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CENTRO Journal
7
Volume xv1i Number 2
fall 2005

Nuyorican visionary:
Jorge Soto and the evolution
of an Afro-Taíno aesthetic
at Taller Boricua
YASMIN R AMÍREZ

ABSTRACT

In this essay, I examine the cross-fertilization between

visual and verbal tropes in the works of Jorge Soto. My
discussion concentrates on analyzing the visual art
produced by Jorge Soto in the mid-1970s to late 1970s, a
period when the poets and artists at Taller Boricua and
other spaces were most intensely engaged in defining
the meaning of the term Nuyorican and determining
how their works related to the art and poetry produced
on the island. I argue that through reading the poetry of
his colleagues, and experimenting with writing poetry
on his own, Jorge Soto developed synthetic ways of
picturing his bi-cultural background that mirrored the
Nuyorican poets’ practice of fusing Spanish and English.
I additionally examine the weaving of Afro-Taíno and
Santeria motifs in Soto’s works. [Key words: Art, Puerto
Rican, Nuyorican, Santeria, Taino, Jorge Soto]

Taller Boricua (1974). Jorge Soto. Art Collection of Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños, Hunter College.
Reprinted, by permission, from Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños.

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F
ounded in El Barrio, New York, in 1970 by Marcos Dimas, Adrian Garcia, Soto’s early years 1947–1971
Manuel “Neco” Otero, Martin Rubio, and Armando Soto, Taller Boricua/The Jorge Soto was born in El Barrio in 1947 and raised in a Spanish-speaking
Puerto Rican Workshop ranks as one of the oldest extant multi-disciplinary household. At the age of five, his family moved to the South Bronx, an area that
artist-run spaces in the United States. Taller Boricua’s current directors, Marcos Dimas was transitioning from being a white ethnic enclave for working class Italians,
and Fernando Salicrup, take pride in noting that the workshop has adhered to its Irish and Jews to a “ghetto” for African-Americans and Puerto Ricans. According
mission of using art as a tool for education and community building through sponsoring to Patricia Wilson, who interviewed Soto in the early 1980s, Soto described
a wide-range of exhibitions, literary readings, dances, festivals, urban planning seminars himself as an introverted child who did not speak English well and took refuge
and free art classes for over 35 years. The number of visual artists, writers, architects and in art.4 Soto’s elementary school teachers recognized his talent and he received
musicians who have frequented Taller Boricua’s workspaces in El Barrio is large and a scholarship from Saks Fifth Avenue Department Stores to take drawing classes
luminous. During the heyday of the Nuyorican art and poetry movement of the 1970s in composition and human anatomy. The anatomy classes that he took at age
and early 1980s, for example, Taller Boricua’s stable of collaborators included the 10 had a lasting impact; a distinctive feature of Soto’s mature work is the
following: Américo Casiano, Máximo Colón, Marcos Dimas, Sandra María Estevez, representation of figures inside out. But we cannot ignore the fact that Soto’s
Gilberto Hernández, Adrian Garcia, Jesús “Papoleto” Meléndez, José Morales, Rafael many renderings of broken bodies and fascination with the grotesque relate
Colón Morales, Néstor Otero, Manuel “Neco” Otero, Carlos Osorio, Martín “Tito” back to scenes that he saw outside of art class. In the poignant autobiographical
Pérez, Pedro Pietri, Armando Soto, Jorge Soto, Rafael Tufiño, Nítza Tufiño, Fernando timeline excerpted below, Soto charts the development of his aesthetic
Salicrup, Sammy Tanco and Manuel “Manny” Vega. Discussing the workshop’s influence, perspective amidst distressed surroundings:
Manny Vega once explained to New York Times art critic, Holland Cotter, that Taller
Boricua comprised a “school” that he and other artists followed. “They’re the East 1951: Playing in abandoned lots, rusty cans, broken bricks,
Harlem School,” said Vega. “Eventually historians will get it.”1 dead cats being devoured by hundred of worms, dead
As Vega’s comment suggests, historians, particularly mainstream art historians,
have been slow to acknowledge Taller Boricua’s significance.2 Short of producing a
rats, olor de podrido, decaying matter.
treatise on the workshop and monographs on its major artists, what can be done to 1952: Watching my mother on fire, grito, llanto. My mother’s
quickly fill some gaps in the scholarship? That question prompted me to consider the flesh is on fire (the center of my universe).
following: if Taller Boricua has served as a school of art, who among its many members 1954: Summer: Richie, close childhood friend drowned in East
can be regarded as the workshop’s archetypical master—the artist whose images can River. Industrial area of South Bronx became and was an
illuminate the ideals and accomplishments of Taller Boricua on the whole?
exploration throughout my childhood, here I would be
Longstanding members of Taller Boricua such as Marcos Dimas, Fernando
Salicrup, Nitza Tufiño, Jesús “Papoleto” Meléndez and Adrian Garcia were exposed to an abundance of manmade objects.
unanimous in nominating Jorge Soto Sánchez, the workshop’s director in the 1955: Scribbling on wooden desk, tracing the groove of wood
mid–1970s, as an exemplary figure. “Jorge brought me into the Taller,” remarked onto paper. Bored to death while taking spelling test.
Fernando Salicrup. “He was my teacher, my brother—the man was intense, Fantasize flying out to sky like a bird (freely).
era un genio.” Soto’s intellectual ambition coupled with a dedication to honing his 1957: Find aesthetic pleasure in the form and shapes of
craft made him the most critically acclaimed artist in the Taller Boricua circle in
the late 1970s. In the introduction to Soto’s retrospective catalog, Jorge Soto
boiler’s and steam pipes on roof tops...Would
Sánchez: Works on Paper 1974–1979, Jack Agüeros described Soto’s hard-driven work experience/witness, Puerto Ricans that I have known
ethic: “If you know Jorge, you have seen him drawing: at meetings, socials, the from early childhood turn into human parasites,
subways, his hand busy at working on paper, pausing only to shake the rapidograph sculptural forms in deep sleep (and pain). Heroin addicts.
with quick jerks up and down, to make the ink flow.”3 1958: Walking across St. Mary’s Park (in the South Bronx)
But not all of Soto’s jottings were pictures. A little examined aspect of Jorge Soto’s
imagine landscape composition out of the natural
work is his critical and creative writing. Soto’s combined talents as an artist and
writer provide us with records of the discourses that artists at Taller Boricua engaged formation of the park... Rafael and I formed a pigeon
in. My discussion concentrates on analyzing the visual art and examples of writings coop and flew them. Here my fetish of birds would
produced by Jorge Soto in the mid to late 1970s, a period when the poets and artists climax and have a permanent engraved image of them,
at Taller Boricua were first exploring Puerto Rico’s African and Taíno heritages and as a metaphor.
determining how they could make work that linked their experience as New York-
1959: Observing my mother crochet a bedspread for months
born Puerto Ricans to the legacy of art and literature in Puerto Rico. This essay
begins a brief sketch of Jorge Soto’s early life in order to place his work in context
(watching how good she is with her hands)...Would
of the socioeconomic struggles that many New York-born Puerto Rican artists faced experience/witness Puerto Ricans brutely [sic] destroy
growing up in the 1950s and 1960s. each other (gang fights).5

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Soto’s recollections reveal that art became a way for him to process the traumatic has always been present in
incidents that he witnessed during childhood. Perhaps to give Soto a respite from the our ambience, lurking
escalating violence in the South Bronx, Soto’s parents sent him to Puerto Rico for an within our aura, and appear-
extended stay in 1960. Returning to New York in 1961, Soto attended two years of ing in the language, mood,
high school while working part-time in a handbag factory. In 1963 he dropped out nuances, and gestures,
of high school and enlisted in the army. as well as the physical
appearance of the people.
Joined United States Army as some illusionary way to escape That mythical being,
the disorientation and alienation that I was living (feeling). like the phoenix, was being
resurrected at the corner
But to find institutionalized abuse (more alienation). Lasted 10 of revolution and change.”9
months, spent five months in West Germany, did studies, Marcos Dimas’s insignia
drawings of the country landscapes.6 is an early example of the
Afro-Taíno imagery that the
Released from the Army in 1965, Soto returned to New York and determined to artists developed at Taller
become an artist. Between 1965 and 1971 Soto established a pattern of working for six Boricua. Designed in 1970,
months to a year in menial jobs and then going on unemployment to devote himself it depicts an anthropo-
full time to art. His first art history books were a pocket book primer entitled morphic figure holding a
Enjoying Modern Art and John Berger’s The Success and Failure of Picasso. He also Taíno stone carving known
began reading art magazines like Art in America and Art News and visiting museums as a cemi. The creature bears
and galleries on a regular basis. He credits the French Surrealists and the British some resemblance to Puerto
Expressionist painter, Francis Bacon, as influences on his work at that time. Rico’s tree frog, the coqui, Taller Boricua logo (1970–71). Marcos Dimas.
In 1967, Soto had his first one-person exhibition at Studio 306, a storefront and sprouts a large leafed Reprinted, by permission, from Marcos Dimas.

gallery/studio space in the West Bronx. Soto met drummer/visual artist Martín plant from its head. The plant leaves are stamped with Taíno symbols and Puerto
"Tito" Pérez, and they became close friends and artistic collaborators. Rican icons, notably the nationalist flag of Lares and Afro-Caribbean musical
instruments such as the pandereta drum and maracas. Dimas’s insignia became
Soto’s Years at Taller Boricua 1971–1981 the Taller Boricua logo in the mid-1970s and appears on many of the workshop’s
In the fall of 1971, Soto saw an announcement in the Village Voice about an upcoming paraphernalia, e.g., letterhead, posters, and invitations. Among the messages
exhibition at Taller Boricua and went to investigate. At Taller Boricua he met Carlos that Dimas’s logo declares about Taller Boricua’s ethos is that the artists were
Osorio, Nitza Tufiño, Marcos Dimas, Jimmy Jiménez, Adrian Garcia, Manuel “Neco” guided by a consciousness of Puerto Rico’s mixed racial heritage and merged
Otero, Armando Soto (no relation), and felt instant kinship. “They [the Taller] would linguistic and musical idioms.
become a mirror in which I could see who I was, what I had been, and where I had The aesthetic project that the artists initiated at Taller Boricua was freighted
to go,” wrote Soto.7 with limitations. In contrast to the Nuyorican poets, who primarily saw themselves
The visual artists who gathered at Taller Boricua in the early 1970s saw themselves as creating a “new language” and were not invested in finding precedents for their
as activists and were dedicated to creating “art for the people.” Most of them had poetry among the island’s writers, the artists at Taller Boricua aspired to work out
attended art schools in New York or on the island, were exposed to modern art, and of a pre-existing, if not “primordial,” Puerto Rican visual arts tradition. However,
read vanguard newspapers such as Claridad and Palante; therefore, they did not want there were relatively few examples of Afro-Puerto Rican and Taíno art in New York
to cater to the low-brow market for paintings of Puerto Rico’s tropical landscapes. to examine for source material. In terms of establishing a direct artistic influence
Instead, the artists at Taller Boricua heeded the directives of The Young Lords and on the way that the Taller artists crafted their Afro-Taíno aesthetic, one must
Puerto Rican Students Union, which called for Puerto Ricans to educate themselves acknowledge the work of Rafael Tufiño. Rafael Tufiño was part of the founding circle
on the island’s history, particularly the history of the enslaved African and Taíno of Taller Boricua and worked closely with the artists in El Barrio between 1970 and
peoples whose intermingling birthed Puerto Rico’s resilient Creole culture.8 1972. Rafael Tufiño’s images of bomba and plena musicians, masked vejigante revelers,
“We could all agree that there existed a cultural void in the Puerto Rican and statuesque Afro-Puerto Rican women from Loíza Aldea became icons that
community,” wrote Marcos Dimas in an essay detailing the early history of Taller supplied the younger generation with their primary pictures of Afro-Puerto Rican
Boricua. “As a gesture of solidarity and union, we adapted and personalized Taíno identity. Manuel “Neco” Otero’s books and reproductions of Taíno art culled from
images, which became insignias that symbolically linked us with our ancestral root publications issued by the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture were visual resources
culture. That elusive aborigine—that mysterious being who had vanished from the the artists consulted in the early years of the Taller. The artists also frequented the
face of Borinquen and had receded in our souls; the spirit of freedom that had Museum of Natural History and the Museum of the American Indian. “I remember
disappeared into a number of myths, folk tales, and anthropological theories— going with Jorge Soto to the Museum of Natural History and sitting there for hours

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looking at photographs, sculptures and other things and making drawings—we did it acculturation in North America,” writes Lindsay. “These shifts in the art world,
because it was important in terms of our identity,” stated Nitza Tufiño. “We still don’t occurring at the fertile cultural crossroads where Santería aesthetics, Afrocentricity
have that much about the arts in Puerto Rico, we don’t have many books, movies or and postmodernism meet, have gained Latino artists the necessary currency to
videos. So it became important for us to record our history and send it to schools for create a recognizable new genre of art that has been dispelling erroneous
people to study.”10 misconceptions of African religious traditions by opening a window through which
The exhibitions and visual arts workshops that Taller Boricua artists organized the world can witness the ashé [power] of the barrio.”12
during the 1970s were acts of political/pedagogical intervention in a city that had Allusions to Santería are evident in works by Marcos Dimas, Adrian Garcia,
little information or appreciation of Taíno and Afro-Puerto Rican artifacts. Rafael Colón Morales, José Morales, Nitza Tufiño, Jorge Soto and Manuel Vega.
Jorge Soto’s poster announcing an exhibit at Taller Boricua in 1974 demonstrates the In fact, when we examine Dimas’ logo for Taller Boricua created in 1970 through
multi-cultural direction that he taking in his imagery. The poster depicts a vejigante an “afro-centric” perspective, we see that it is as much Yoruba as it is Taíno.
carnival mask from Loíza Aldea besides a Taíno stone carving and is embellished The large curvilinear plant-like headdress that animates the figure, for example,
by several examples of Taíno pictographs throughout the poster’s upper zone. is atypical in Taíno art. Instead, such headdresses are found in Yoruba and Afro-
For viewers familiar with the Puerto Rican poster tradition, Soto’s work may appear Cuban Shango figures, whose heads sprout double axes. Dimas’s creature also has
imitative of graphics rendered by the island’s master printmakers: Rafael Tufiño, large almond-shaped eyes and a tight-lipped expression that is characteristic in Yoruba
Lorenzo Homar and Carlos Raquel Rivera. But the script on the bottom half of the artifacts. Shango, the god of war, thunder and virility, is among the most popular orishas
poster is uniquely New York Rican and articulates Soto’s appreciation of the outlaw in the Afro-Cuban pantheon. Shango’s many attributes includes being the guardian of
typography favored by subway graffitists who popularized “bubble style” letters in drummers, an instrument that Dimas began playing when he was 12 years old.
New York. Underscoring the graffiti allusion, Soto tagged the “I” in Boricua as though The appearance of Santería motifs in Dimas’ works and that of other artists in
it were a subway column with the name of Taíno Cacique Urayoán, who led the first the Taller such as José Morales and Rafael Colón Morales is a consequence of the
uprising against the Spanish in Puerto Rico. He also integrated symbols associated shared appreciation of Afro-Caribbean music and does not necessarily reflect the
with other radical groups into his bubble letters. In addition to the Lares flag utilized artists’ religious affiliations. Drums play a vital role in Santería rituals. Every major
by members of the Puerto Rican independence movement, Soto depicted a star and orisha has an assigned drumbeat, chant and dance. At rituals called bembés
crescent moon in the left hand corner of the poster, a Muslim symbol often seen in drumming, singing and dancing are used to beckon the orishas to impart their
newspapers circulated by followers of Black nationalist leaders like Malcom X. Far from wisdom and blessings on the party by (temporarily) possessing the spirit of one or
being folkloric, or even purely “Puerto Rican,” Soto’s poster presents Taller Boricua as more of the gatherers. Puerto Rican drummers such as Tito Puente and Ray
an artist’s space whose members were aligned a multitude of vanguard political and Barretto customarily include a song or two in their albums that honor Shango as
aesthetic movements that operated above and below ground in the 1970s. well as Obatala, the deity of creation and inspiration.13 Other well-represented
orishas in Latin music are Elegua, the guardian of the crossroads; Oshun, the
From Afro-Taíno to Shaman/Santero: goddess of sensual love; and Yemaya, the goddess of maternal love.14 The cross-over
Santeria aesthetics in the works of Jorge Soto of Santería music into Latin popular music made learning the drumbeats of the
The artists who worked at Taller Boricua were informed by knowledge gleaned orishas a standard element of musical training and the names of major orishas
from living alongside Afro-American and Afro-Caribbean peoples in New York. familiar in Puerto Rican/Latino households.
The totality of this experience generated an understanding of Puerto Rican identity Jorge Soto’s attitude towards Santería iconography went beyond formal
that was cosmopolitan and transnational. One of the strategies that the Taller artists appreciation for its music and regalia. He studied, if not practiced, the rituals and
adopted to surpass the visual clichés of representing Afro-Puerto Rican heritage mythology of the Yoruba and other enslaved African and Native American peoples.
through well-worn tropes such as vejigante masks and bomba drums was to Soto’s scholarly engagement and Santería iconography enabled his work to attain an
incorporate motifs in their work that quoted from iconography related to the Afro- intellectual richness and a political charge that remains unmatched among his peers.
Cuban practice of Santería. The key to understanding Soto’s images from 1974 onward is that they are poetic
Afro-Cuban Santería arose during the 19th century, when Yoruba slaves from transcriptions of his ideas about Puerto Rican identity that make use of allegory,
Nigeria were brought to work in the sugar cane fields and syncretized their metaphors and myth. In Soto’s drawing, El matrimonio del Atabeya y Changó (c.
ancestral deities (orishas) with Catholic saints.11 Santería’s rich tradition of music, 1975), Taíno and Yoruba deities serve as allegorical figures that relate the history of
dance, art and regalia spread throughout the Caribbean and United States with the co-mingling of African and Taíno peoples in Puerto Rico as a merger of two great
flow of migrants to and from Cuba and the spread of Afro-Cuban music. As Arturo civilizations whose combined experience of conquest and colonization birthed the
Lindsay notes in Orishas: Living Gods in Contemporary Latino Art, Santería art Puerto Rican nation. The Yoruba/Santería deity Shango is depicted marrying the
became an important archetype for artists seeking visible examples of African Taíno fertility goddess Atabeya. He reaches to remove a child from Atabeya’s vagina
retentions in Latin American culture: “For Latino artists, particularly those of while another child suckles at her breast. Their limbs stretch out and merge with
Caribbean ancestry, Santería aesthetics represent a strong and resilient Afro- each other’s bodies, and motifs from each art heritage are fused. Taíno faces emerge
Caribbean retention that has survived and flourished with [that] which they can from Shango’s double axe and his body resembles a Taíno totem pole. Soto employs
identify and claim as their own as they too experience the intensified process of Picasso’s cubist strategy of simultaneously depicting figures facing front and in

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profile to depict Atabeya’s double identity. Facing front, Atabeya has a skeletal face I felt (at the Taller) like the ugly duckling who returned to
with large round eyes and bared teeth, features that are typical in Taíno art. Her face its pond and realized he was a beautiful swan…. I found out
in profile, however, is visibly black and resembles the female figures with almond-
shaped eyes, tight-lipped smiles and full breasts that the Yoruba sculpt in dedication
that my roots stretched from Borinquen through the Caribbean
to Shango. into the Americas, Latin America, Native North America,
Soto’s drawing can also be understood as an allegory of the Puerto Rican migration the continent of Africa, through Asia into Oceania and back
to New York and the birth of “Afro-Taíno” consciousness among his fellow artists at to Méjico and to Borinquen…. When you examine your cultural
the Taller. In the artist’s statement cited below, Soto describes the relationship roots a lot of you comes together and you feel strong and
between Puerto Rico and Africa as a “bondage of blood” that has enabled Puerto
Ricans to claim kinship with African, Caribbean, Latin American and Native peoples
proud of what you are, and no other culture can make you feel
across the globe: humiliated, inferior and a lesser human. You realize that you
belong to a big family of people because it’s not just Puerto
Rico, it’s Cuba, Santo Domingo, Haiti, Méjico and Venezuela
because we all share the same historical development,
oppressed by the same imperialism, first Spain and now the
United States. In our roots beside America Latina we as Puerto
Ricans have an extended an arm to our sister continent Africa,
which connects us to all the Africans in the Americas besides
Africa itself. This is a bondage [sic] of blood as well as cultural
and historical heritage.15

Shango de Marcia [detail Ose

Shango] (1997). Pen and ink on
paper. Manuel Vega. Reprinted, by
El matrimonio de Atabeya y Changó (circa 1975). Jorge Soto. Pen and ink. [Original whereabouts unknown.]
Reprinted, by permission, from El Museo del Barrio. permission, from Manuel Vega.

Atabex. Taíno petroglyph (1200–1500 AD), Caguana Ceremonial Park, Utuado, Puerto Rico.
Photograph by Hiram Maristany (1970). Reprinted, by permission, from Hiram Maristany.

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In Soto’s drawing, the mingling between Native and African peoples is Puerto Rican, Neo-Rican, Nuyorican, New-Rican, Renaissance
celebrated as the union of two great civilizations, but there is a social subtext to Rican, Rican Rican, Black-O-rican, Taíno-O-Rican, Spanish
this the image. In Puerto Rico, a popular response to someone who claims to be
racially pure is to pose the following question: ¿y tu abuela donde está?16 Soto’s
Rican, Spic Rican, Nigger Rican, Rican-Rican, Right Wing Rican,
use of Santería aesthetics represents the artist’s personal step of claiming buried Left Wing Rican, Amer-Rican, Democratic Rican, Republican
ancestral legacies by bringing his grandmother’s religious practices out of the Rican, Marxist Rican, Nationalist Rican, Children Rican, Women
closet. “I used to freak out every time I passed by my grandmother’s room because Rican, Man Rican, Fat Rican, Short Rican, Skinny Rican, Rican-
of the Santería things she kept and the Santería rites she occasionally practiced,” Rican, Ugly Rican, Pretty Rican, Petty Rican, Tecato Rican,
recalled Soto.17 As an adult, Soto came to understand that African and native
peoples were not only physically but psychologically oppressed by a culture that
Professional Rican, Painting Rican, Writing Rican, Dancing
stigmatized their healing rituals as evil. “My so-called religious sense does not Rican, Shooting Picture Rican, Building House Rican, Pendejo
spring out of any religious inclination but out of my preoccupation with human Rican, Rican-Rican, Puerto Rican, Puerto Rican, Puerto Rican. 22
well-being, a preoccupation for the essence of a life with dignity, the essence of
our being,” stated Soto.18 “Africa has come to New York via the Caribbean. Soto’s writings and art demonstrate a sincere, albeit ruthless, commitment to
We New York Puerto Ricans always had botánicas where herbs and religious uncover the ideological myths about race, language and nationhood that kept Puerto
images were sold. When I use (religious) signs in my work I simply reflect Ricans on the island and the mainland apart. His employment of an Afro-Taíno visual
a part of New York Puerto Rican experience. I hope to fuse them better and better language was a purposeful attack on the realist and social realist tradition that
with my other signs as I go along experimenting as an artist and a human being.”19 overshadowed the “nationalist” schools of Puerto Rican painting in the modern era,
Soto’s quest to uncover his ancestral roots took him back to Puerto Rico in 1972 modes of representation that celebrated the distinctness of Puerto Rican heritage
during which time he made initial studies of Taíno artifacts and works of canonical but also fetishized racial and regional differences among the Puerto Rican masses
Puerto Rican artists like José Campeche and Francisco Oller. In 1973 Soto had his that modernization and circular migration were rapidly eroding.
first solo exhibition in Puerto Rico at Galería Tanamá in Arecibo, and his works In the mid-1970s, Soto created a series of prints and paintings that re-inscribed
continued to be displayed at several prestigious institutions on the island Puerto Rican national icons with Afro-Taíno imagery as a means to reflect continuity
throughout the 1970s, including El Museo de la Universidad de Puerto Rico (1974); and change among Puerto Ricans on both sides of the Atlantic. Soto’s Ricanstructions
Museo de Ponce (1976); Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña (1976 and 1978); and of Francisco Oller’s El velorio (1893) and Homar’s seal of the Institute of Puerto
Centro Nacional de la Artes (1979).20 The institutional support that Soto’s works Rican Culture (1961) simultaneously expose the biases that underlie these images and
received in Puerto Rico did not absolve him from being seen as a “Nuyorican” assert that the racial, linguistic, and cultural hybridity that Puerto Ricans were
artist, and he experienced class and racial prejudice on his visits to the island. “He experiencing as a result of transmigration was part of a historical continuum that
was very critical of the bourgeois sector of the island,” stated Juan Flores. “He did stretched back to the Spanish conquest.
not have any illusions about being treated equal, and he bitterly resented that.”21 Francisco Oller’s El velorio (1893) ranks among the great works of nineteenth-
Texts authored by Jorge Soto contained in his artist file at El Museo del Barrio century realist art and touches on the subject of infant death and folk rituals in Puerto
indicate that he paid attention to the scholarly debates concerning the viability Rico. Puerto Rican folk belief once held that a child’s death is cause for celebration
of the term Nuyorican and that he experimented with writing poetry, aphorisms because he or she is absolved of original sin and will therefore ascend to heaven.
and prose. As a close friend of Pedro Pietri, Papoleto Meléndez, Sandra María Oller’s painting depicts a multiracial group of Puerto Rican peasants and clerics
Esteves and Tato Laviera, Soto sympathized with the anger that the poets voiced holding a riotous wake in a rural hut known as a bohío. El velorio contrasts an innocent
at being rejected by their island of origin. On the other hand, Soto did not fully child lying dead on a kitchen table with the depraved adults who drown their sorrows
embrace the position articulated by Algarín and other Nuyorican poets that with food and drink. Despite its gruesome theme, El velorio is admired for its realistic
Puerto Ricans in New York were forming a new and somewhat separate cultural portrayal of rural life and customs in Puerto Rico and is considered a national icon.
entity from the island. Jorge Soto’s serigraph, El velorio de Oller en Nueva York (1975), reinterprets Oller’s
Soto’s poem entitled “Puerto Rican Ideology/Con que se come eso” (c. 1976–80) masterpiece to reflect continuity and change among Puerto Ricans living in New
suggests that he was skeptical of the profusion of alias identities that the York at the last quarter of the twentieth century.23 Like Oller, Soto portrays a group of
Nuyorican poets had invented or inspired in the 1970s. What purpose did these mourners at a child’s wake. The thatched roof interior where Soto’s figures stand
labels serve? In whose name were they being coined? The poem lists 30 names that resembles the same hut that Oller carefully rendered. But the open door at the left hand
play on the word Rican and affords a summary of the types of cultural producers corner of the room displays a cityscape, thus suggesting that the tenement apartment we
that comprised the Nuyorican arts community. The poem concludes with Soto see is an urban bohío. In contrast to Oller, whose realist aesthetic was couched in the
repeating the term, Puerto Rican, three times to emphasize that in the end the anthropological interest of capturing the diversity of racial types in Puerto Rico, Soto
community was one and the same: employs his hybrid Afro-Taíno visual language to portray the mourners at the wake as
a nation united by their mixed ancestry, proletarian social status, shared sufferings and
syncretized spirituality. Accordingly, he represents the mixed ancestry of the Puerto

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El velorio de Oller en Nueva York. (1975). Jorge Soto. Serigraph. Art Collection of the Centro de Estudios
El velorio (1893). Francisco Oller. Collection of the Museo de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. Puertorriqueños, Hunter College. Reprinted, by permission, from Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños.
Reprinted, by permission, from El Museo de la Universidad de Puerto Rico.

Rican mourners by picturing Taíno and African forms emerging from their bodies, Indian, a Spanish caballero and an African slave. The Indian holds a stone carving,
sometimes distorting their physiques into fantastic shapes. the Spaniard holds a book and the African holds a drum to signify the cultural
Soto’s depiction of the dead child in the middle of the room offers an optimistic contribution that each race brought to the island. While the three races are
view of death and regeneration based on Native American and African beliefs. presented on equal footing, the Spaniard’s central position on the seal and the logo-
Rather than portray a lifeless child on a table, Soto represents it sitting up in a centric framework of Puerto Rican national identity over-determines that Spanish
crossed-legged position as though its spirit had been reincarnated. Two additional language and heritage appear as the elements that unify Puerto Rican civil society.
alterations that Soto made to Oller’s composition further convey that the child is Although Homar designed the emblem in 1957 he excluded the United States as an
undergoing a transformation. Firstly, Soto replaced the pious black man who is seen agent of social change in Puerto Rico, an omission that rendered his image of Puerto
paying his respect to the child in Oller’s painting with a representation of the Yoruba Rican culture obsolete for its time.
deity of the crossroads, Elegua, who is shown near the child in the middle of the Soto’s reworking of Homar’s emblem updates the historical forces that structured
room holding his traditional hooked staff. Secondly, whereas Oller hung a roast pig in Puerto Rican culture in the 20th century. The Spanish caballero re-appears in the
the middle high ground of El velorio to symbolize the mourners’ carnal desires, Soto center as a skeleton holding a skull wearing Uncle Sam’s top hat. Here Spain and the
placed a stylized bird, a symbol of peace and freedom, in the same spot to suggest United States are depicted not only as entities that brought death and destruction to
that the ritual has uplifted the participants. Indeed the only scene of “depravity” that the island, but also as representatives of the patriarchal culture of “dead white males”
Soto retained from Oller’s version of El velorio is the portrayal of a couple copulating who pre-dominate in Euro-American retellings of history.
in a corner, an act that can be seen within this context as life affirming. In contrast to Homar’s patriarchal depiction of Puerto Rican heritage, Soto’s
El velorio de Oller en Nueva York was cover illustration for the Center for Puerto rendering of the island’s indigenous culture is figured by a voluptuous bird-headed
Rican Studies publication of papers delivered in the 1974 symposium: Critique and female whose right breast is covered by a crescent moon shape and whose left breast
Debate: Culture and the Puerto Ricans (1976). The image gained wider attention and fertile womb are exposed. Soto heeded the feminist movement, and though he
when it was reproduced on the cover of the Association for Hispanic Arts (AHA) rendered many sexualized images of women, procreative female goddesses and the
newsletter to commemorate Soto’s solo exhibition at AHA in 1977. El velorio de Oller merging of male and female bodies to express universal harmony as a balance of male
en Nueva York has since become Soto’s most well-known work. and female forces are persistent motifs in his works. Thus, here the female is joined
Soto’s reinterpretation of Lorenzo Homar’s seal of the Institute of Puerto Rican at the hip to a male figure with huge round eyes that bears resemblance to represen-
Culture (ICP) [c. 1961] was first reproduced in Critique and Debate: Culture and the tations of Yoka Hu, the Taíno god of life force. However, neither figure is purely
Puerto Ricans and later graced the cover of Juan Flores’ award-winning book Taíno. Bird-headed figures, for example, are prevalent in West African, Oceanic and
Insuralsimo e idología burguesa (1979).24 Lesser-known today, Soto’s ICP emblem Native North American artifacts, sources that Soto had been integrating into his
merits equal recognition with El velorio de Oller en Nueva York because it visual language for several years.
summarizes his perspective on the origins and nature of Puerto Rican identity. The Soto’s twin-faced African male is a composite of Yoruba and Kongo iconography.
emblem that Homar designed for the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture represents Although his head is crowned by the double axe headdress that distinguishes
Puerto Rico’s tri-partite racial and cultural makeup through the figures of a Taíno Shango figures, instead of carrying Shango’s sacred bata drum or the conga drum

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that Homar depicted in the original ICP seal, the African holds a skull in his right
hand and carries a rapier in the left to reflect his Kongo ancestry. Like the Yoruba,
the Kongo people were brought to the Caribbean during the slave trade. Kongo
spiritual beliefs are grounded in ancestor worship and aspects of their ritual practices
survive in Haitian Voodoo, Cuban Palo and Puerto Rican Espiritismo.25 Indeed,
the efficacy of Kongo rituals are so reknown in the Caribbean that Puerto Rican
Espiritismo, which largely derives from the writings of the French spiritualist Allan
Kardec, recognizes an African spiritual guide known as “El Congo” who is called
upon to locate dead relatives.26
In Soto’s image, the African male becomes the only figure capable of bridging
the collective wisdom of Puerto Rico’s past heritages with the present. In this
context, the skull and rapier refer to instruments used in Voodoo, Palo and
Espiritismo ceremonies, all which involve contacting ancestors and spirits for
guidance and retribution. The rapier may be pounded against a drum or the
ground to wake up ancestors and is also used to create symbols that empower
the spirits or record what they say.
Soto’s replacement of the conga drum with a skull is perhaps the most significant
element in his reinterpretation of the ICP seal because it reveals the
spiritual “truth” that Bomba and other forms of drumming and
dancing circles impart to Nuyorican, Puerto Rican and other Untitled [seal of the Institute for Puerto Rican Culture] (circa 1975). Jorge Soto. Art Collection of the Centro de Estudios
Puertorriqueños, Hunter College. Reprinted, by permission, from Centro de Estudios Puertorrqueños.
African-diasporic peoples. The skull is a metonymic symbol
of the drum’s capacity to connect individuals to minds of The full lips and broad nose bear the phenotype of someone of African ancestry
their ancestors, to sing, dance and worship as they once did. while the forehead is depicted as split apart and spewing Taíno forms from its left
“The process of reclaiming, reconstructing and reaffirming hand side. The remainder of the face is shown in various stages of decomposition
our centers made it clear and regeneration. The idea of growth, fusion and transformation is central in this
that the depth of racial and cultural experiences we embody and practically every other self-portrait that Soto rendered. His fecund imagery was
needed a new aesthetic construct,” writes Marta Moreno Vega inspired by his conversations with the artists at the Taller and from his own research
about Nuyorican movement of the 1970s. “We understood what into art history, literature, pre-Columbian, Oceanic and African mythology, and Marxist
our ancestors understood: that dance was more than dance, song was philosophy. Soto saw himself as an “organic intellectual,” a largely self-taught artist from
Official seal of the Institute more than song—we understood that the working class who wanted his art to manifest the dialectal Afro-Taíno consciousness
for Puerto Rican Culture
(second version, circa 1961). like the drum, these forms were a system of communication, of New York Puerto Ricans who were forming a political and aesthetic vanguard.
Lorenzo Homar..
unification and transformation, developing linkages between In the mid-1980s, Soto became ill and moved to Vermont to convalesce.
our sacred and secular experience.”27 He remained in Vermont until his death on December 13, 1987.29 He left behind a
large body of uncatalogued work, and his passing away was seen as creating a great
Jorge Soto’s last years 1979–1987 void among the Nuyorican artists and poets. An excerpt from Sandra María Esteves’s
Soto’s last major exhibition was held at El Museo del Barrio in 1979 and displayed poem, “Because Life is a Bitch” is a moving tribute to Soto’s significance to the
his appreciation for art from all parts of the world. Among the drawings he exhibited Nuyorican Movement:
were his Afro-Taíno recreations of European masterpieces such as Titian’s Nude and
forays into Asian art with Japonés en transformacíon en tres partes (c. 1976–1979). We mourn not for death
Corrine Robins’s perceptive catalog essay describes Soto’s work as being the outcome but for life
of the artist’s “swallowing” New York City’s visual bombardment and “spitting” it out
your pre-mature sacrifice,
transformed into his own image. “These drawings are bulletins from the front that
testify to the ongoing cultural warfare that the artist is engaged in,” writes Robins.
a delicate treasure in our history museum
“All are a record of the inner city of the mind, a mind that is purposefully ethnic and a cutting machete, your pages of precision,
Puerto Rican in its assimilation of diverse sources”.28 photographic inscriptions in docu-real,
Soto’s baroque Self-Portrait (c. 1978), which depicts his face undergoing a a cursed vision that screams a surreal line,
metamorphosis, is an example of his work at its peak. He uses a variety of techniques sculptured to completion.
to give the drawing the carved quality of an etching. Lines that are not straight or
cross-hatched are rendered in small dots which lend the surface depth and variety.
We mourn ourselves
who left to fill the deep space you carved
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foundations of seedlings, water rotted rainforest This diasporic construction of Puerto Rican
pushed to hysterical insanity national identity mobilized the Nuyorican arts
community to claim rights, space and place
by that loose backbone of ambivalence within multiple sectors and institutions in New
like hunger sick hawks York. However, neither the Nuyorican nor the
building nests between stone mentalities island-based construction of Puerto Rican
fighting the continuous turbulence of discovering self.30 national identity is truer or more authentic.
National identities are social constructions
In interviews regarding the significance of Soto’s work, artists and scholars such that are subject to change over time—what
as Esperanza Martell, Sandra María Esteves, Marcos Dimas and Juan Flores have all matters are the multifaceted forces that render
described Soto as a “deconstructionist.” “The concept of laying bare is essential to his certain tropes of national identity salient
work—he was a deconstructor,” stated Flores. “He was a surgeon of Puerto Rican and and/or necessary at a given moment in history.
Nuyorican reality. He took people’s clothes off, their skin off, he did surgical
dissections on reality to get to the inner core of it and get underneath its façade.”31 Conclusions
However, Soto did more than deconstruct objects and their ideological meanings The Afro-Taíno motifs that appear in the
in his works. Soto employed mythic figures to destroy myths that marginalized the works of Jorge Soto and other artists who
Untitled (circa 1977). Jorge Soto. Pen and ink. Photocopy
Puerto Rican community in New York. Roland Barthes’s Mythologies was among the comprised Taller Boricua’s core membership in artist file. [Original whereabouts unknown.] El Museo del
most influential texts in the 1970s, and its ideas were widely discussed in the New are attributable to the confluence of several Barrio. Reprinted, by permission, from El Museo del Barrio.
York art world. Soto was a voracious reader, and though I cannot prove that he read factors: (a) a desire among these artists to align
Mythologies, his Afro-Taíno Ricanstructions of Puerto Rican icons echo Barthes their aesthetic ancestries back to great ancient civilizations in Africa and Latin America;
definition of a critical-minded mythologist. “Truth to tell, the best weapon against myth (b) access to museums that house extensive collections of African, Afro-Diaspora and
is perhaps to mythify it in its turn, and to produce an artificial myth,” wrote Barthes.32 Native American art; (c) identification with the cultures and social struggles of an array
As Juan Flores observes in “pueblo, pueblo: Popular culture in time,” re- of African, African-American and Afro-Latino and Native peoples across the Americas;
presentations of national identity and traditions by migrant or immigrant groups (d) exposure to African-Diaspora religions such as Santería, Voodoo and Cadomble
are never wholesale transcriptions. “The preservation and re-energizing of national through popular music and/or direct engagement with these religious practices. As a
traditions is most active at the seams of contemporary transnational formations, consequence of all the abovementioned factors, the work of artists that were affiliated with
at the point of rupture and refashioning characteristic of diasporic conditions and Taller Boricua manifest a broader range of pan-African iconography and a greater tendency
migratory peoples, where an appeal to those traditions helps to provide a sense of to fuse African and Taíno symbols than island-based Puerto Rican art dating from that era.
grounding in place and time” writes Flores. “The particularity characteristic of The work of Jorge Soto paralleled the hybrid structure of Nuyorican writing.
popular cultural practice is now present not so much in some presumed untampered His densely coded visual language was informed by several traditions: the carvings of
lineage of native heritage as in the very hybridization itself, in the blending and the pre-Columbian Taíno natives of Puerto Rico; the artifacts of African and African-
juxtaposition of seeming disparate elements of divergent traditions and practices.”33 diasporic peoples; and the visual culture of New York’s barrios. Whereas the Nuyorican
Latin American and Caribbean peoples come from nations that are the product poets invoked words that resonated in Spanish and English, Jorge Soto re-presented the
of centuries of colonial conquest and whose populations are the products of racial island’s pantheon of indigenous deities and nationalist icons in contemporary urban
mixing. As a result, constructions of national identity in the Caribbean and Latin settings, thus allowing these mythic island figures new meanings for Nuyorican
America are inherently plural, laced with class, ethnic and racial hierarchies, and are audiences. In this respect, Jorge Soto’s approach towards image making is the mirror
subject to change over time and space as people move in and out. Taking into account opposite of the documentary style that the Nuyorican poets adopted. The Nuyorican
the myriad of political, social and economic factors that weigh into the representation poets strove to make their poetic language reflect the concrete realities of daily life,
of national identity among migrant groups, disjunctions are bound to exist between while Jorge Soto strove to represent what he saw on the streets as the stuff of legends
the values, customs and traditions that migrant groups maintain as “their” national and myths. Nevertheless, like the Nuyorican poets whose Spanglish speech is punctuated
identity and the national identity promoted in the migrant’s country of origin. by the staccato delivery of African-American and Afro-Caribbean poets and rappers,
Throughout the 1970s, Nuyorican artists, poets, photographers, dancers and musicians the work of Jorge Soto is a visual expression of the hybrid racial consciousness that
evolved a discourse about Puerto Rican national identity that re-ordered its traditional distinguished Nuyorican cultural production in the 1970s and early 1980s.
racial hierarchies. In contrast to the island, where Spanish heritage is held in high esteem, The Nuyorican Movement was interdisciplinary. Visual artists, musicians, poets and
Nuyoricans privileged Puerto Rico’s Taíno and African legacy; extra-linguistic forms of dancers cohabited spaces and collaborated on staging cultural events and political actions.
expression based on Afro-Puerto Rican music and dance traditions such as Bomba, Plena The re-vitalization of Afro-Puerto Rican folk art, music, song and dance traditions was
and Salsa enabled the Nuyorican community to engage in cultural activities that affirmed understood as enabling contemporary artists to establish a trans-historical connection
their ties to the island while simultaneously establishing that Puerto Ricans shared a with the island’s oppressed peoples of color, thus empowering Nuyoricans to dispute
common ancestry with their African-diasporic neighbors in New York. logocentric and Eurocentric constructions of Puerto Rican national identity.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 21 Juan Flores, interview by author, 14 April 2003, New York, N.Y., digital tape recording.
I thank Diogenes Ballester, Arlene Dávila, Marcos Dimas, Esperanza Martell, Juan Flores, 22 Unpaginated typed document found in Jorge Soto’s artist files at El Museo del Barrio.
Pedro Pedraza, Fernando Salicrup, Nitza Tufiño and Manny Vega for their insights, 23 Yasmin Ramírez, “Jorge Soto Sánchez,” in Voces y Visones: Highlights from the
the anyonomous reviewers for their valuable criticism, and the CUNY Caribbean Permanent Collection of El Museo del Barrio (New York El Museo del Barrio, 2002), 34.
Exchange Program for granting me support. A special thanks goes out to Susana Leval, 24 Flores and Soto became colleagues during a year-long cultural theory reading
Deborah Cullen, Margarita Aguillar, Noel Valentin and the rest of the staff at El Museo del group that Flores organized at the Center for Puerto Rican studies in 1976. The
Barrio for their continued friendship and support despite our ideological differences over participants were drawn from various sectors of the Nuyorican arts community such
the museum’s mission. This essay was drawn from my dissertation, “Nuyorican Vanguards, as Neco Otero and Sandra María Esteves from Taller Boricua, and Petra Barreras, an
Political Actions, Poetic Visions: A History of Puerto Rican Artists in New York, 1964–1984.” administrator at the Department of Cultural Affairs who later became the fourth
director of El Museo del Barrio in 1986. According to Flores the emphasis of the
N OT E S seminar was on applying Marx, Gramsci, and other leftist cultural theorists to examine
1 Holland Cotter, “A Neighborhood Nurtures Its Vibrant Cultural History,” The New Puerto Rican culture.
York Times 16 March 1998, sec. E, 3. 25 Robert Farris Thompson, “The Sign of the Four Moments of the Sun: Kongo Art and
2 The author and artists acknowledge the exceptional contributions that Shifra Religion in the Americas” in Flash of the Sprit: African and Afro-American Art and
Goldman and Lucy Lippard have made to Taller Boricua through their essays and Philosophy (New York: Vintage Press, 1984) , 101–60.
lectures. 26 Andrés Isidoro Pérez y Mena, Speaking with the Dead: Development of Afro-Latin
3 Jack Agüeros,“Foreword” in The Drawings of Jorge Soto Sánchez, ed., Corrine Religion Among Puerto Ricans in the United States (New York: AMS Press, 1991). I was
Robbins (New York: El Museo del Barrio, 1979), unpaginated inside cover. also informed by personal experience gleaned from practicing Bomba, Plena, Vodoo,
4 Jorge Soto, “Puerto Rican Art in New York: The Aesthetic Analysis of Eleven Afro-Cuban, Brazilian and West African dance traditions and conversations with
Painters,” Patricia L. Wilson (Ph.D. diss. New York University, 1984), 128–31. practitioners of African-Diaspora religions.
5 Jorge Soto, “Biographical Sketch” in The Drawings of Jorge Soto Sánchez, ed., Corrine 27 Marta Moreno Vega, “The Purposeful Underdevelopment of Latino and Other
Robbins (New York: El Museo del Barrio, 1979), 6. Communities of Color” in Voices from the Battlefront: Achieving Cultural Equity (Trenton:
6 Ibid., 6. Africa World Press, 1998), 105.
7 Jorge Soto, “Artist Biographical Statement” in The Drawings of Jorge Soto Sánchez, 28 Corrine Robbins, ed. The Drawings of Jorge Soto Sánchez, 1.
ed. Corrine Robbins (New York: El Museo del Barrio, 1979), 9. 29 Jorge Soto’s exact cause of death has not been disclosed.
8 Point 7 of the Young Lords Organization 13 point program called for “a true 30 Sandra María Esteves, “Life is a Bitch, for Jorge Soto,” in Bluestown Mockingbird
education in Puerto Rico’s Afro-Indio culture.” See Palante (October 1969), 19. Mambo (Houston:Arte Público Press, 1990), 52–3.
9 Marcos Dimas, “Artist Statement” in Taller Alma Boricua: Reflecting on Twenty Years 31 Juan Flores, interview by author, 14 April 2003, New York, N.Y., digital tape recording.
of the Puerto Rican Workshop: 1969–1989 (New York: El Museo del Barrio, 1990), 10. 32 Roland Barthes, Mythologies, trans. Johnathan Cape (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972),
10 Nitza Tufiño, interview by author, 11 March 2001, New York, videorecording.
135.
11 George Brandon, Santeria from Africa to the New World: The Dead Sell Memories 33 Juan Flores, “pueblo pueblo: Popular Culture in Time,” in From Bomba to Hip Hop
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997). (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 26.
12 Arturo Lindsay, ed., “Orishas: Living Gods in Contemporary Latino Art” in Santeria
Aesthetics in Contemporary Latin America Art (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1996), 220.
13 An important recording that demonstrates the transition of Santería music into
Latin jazz is Top Percussion (1957), which features Tito Puente with other drummers such
as Mongo Santamaria and Willie Bobo. 3(
14 The integration of Santería music into popular Latin music continues with hip hop,

house and tribe music. See La India’s recording "River Ocean: Love and Happiness
(Yemaya and Oshun)," the Tribal LP (New York: Strictly Rhythm Records, 1994).
15 Unpaginated document found in Jorge Soto’s artist file at El Museo del Barrio.
16 The saying in English can be translated as: “And your grandmother, where is she?”

(author’s translation).
17 Jorge Soto, “Puerto Rican Art in New York: The Asthetic Analysis of Eleven
Painters,” Patricia L. Wilson (Ph.D. diss. New York University, 1984), 131.
18 Ibid., 131.
19 Ibid., 131.
20 Soto’s baroque imagery can be compared to the work of Carlos Raquel Rivera, whose

paintings and prints of the 1960s and 1970s employ allegorical figures and magic realist
symbolism to comment on contemporary Puerto Rican life.

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