed M1 auxiliary contact will maintain
current to the coil of M1, thus latching the “Forward” circuit in the “on” state.
The same sort of thing will happen when the “Reverse” pushbutton is pressed.
These parallel auxiliary contacts are sometimes referred to as seal-in contacts, the
word “seal” meaning essentially the same thing as the word latch.
However, this creates a new problem: how to stop the motor! As the circuit exists
right now, the motor will run either forward or backward once the corresponding
pushbutton switch is pressed and will continue to run as long as there is power.
To stop either circuit (forward or backward), we require some means for the
operator to interrupt power to the motor contactors. We’ll call this new
switch, Stop:

Now, if either forward or reverse circuits are latched, they may be “unlatched” by
momentarily pressing the “Stop” pushbutton, which will open either forward or
reverse circuit, de-energizing the energized contactor, and returning the seal-in
contact to its normal (open) state.
The “Stop” switch, having normally-closed contacts, will conduct power to either
forward or reverse circuits when released.
So far, so good. Let’s consider another practical aspect of our motor control
scheme before we quit adding to it.
If our hypothetical motor turned a mechanical load with a lot of momentum, such
as a large air fan, the motor might continue to coast for a substantial amount of
time after the stop button had been pressed.
This could be problematic if an operator were to try to reverse the motor direction
without waiting for the fan to stop turning.
If the fan was still coasting forward and the “Reverse” pushbutton was pressed, the
motor would struggle to overcome that inertia of the large fan as it tried to begin
turning in reverse, drawing excessive current and potentially reducing the life of
the motor, drive mechanisms, and fan.
What we might like to have is some kind of a time-delay-relays function in this
motor control system to prevent such a premature startup from happening.
Let’s begin by adding a couple of time-delay relay coils, one in parallel with each
motor contactor coil.
If we use contacts that delay returning to their normal state, these relays will
provide us a “memory” of which direction the motor was last powered to turn.
What we want each time-delay contact to do is to open the starting-switch leg of
the opposite rotation circuit for several seconds, while the fan coasts to a halt.

If the motor has been running in the forward direction, both M1 and TD1 will
have been energized.
This being the case, the normally-closed, timed-closed contact of TD1 between
wires 8 and 5 will have immediately opened the moment TD1 was energized.
When the stop button is pressed, contact TD1 waits for the specified amount of
time before returning to its normally-closed state, thus holding the reverse
pushbutton circuit open for the duration so M2 can’t be energized.
When TD1 times out, the contact will close and the circuit will allow M2 to be
energized if the reverse pushbutton is pressed.
In like manner, TD2 will prevent the “Forward” pushbutton from energizing
M1 until the prescribed time delay after M2 (and TD2) have been de-energized.
The careful observer will notice that the time-interlocking functions of TD1 and
TD2 render the M1 and M2 interlocking contacts redundant. We can get rid of
auxiliary contacts M1 and M2 for interlocks and just use TD1 and TD2‘s contacts,
since they immediately open when their respective relay coils are energized, thus
“locking out” one contactor if the other is energized.
Each time-delay-relays will serve a dual purpose: preventing the other contactor
from energizing while the motor is running and preventing the same contactor
from energizing until a prescribed time after motor shutdown.
The resulting circuit has the advantage of being simpler than the previous
example:

Review Questions:
Question No 1:

Write a program for water level pump?

 Lab #13
Write a Ladder programming to control DC drives
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to Write a Ladder programming to control DC
drives
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the ladder programming to
control DC drives
Procedure:
The hardware used in this experiment is illustrated in Fig. 4. The PLC system is
plugged into the computer’s communication port. The interface or the driver board
includes the signal conditioning circuits as shown in Fig. 2. It receives control
pulses from PLC’s Output Module. These pulses are conditioned on the driver
board and then applied to the individual phases of the stepper motor. Switches X1
and X2 on the Input Module are used for controlling the motion of the stepper
motor. X1 controls the direction of rotation and X2 controls the speed. The
operator can select one of two operating speeds. Each speed is associated with the
state of the X2 switch and is under software control.

System Software
In PLC environment, a program is implemented in what is known as the Ladder
Logic Diagram. It is called that because its shape resembles a ladder. The inputs
which are received from the Input Module are called contacts and the outputs
called coils are on the Output Module of the PLC system. The outputs are used to
drive various output devices. Each rung of the Ladder Logic Diagram contains
contacts on the left side and coils on the right side. The PLC syntax is quite
extensive including arithmetic, logical, branching and other operations. In this
experiment, however, Step Ladder instructions are used to provide the sequential
control to drive the stepper motor. The step ladder is a special relay function that
provides a sequential activation of various output elements. Step Ladder uses state
relays as illustrated in the following partial diagram. The two vertical lines in the
Ladder Logic Diagram are called rails representing the two sides of the power
supply AC or DC. The PLC used in this experiment is DC based. On each Scan
Cycle the system reads the state of the input devices that are connected to the Input
Module and updates the Input Image Table in memory. Then it executes user’s
program (Ladder Logic Diagram also located in memory) and updates the Output
Image Table. As the last step, the system activates or deactivates various output
devices that are connected to the Output Module of the PLC. The Scan Cycle is
repeated several thousand times each second.

When X4 is turned ON, its contact is energized and SET S105 state relay
instruction is executed. SET is the command that activates the state relay. This
action energizes the STL S105 contact applying power to Y6 output, thus
activating its coil. Y6 is a terminal that is located on the Output Module of the PLC
and if an external device was connected to Y6, then power would be applied to that
device.
Should X5 be energized at this time, that will activate S105 state relay. This action
will reset S104, de-energizing contact STL S104 and at the same time energizing
STL S105 contact thus turning OFF Y6 and turning ON Y7. This property of the
state relay where an energized state relay turns OFF the preceding state relay is
very useful in sequential applications. The use of the Step Ladder instructions
results in an efficient program with fewer programming steps.
A quick inspection of Ladder Logic Diagram shown in Fig. suggests that it has
four sectors of programming activity. Each sector is enabled by an STL contact
which in turn is energized by the corresponding state relay. The four sectors
resemble each other in format and the type of task that they perform. Perhaps a
more descriptive view of the tasks performed by each sector is revealed by the
flow chart shown in Fig. 6.
Turning to the flow chart of Fig. 6, the reader will note that the operation begins by
turning ON the Start switch. When it is ON, state relay S100 is activated and the
corresponding contact STL S100 is energized. This enables the first sector where
two input toggle switches are tested to determine their state. X1 controls the
direction of rotation, clock-wise if ON and counter-clockwise if it is turned OFF.
X2, on the other hand determines the motor speed. When X2 is ON, a 1 second
timer T200 is activated and when it is OFF a 20 msec timer T201 is activated.
Assuming that X1 is ON, power is applied to the first phase winding I 1 of the
stepper motor, since YO coil is wired to drive I 1, for the duration of time as
determined by X2 and one of the two timers. The 1 second timer sets the slow
speed while the 20 msec timer, the fast speed. The ON state of X1 initiates the
clock-wise rotation. Regardless of which timer is activated, at the end of its timing
cycle the corresponding contact (T200 or T201) is energized and the state relay
S101 is activated. This action results in contact STL S101 being energized thus
enabling the second sector and disabling the preceding sector.
Assuming that the state of the switches X1 and X2 has not changed, two tasks will
be executed in this sector. First, the second phase I 2 will be powered (power was
removed from the first phase when S101 was activated disabling the first sector).
Second, S102 state relay will be activated, thus disabling the present (second sector
and enabling the third).
This sequential action continues until in the fourth sector S100 state relay is set and
the Return command is encountered. The sequence is now repeated from the first
sector and will repeat indefinitely until the Run switch is set to OFF. The flow
chart highlights the individual steps of the clock-wise and counter clock-wise
motions. Clock-wise on the right-hand side and counter-clockwise on the left-hand
side.
 Review Questions
Question 1

Define Ladder programming?

Ans Ladder logic is used to develop software for programmable logic controllers
(PLCs) used in industrial control applications. The name is based on the
observation that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical rails
and a series of horizontal rungs between them.

Question 2
Define DC Drives?
Ans: DC drive is basically a DC motor speed control system that supplies the
voltage to the motor to operate at desired speed by using an induction motor,
the DC generator was driven at a fixed speed and by varying the field of the
generator, variable voltage was generated.
 Lab #14
Write a Ladder programming to control AC drives
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to Write a Ladder programming to control AC
drives
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the ladder programming to
control AC drives
Procedure:
Theory:
Often in the industry, need arises for controlling the speed of a 3 Phase Induction
Motor. Delta’s AC motor drives are able to efficiently control motor speed,
improve machine automation and save energy. Each drive in its variable frequency
drive (VFD) series is designed to meet specific application needs.
AC drives accurately control torque, smoothly handle increased load and provide
numerous custom control and configuration operating modes. A VFD can be used
to vary speed, direction and other parameters of a 3-phase motor. We use the 2-
wire method for controlling the speed and direction of the motor.
PLC Program
Network 1 :

In this Network 1, we are checking whether the VFD is ready to start. This signal
will come when all the conditions are healthy as well as safety and power
feedbacks are active.
Network 2:
In the Network 2, When start button is pressed, VFD Drive_DO bit will be set, if
Ready to Start and No Error will be there.
Network 3:

This is the stop logic, When stop button is pressed it will reset the
Drive_DO bit.

Network 4

In this Network 4, this logic is required for safety as soon as Drive_DO bit will set
and if any case VFD will not operate due to any fault then after predefined wait
time, here we considered it as Run_FB_Time, it will reset the Drive_DO bit and
generate Error.
This Error you can acknowledge from the SCADA after resolving the error from
the field side.

Network 5
In this Network 5, If the VFD is taking more current and gives overload error, then
it will reset Drive_DO bit and generate Error.
This Error you can acknowledge from the SCADA after resolving the error from
the field side.

Network 6:

This is the speed selection Digital output, if you select speed input as a local then it
will not activate Speed Selection bit resulting Speed_DO absent and if you select
speed input as a remote then it will activate Speed Selection bit resulting
Speed_DO present.
Review questions

Question no 1

Solve example from net?

Ans:

Question no 2

Define AC drives?
Ans: An AC drive is a device used to control the speed of an electrical motor in
order to: enhance process control. Reduce energy usage and generate energy
efficiently. Decrease mechanical stress on motor control applications. Optimize the
operation of various applications relying on electric motors.
 Lab #15
Write a Ladder programming to control Servo motor using AC drives
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to Write a Ladder programming to control AC drives
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the ladder programming to
control AC drives
Procedure:
A PLC has to start a Motor when the Start button is pressed. It has three interlocks
which are Motor Vibration High, Overload & Motor Temperature High.If any of
the interlocks are activated then PLC has to stop the motor immediately.PLC has to
stop the motor if the stop button is pressed.PLC trip logic or interlock has to be
enabled only when the motor is in Remote mode.

PLC Inputs

● Start push button

● Stop push button
● Vibration High
 ● Temperature High
● Overload Trip
● Run feedback
● Local/Remote status

PLC Outputs

● Start Command (Remote Start)

● Stop Command (Remote Stop)
● Start Permissive (Optional)

The motor is a three phase, 415V AC powered device. So by default high voltage
equipment will be powered from substations or motor control centers (MCC)
which are maintained by electrical.

So we consider this motor is connected to a simple motor feeder in the substation.

Generally the motors have inputs from the field (local control panel) & PLC also.
Which are shown in the figure below.
Note : the motor feeder may have start, stop, some other trips indications like
overload etc… in the motor feeder panel which are not shown in the fig. These are
mounted on the motor feeder panel (in addition to LCP).

If the motor feeder receives start & stop command inputs from PLC then we call
them as Remote Start & Remote Stop signals.

Similarly if a motor feeder receives start & stop command inputs from a local
control panel (LCP) which is installed in a field (near to motor) then we call them
as Local Start & Local Stop signals.

Review Questions
Question 1
Define Stepper Motor?

Ans: Stepper motors are DC motors that move in discrete steps. They have
multiple coils that are organized in groups called "phases". By energizing each
phase in sequence, the motor will rotate, one step at a time. With a computer
controlled stepping you can achieve very precise positioning and/or speed control

Question 2
Applications of Stepper Motor?

Ans: The stepper motor is used for precise positioning with a motor, such as hard
disk drives, robotics, antennas, telescopes, and some toys. ... Stepper motors cannot
run at high speeds, but have a high holding torque.
 Lab #17
Communication b/w HMI and programming
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of Communication b/w
HMI and programming
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about the Communication b/w HMI
and programming
Procedure:
Before performing any
communication, it is better to understand the hardware interface of Delta Hmi
TP04 series
and how to set the communication settings in TPEditor software program. Please
refer to the following sections for the method of communication.
An external 24V DC power is required when
activating TP04 series. After the power is in connected to TP04 series, the
start-up display will show up first and then the system main menu of TP04 series
will appear. Choose “4.TP SETUP” > “1.Communication Protocol”.
There are three items regarding the
communication settings:
 TP Settings: It is used to set the communication address of TP
series.
 RS232: It is used to set the transmission speed (baud rate), data
length, parity check, and stop bit of RS-232 communication.
 RS485: It is used to set the transmission speed (baud rate), data
length, parity check, and stop bit of RS-485 communication.
The above three items
should be set in accordance with the settings set in Tools(T) > Communication
Settings(C) to ensure the correct
communication (Figure ). After selecting Tools(T) > Communication
Settings(C), the Communication Setting
dialog box will open (Figure ) and the users can set TP Station Address, PC
COM Port and Baud Rate these options. Please ensure that the actual
communication address of TP series and the settings set in TPEditor must be the
same; otherwise a communication error may occur

After complete the communication settings, PC

is capable of communicating to the Delta HMI TP04 series. Please refer to the
Figure
for communication connection.
Using connection cable DVPACAB530.

Communication method and steps are described

as follows:
Step 1. After finishing the program
editing in TPEditor, the program should be compiled first before downloading to
TP series. Click or choose Compile(C) > Build All(A) to compile
the editing program

Step 2. Next, in the system main menu of

TP series, choose “1. D/L AP TP04G ç PC”. Then, the words of “WAIT
COMM……” will display
on the screen of TP series .
Step 3. Then, activate TPEditor software
program, click Communication(M) >
Write to TP(W) The Confirm dialog box will display , and then press Yes button
for
confirmation. The system will start to download the program to TP series. At
the same time, the downloading status (percentage of downloading) will also
show during download process . After the download succeeded, press OK button
to complete transmission
Then, the words of “RECEIVING……” will display
on the screen of TP series
Step 4. The users
may also use Read from TP(R), Write Boot Page to TP(B), and Write Menu to
TP(M) these commands in Communication(M) option. The
communication method is the same as the operation of Write to TP(W) command.
Step 5. Usually,
the functions of Write Boot Page to
TP(B), and Write Menu to TP(M)
are disabled and can not be used. They are available only when editing the Boot
Page and user-defined Menu.
Step 6. If the
users want to edit Boot Page, just select View(V)
> Boot Page(B). After complete the editing, click Communication(M)
> Write Boot Page to TP(B) to perform the
downloading.
Step 7. If the
users want to edit user-define Menu, just select File(F) > User Menu Setting(U).
After complete the settings, click Communication(M)
> Write Menu to TP(M) to perform the downloading.
Review Questions:
Review Questions
Question 1
Define HMI?
Answer:
A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is defined as a feature or component of a
certain device or software application that enables humans to engage and interact
with machines. Some examples of common Human Machine Interface devices that
we encounter in our daily lives include touchscreens and keyboards.
Question 2
Common Uses of HMI?
Answer:
HMIs communicate with Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and
input/output sensors to get and display information for users to view. HMI screens
can be used for a single function, like monitoring and tracking, or for performing
more sophisticated operations, like switching machines off or increasing
production speed, depending on how they are implemented. HMIs are used to
optimize an industrial process by digitizing and centralizing data for a viewer. By
leveraging HMI, operators can see important information displayed in graphs,
charts, or digital dashboards, view and manage alarms, and connect with SCADA
and MES systems, all through one console.
 Lab #18
Design and industrial trainer of PLC
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to give a brief introduction of Design and industrial
trainer of PLC
Outcomes:
After this lab student should have knowledge about Design and industrial trainer of
PLC
Introduction
Increasing developments in the automation and manufacturing industries has
caused much demand for Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) training for the
execution of factory automation systems. Since the inception of PLCs for industrial
automation and control, plant technicians, engineers and engineering students are
challenged by lack of thorough understanding of the PLC system. Moreover, due
to the high cost associated with PLC training courses and the continuous changing
demand of the automation industries, companies and institutions find it difficult to
provide the needed training on the PLC.
A PLC is an industrial computer consisting mainly of hardware and software that is
used to control a machine or a process. It is designed for multiple input/output
(I/O) arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistant to vibration and impact. A PLC is an example of a real-time system since
the output of the system controlled by the PLC depends on the input conditions. It
has become the heart of industrial automation and control systems since 1968. A
PLC trainer is a designed prototype that allows beginners such as students and
experienced PLC users to wire, program and simulate real-time control processes.
The PLC trainer is a very useful tool for learning PLC hardware, software and
programming on one’s own.
Research so far presented expensive, less portable, less interactive PLC trainers in
the form of prebuilt hardwired kits and simulators [4, 9]; expensive and less
portable PLC trainers are however not affordable to the masses of PLC users.
Prebuilt hardwired kits in particular do not provide a more interactive system for
the novice PLC user who needs it most. This is because they are pre-fabricated in a
casing making it inaccessible to observe the interfacing between the controller and
the I/O modules. These reasons contribute to the rising gap between the industry
endowed graduates and the industries.
Materials and Methods
The proposed research paper employed the following materials and methods to
address the problem.
2.1. Materials Used
The following materials were used to achieve the hardware design of the PLC
trainer:
• DVP14SS2 Delta PLC
• Power Supply Unit (PSU)
• Delta DVPACAB2A30 programming cable
• Toggle switches
• Pilot lamps
• Contactors
• Terminal blocks
• WPLSoft
2.1.1. Delta DVP14SS2 PLC
Delta DVP14SS2 PLC is used in this design to achieve the desired control using a
written ladder diagram program. The selected PLC uses WPLSoft for
programming. The software is user friendly and available for free download.
Figure 1 shows the pin layout diagram of the PLC and Table 1 shows the
specifications of DVP14SS2 PLC. We selected this type of PLC because it is
relatively cheap, small in size, flexible and easy to use.
2.1.2. Power supply unit
The main power supply line to the controller is 24 VDC. This power supply line is
distributed to the central processing unit (CPU), the input module through the input
devices and the output module thought the output devices. The 24 VDC supply is a
converted power from a 230 VAC source as shown in figure 2.
2.1.3. Programming device
This is a personal computer or handheld device with appropriate installed
programming software that is used to create, edit, monitor, download or upload a
control program into or from the PLC [6, 8]. Dell latitude E5430, core i5 laptop
with windows 8.1 operating system is used as a programming device in this paper.
We downloaded and installed WPLSoft software on the windows operating system
for the PLC programming. We also interfaced the PLC with the laptop using an
RS-232 communication cable.

2.1.4. I/O module

The I/O module provides an interface between the process I/O devices and the
CPU of the PLC. The DVP14SS2 input module has 8 discrete input connections
that accept 24 VDC signals. The output module has 6 discrete connections; 3 are
relay output while the other 3 are transistor output. The relay output switches both
24 VDC and 230 VAC output signals whiles the transistor output switches only 24
VDC output signals.
2.1.5. Process I/O
The process input refers to the input devices that send electrical signals to the input
module when they are turned on. Examples of input devices include; proximity
switches, push buttons, limit switches, temperature switches and pressure switches.
The process inputs can either be discrete (example, proximity switches) or analog
(example, temperature switches). In this paper, 8 discrete inputs (6 toggle switches
and two push buttons) are used as process inputs to simulate any form of inputs.
The process outputs are the controlled devices. They receive electrical signals from
the output module based on the input conditions. Examples of process outputs or
output devices include; relay/contactor coil, motor, fan, solenoid coil, indicator
lamps and actuators. The process outputs may be discrete (example, contactor coil)
or analog (example, actuators). 4 pilot lamps and 2 contactors are used in this
design to represent any form of discrete outputs.
2.2. Hardware Design Methodology
The hardware design is centered on the proposed block diagram shown in figure 3.

2.2.1. Schematic circuit diagram of proposed PLC trainer

The layout and schematic wiring diagram of the PLC trainer is as given in figure 4.
3. Testing and Validation of PLC Trainer
To test and validate the PLC trainer, pretest and posttest were conducted during a
training session for 20 students from the Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Department at Tamale Polytechnic using the following industrial application: Wire
and program a PLC based ladder logic of a traffic lighting control system. The
control program should conform to the following conditions:
 Red light on for 10s
 Green light on for 15s
 Amber light on for 4s
 The sequence must repeat itself
 Note only one light can be on at a time (red or green or amber)

Review Questions
Question 1
Define PLC?
Answer:
A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC, is a ruggedized computer used for
industrial automation. These controllers can automate a specific process, machine
function, or even an entire production line.

Question 2
How does a PLC work?
Answer:
The PLC receives information from connected sensors or input devices, processes
the data, and triggers outputs based on pre-programmed parameters.
Depending on the inputs and outputs, a PLC can monitor and record run-time data
such as machine productivity or operating temperature, automatically start and stop
processes, generate alarms if a machine malfunctions, and more. Programmable
Logic Controllers are a flexible and robust control solution, adaptable to almost
any application.